A PROJECT REPORT

Entitled

“FIXED POINT THEOREM”

Submitted for

The partial fulfillment of the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
Submitted by

Anusha Sahu
Under the Guidance of

Prof. Shrikant Chaini

Lecturer, Department of Mathematics

OP Jindal University, Raigarh-496109

School of Science
OP Jindal University, Raigarh(C.G.)

June 2023
 Certificate
This is to certify that the thesis work entitled “Fixed Point Theorem”, is a
bonafide work carried out by Anusha Sahu, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Physics from
OP Jindal University, Raigarh. This work is carried out under our supervision and
guidance of Prof. Shrikant Chaini during the academic year 2022-2023. The
results embedded in this report have not been submitted to any other university or
institute for the award of any other degree or diploma

Prof. Shrikant Chaini

(Project Guide)
Department of Mathematics, SOS
O P Jindal University, Raigarh
Date:
Place:OPJU,Raigarh,C.G.

.
 Declaration
“I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other
degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except
where due acknowledgment has been made in the text."

Place: OPJU,Raigarh
Date Anusha Sahu
 ACKNOWLEDGEMNET

This work would not have the spirit without the valuable academic, educational,
psychological and human support. So, I would like to acknowledge the support
of the people who made it possible. I would like to express the deepest
appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Shrikant Chaini for guiding me into this
research field and for their constant help, encouragement, and endless support
on my research work. Their care and enlightenment strengthen every progress in
this work.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Girish C Mishra, HOD

(School of Science) for permitting me for this project.

Finally, I would like to express my sincere heartily thanks to my family, to

whom this dissertation is dedicated. Their constant encouragement, love,
attention and support take care of me mentally all my life.

Place:OPJU,Raigarh
Date: 05/06/2021 Anusha Sahu
 ABSTRACT

In mathematics, a metric space has been defined by René Maurice Frechet,

which is used to measure distance between two elements generally called points
of a set. Our aim in this paper is to discuss the fixed point theorem using
contraction mapping and its application in metric space, which generalizes
many concepts of mathematics
 CONTENT
Chapter 1: Complete Metric Space

1.1 Cauchy Sequence

Chapter 2: Introduction To Fixed Point

2.1Definition
2.2Example
2.3How to find Fixed point geographically

Chapter 3: Contraction Mapping Principle

3.1 Definition
3.2 Example
3.3 Converse
3.4 Weak contraction

Chapter 4: Fixed Point Theorem

.1 Brouwer’s fixed point theorem
4.2 Banach’s fixed point theorem

Chapter 5: Further Extension Of Contraction Principle

5.1 Boyd-Wong’s theorem
5.2 Caristi’s theorem

Chapter 6: Application Of Banach’s Theorem

6.1 Application Of Banach’s Theorem to linear equation

6.2 Application Of Banach’s Theorem to differential equation
6.1.1 Picard’s existence
6.3 Application Of Banach’s Theorem to integral equation

Chapter 7: References
Complete metric space-
A metric space M is said to be complete metric space if every Cauchy Sequence
in M is convergent and the point (on which the Cauchy sequence is convergent)
should lie in M.

For example. 1. Usual metric space (R,d) is a complete metric space

2. Complex metric space (C,d)ia a complete metric space

3. Discrete metric space (X,d) is a complete metric spac

d(x,y) ={0 if x=y

1 if x≠y}

Cauchy sequence
A sequence <𝑋𝑛 > is said to be Cauchy sequence if given ∈ > 0 then ∋ a positive
number no s.t. |𝑋𝑚 − 𝑋𝑛 | < 𝜖

∀ n,m > 𝑛0

 it is also known as fundamental sequence.

1
Example: Sequence <𝑋𝑛 > where 𝑋𝑛 = ∀ n 𝜖 N is a Cauchy sequence.
𝑛
Fixed point Theory-
Fixed point: definition

Let us consider ‘T’ a self mapping.So the points which remains unchanged after
going through the transformation ‘T’ is called a fixed point.

i.e. T:X→X (self map) where X is non empty set a point ‘p’is called fixed point
of a function ‘T’ if T(p)=p.

 fixed point is an element of the domain that is mapped to itself.

Let us understand this through some illustration:

1. CASE OF UNIQUE FIXED POINT

𝑝
Let T(p) = defined on R. Then p = 0 will be the only fixed point as
9
T(0)=0.

2. CASE OF TWO FIXED POINT

T(p) = p² defined on R. Then we will get two fixed point of 'T' because

T(0) =0 and T(1)=1.

