Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Hydrothermal assisted isolation of microcrystalline cellulose from

pepper (Piper nigrum L.) processing waste for making sustainable bio-
composite
Holilah Holilah a, Didik Prasetyoko a, *, Ratna Ediati a, Hasliza Bahruji b,
Aishah Abdul Jalil c, d, Asranudin Asranudin a, e, Susanti Dhini Anggraini f
a
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Data Analytics, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Sukolilo, Surabaya, Indonesia
b
Centre of Advanced Material and Energy Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, BE, 1410, Brunei
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, UTM, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Johor,
Malaysia
d
Centre of Hydrogen Energy, Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, UTM, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
e
Department of Food Science and Technology, Halu Oleo University, Kendari, Indonesia
f
Department of Industrial Engineering, Universitas PGRI Ronggolawe, Tuban, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Conversion of industrial pepper bio-waste (PW) to microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was investigated as
Received 10 May 2020 reinforcement agent of natural polymer bio-composites. The investigation highlighted the importance of
Received in revised form hydrothermal assisted alkalization step for efficient separation of cellulose from lignin in PW in order to
18 March 2021
enhance the yield and the crystallinity of MCC. Cellulose was isolated from industrial pepper bio-waste
Accepted 18 April 2021
Available online 22 April 2021
via three steps i.e. alkalization, bleaching and hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization. Hydrothermal
treatment during re-alkalization step increased the release of lignin that was bound within the cellulose
Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Kleme
s domain via dissociation of the multiple bonds in the three-dimensional polymer and significantly
reduced the lignin concentration. Optimization of hydrolysis parameters i.e. the concentration of HCl, the
Keywords: hydrolysis temperature and time, and also the solid/liquid ratios produced 86% of MCC with high crys-
MCC tallinity index ~78.9%. The physicochemical properties of MCC isolated from PW exhibited a highly
Cellulose crystalline microcellulose structure with high thermal stability that were comparable to the physico-
Waste chemical properties of the commercial MCC. Incorporation of MCC with seaweed and chitosan natural
Pepper
polymer showed the enhancement of the tensile strength and the elongation of the bio-composites,
Bio-composites
which exhibited the potential use of MCC as reinforcement agent in bio-composites to replace tradi-
tional plastic.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction discarded as biomass waste (Direktorat Jenderal Perkebunan,

2019). Since pepper is a cultivated plantation crop that can be
Indonesia is the second largest producer of pepper (Piper nigrum harvested all year round, the abundant amount of waste requires a
L) in the world after Vietnam, contributes to 13% of the total global proper management. Disposal of the accumulated agricultural
market. Indonesia has engaged 187.545 Ha of dedicated land to pepper waste was carried out by open-burning causes devastating
produce 90,000 tons of pepper annually (Direktorat Jenderal impact to the environment. Pepper stalk contained a rich ligno-
Perkebunan, 2019). Pepper was processed via modern and con- cellulosic compound that can be used as precursor for the synthesis
ventional methods that generally involved utilization of thresher of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). MCC is defined as a type of
machine to separate the water soaked peppercorn from the peel. In cellulose that undergone partial hydrolysis to form crystallites with
the processing of pepper, about 80% of the peel and the stalk were diameter within 1e100 mm, and the percentage of crystallinity at
55%e85% (Brinchi et al., 2013). The degree of polymerization (level-
off DP), the molecular weight and the cellulose chain length of MCC
* Corresponding author. were controlled by the duration of hydrolysis in hot acidic solution
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Prasetyoko).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127229
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H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

(Nsor-Atindana et al., 2017; Frank Ohwoavworhua et al., 2009; from cellulose that subsequently enhanced the cellulose composi-
Trache et al., 2016). Hydrolysis also removed amorphous compo- tion. The microcrystalline cellulose derived from industrial pepper
sition in cellulose for the formation of high crystalline structures bio-waste was further investigated as potential reinforcement for
(Karim et al., 2014). bio-composites production. To elucidate the effect of different
MCC is a hygroscopic, non-toxic and chemically inactive mate- stages of treatment on industrial pepper bio-waste (PW), the
rial with high surface area and high adsorption capacity that is morphology, the structural stability and the chemical properties of
suitable for application in various industries. For example, MCC was MCC were determined and finally the mechanical properties of
used as binder in drug delivery system (Kalita et al., 2013; Kundu MCC/natural polymer bio-composites were investigated using
and Banerjee, 2020), advanced materials in food packaging (Merci seaweed and chitosan with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and glycerol
et al., 2019; Norain et al., 2019), and stabilizer in cosmetic in- as plasticizer.
dustries (