3. CASE OF INFINITE FIXED POINT

If T is an identity mapping defined on real numbers.T(p)=p. there will be

infinite fixed point in this case.

4. CASE OF NO FIXED POINT

If T(p) = 8+p. then there will be no point of domain that will be called as
a fixed point of T because no p will be equal to 8+p for any real number.
HOW TO FIND FIXED POINT GRAPHICALLY

Let us take ‘T’ as a function whose fixed point needs to be determined. so the
intersection of function T and diagonal line (y=x) gives us the required fixed
point.

i.e T(x)=x^3+4x²-3x-16

T(2)=8+16-6-16

=2

T(-2)=-8+16+6-16

=-2

T(-4)=-64+64+12-16

=-4

function intersect diagonal line at three points that are 2.-2 and -4.so we have 2.-
2 and-4 as its fixed point through graphically.
CONTRACTION MAPPING PRINCIPLE-
Banach’s Contraction Principle is a very important tool in theory of metric
spaces.It provides sufficient conditions for the existence of uniqueness of fixed
points of certain classes of self mapping.

It is a very important tool in solving the existence problems in pure and applied
sciences.

A self mapping ‘T’ from a metric space (X,d) to itself i.e. T: (X,d) →(X,d)
having a condition d(T(x),T(y))≤ 𝛼 d(x,y).

Where 0 ≤ a is said to be Lipschitz continous ∀ x,y 𝜖X

 Smallest value of a satisfying above inequality is Lipchitz constant.

If

 When a <1 then T is contractive mapping

 When a ≤1 then T is non-expansive mapping

• Contraction mapping is also known as "Banach contraction principle".

Example:

Let (𝑅2 , 𝑑) be an usual metric space.

𝑥
f: (𝑅2 , 𝑑) →(𝑅2 , 𝑑) be an function s.t. f(x)= ∀ x∈R
4

hence f is contraction on 𝑅2

Solution: let x=(𝑥1, 𝑦1 ) and y=(𝑥2, 𝑦2 ) x∈ 𝑅 2

𝑥
Then. f: (𝑅2 , 𝑑) →(𝑅 2 , 𝑑) defined as f(x)=
4

Now,
𝑥 𝑥 1 1
d[f(x).f(y)] = d( , ) = d[ (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2, 𝑦2 )]
4 4 4 4
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
= d[( 1 , 1) , ( 2 , 2)]
4 4 4 4

𝑥1 𝑥2 2 𝑦 𝑦2 2
=√ ( − ) + ( 41 − )
4 4 4

1
= √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
4

1
= d(x,y)
4

1
d[f(x),f(y)] = d(x,y)
4

1
Hence. d[ f(x),f(y)]≤ 𝛼d(x,y) where =𝛼 <1
4

f is contraction on (𝑅2 ,d)

converse to the contraction principle

Assume we are given a set Y and a map C:Y→Y. We are interested to find a
metric d on Y such that (Y,d) is a complete metric space and C is a contraction
on Y.

A necessary condition is that each iterate 𝐶𝑛 has a unique fixed point.

Surprisingly enough, the condition turns out to be sufficient as well.

Weak contractions

Definition:

Let X be a metric space with a distance d. A map f:X →X is a weak contraction

if d[f(𝑥1, ), f(𝑥2, )]< d((𝑥1, 𝑥2, ) ∀𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋.

Being a weak contraction is not in general a sufficient condition for f in order to

have a fixed point, as it is shown in the following simple example.

Example :Consider the complete metric space X = [1,+∞), and let f:X →X be
defined as

f(x) = x + 1/x.

It is easy to see that f is a weak contraction with no fixed points. Nonetheless,

the condition turns out to be sufficient when X is compact.

Brouwer's fixed point theorem

Statement: If T:p,q] → [p,q] is a continuous function,then T has a fixed
point.

Proof: Given T:[p,q] → [p,q]

and T is continuous function

Required to prove T has fixed point

case 1- if T(p) =p and T(q)=q,then result is true and there is nothing to prove
Case2- if T(p)≠p and T(q) ≠q for all c belongs to [p,q] Therefore, p<T(p) and
T(q)<q

T(p)-p > 0 and T(q)-q <0

Consider a function S(x)=T(x)-x for all x belongs to [p,q]

Since S(p)=T(p)-p>0

S(q)=T(q)-q<0

S(p)>0>S(q)

And S is continuous on [p,q] as it is the difference of two continuous function

So, by Intermediate value theorem ∃ 'c' belongs to [p,q]

S(c)=0

T(c)-c=0

T(c)=c

Hence this completes the proof.

BANACH'S FIXED POINT THEOREM

The theorem is named after Stefan Banach (1892-1945)
and Renato Caccioppli (1904-1959), and was first
stated by Banach in 1922.Coccioppoli
independently proved the theorem in 1931

.
STATEMENT: Every contraction mapping “T” defined on complete metric
space (X,d), has a fixed point i.e. x ∈ X s.t. T(x)=x.

Proof: given: T is contraction mapping on a complete metric space

T: (X,d) → (X,d),then we have a (0≤a<1)

From definition we have d( T(x),T(y)) ≤ 𝛼 d(x,y) --------------(1)

for all x,y ∈ X

we have,

d(𝑇 2 (𝑥), 𝑇 2 (𝑦)= d[T(T(x)), T(T(y))]

≤ 𝛼 d(T(x).T(y)) [from (1)]

≤ 𝛼 2 d(x,y) [from (1)]

So, d(𝑇 2 (𝑥), 𝑇 2 (𝑦) ≤ 𝛼 2 d(x,y)

Similarly, for n

d(𝑇 𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑇 𝑛 (𝑦) ≤ 𝛼 𝑛 d(x,y) --------------(2)

Constructing <𝑥𝑛 > in X. let 𝑥0 belongs to X

Define 𝑥1 = T(𝑥0 )

𝑥2 = T(𝑥1 ) = T(T(𝑥0 ) = 𝑇 2 = (𝑥0 )

…………

……………

……………………

𝑥𝑛 = T(𝑥𝑛−1 ) =𝑇 𝑛 (𝑥0 )
………………..(3)
next we prove that <𝑥𝑛 > is cauchy sequence

let m,n be any positive integer s.t. n>m and let n=m+p

then,

d(𝑥𝑚 , 𝑥𝑛 ) = d(𝑥𝑚 , 𝑥𝑚+1 )

=d (𝑇 𝑚 (𝑥0 ), 𝑇 𝑚+𝑝 (𝑥0 )) [by eq ( 3)]

≤ 𝛼 𝑚 𝑑(𝑥0 , 𝑇 𝑝 (𝑥0 ) [by eq (2)]

≤ 𝛼 𝑚 𝑑(𝑥0 , 𝑇(𝑥0 ) + 𝑑(𝑇(𝑥0 ), 𝑇 2 (𝑥0 ) .......……......

……. + d (𝑇 𝑝−1 (𝑥0 ), 𝑇 𝑝 (𝑥0 )) by Triangle inequality

≤ 𝛼 𝑚 {𝑑[𝑥0 , 𝑇(𝑥0 ) + 𝛼𝑑((𝑥0 ), 𝑇(𝑥0 ) +……………+≤ 𝛼 𝑝−1 𝑑(𝑥0 , 𝑇(𝑥0 )]}

< 𝛼 𝑚 {[+a+𝛼 2 +........... +𝛼 𝑝−1 )𝑑(𝑥0 , 𝑇(𝑥0 )]}

𝛼𝑚
= ) 𝑑(𝑥0 , 𝑇(𝑥0 ))→ 0 as m→∞
1−𝛼

Hence <𝑥𝑛 > is a Cauchy sequence in X

But X is complete metric space

So, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

s.t. 𝑥𝑛 →→ 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞

d( 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑥) → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞

Next we prove that x is the only fixed point of T

Suppose that ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the two fixed point of T

T(x)=x

T(y)=y

Now, d(x,y) = d(T(x), T(y))

≤ 𝛼d(x,y) [by 1]

(1-𝛼) d(x,y) ≤0

But 0 ≤a <1

→ 1-𝛼>0

Then, d(x,y)≤0 ......(a)

But d(x.y) >=0 …...(b) [d is metric]

d(x,y)=0 .......[from (a) and (b)]

⇒x=y

Hence, T has only one fixed point ‘x’

Hence proved

Remark: The completeness of His significant in this case. Contractions on

incomplete metric spaces may not have fixed points.

Further extensions of the contraction principle

Boyd-Wong's theorem

Consider a self mapping function ‘B’ i.e. B: X → X. where X is a complete

metric space. Suppose ∃ a right-continuous function : 𝜑 [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) s.t.

𝜑 (r) < r if r >0 and

d(B(x), B(y)) ≤ Y(d(x, y)) ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋.

Then B has a unique fixed point ‘z’∈ 𝑋. Moreover, for any 𝑥0 ∈ 𝑋 the sequence
𝐵𝑛 𝑥0 converges to ‘z’.
In simple words. Boyd-Wong replaced 𝛼 by the right continuous function 𝜑

A function f is right continuous at a point 'a' if it is defined on an interval

[a,a+h] lying to the right of a if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎+

Similarly it is left continuous at 'a' if it is defined on an interval [a-h,a] lying to

the left of a if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎−

Left continuous at x=a Right continuous at x=a

Caristi's theorem
The Caristi fixed-point theorem (also known as the Caristi-Kirk fixed-point
theorem) generalizes the Banach fixed-point theorem for maps of a complete
metric space into itself.
Let X be a complete metric space, and let C: X → X. Suppose a lower semi
continuous function : 𝜑 [0, ∞)

s.t. 𝑑(𝑥, 𝐶(𝑥) ≤ 𝜑(𝑥) − 𝜑((𝐶(𝑥)) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

Then C has (at least) a fixed point in X.

𝑑(𝑥,𝐶(𝑥))
Remark: Banach space is a particular case, obtained for 𝜑(x) =( )
1−λ
(C need not be continuous).

Some Application Of Banach's Fixed Point Theorem -

Application of Banach's Theorem to Linear Equations
Banach's fixed point theorem has important applications to iteration methods for
solving systems of linear algebraic equations and yields sufficient conditions for
convergence and error bounds

To understand the situation, we first remember that for solving such a system
there are various direct methods (methods that would yield the exact solution
after finitely many arithmetical operations if the precision-the word length of
our computer-were unlimited);a familiar example is Gauss' elimination method
(roughly, a systematic version of the elimination taught in school). However, an
iteration, or indirect method, may be more efficient if the system is special, for
instance, if it is sparse, that is, if it consists of many equations but has only a
small number of nonzero coefficients. (Vibrational problems, networks and
difference approximations of partial differential equations often lead to sparse
systems.) Moreover, the usual direct methods require about n³/3 arithmetical
operations (n = number of equations = number of unknowns), and for large n,
rounding errors may become quite large, whereas in an iteration, errors due to
roundoff (or even blunders) may be damped out eventually. In fact, iteration
methods are frequently used to improve "solutions" obtained by direct methods.

To apply Banach's theorem, we need a complete metric space and a contraction

mapping on it.

Application of Banach's Theorem to Differential Equations

The most interesting applications of Banach's fixed point theorem arise in

connection with function spaces. The theorem then yields existence and
uniqueness theorems for differential and integral equations, as we shall see

We shall use Banach's theorem to prove the famous Picard's theorem which,
while not the strongest of its type that is known, plays a vital role in the theory
of ordinary differential equations. The idea of approach is quite simple: (1) will
be converted to an integral equation, which defines a mappingT, and the
conditions of the theorem will imply that T is a contraction such that its fixed
point becomes the solution of our problem.

Picard's Existence and Uniqueness Theorem (Ordinary differential

equations)-

Let f be continuous on a rectangle

R={(t, x) |𝑡 − 𝑡0 | ≤ 𝑎, |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | ≤ 𝑏}

and thus bounded on R, say|𝑓(𝑡, 𝑥)| ≤ c

Suppose that 𝑓 satisfies a Lipschitz condition on R with respect to its second

argument, that is, there is a constant k (Lipschitz constant)

Fig: The Rectangle R

Application of Banach's Theorem to Integral Equations

We finally consider the Banach fixed point theorem as a source of existence and
uniqueness theorems for integral equations. An integral equation of the form
𝑏
𝑢(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) + λ ∫ 𝑘(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑢(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑎

is called a Fredholm equation of the second kind. Here, [a, b] is a given interval.
𝑢 is a function on [a, b] which is unknown. λ is a parameter. The kernel 𝑘 of the
equation is a given function on the square G =[a, b]x[a, b] shown in Fig, and v
is a given function on [a, b].

The presence of the term x(t) enables us to apply iteration, as Theorem shows.
An equation without that term is of the form
𝑏
∫ 𝑘(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑢(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥)
𝑎

and is said to be of the first kind.

REFRENCES

 Fixed Point Theorem and Applications ,Vittorinto pata

 An Extension of Banach principle,Edelstine
 Fixed point Theorem and Applications, Agrawall R. P.,Mennan M.,O’
Regan D
 Banach Fixed Point Theorem and Applications,Matt Rosenzweig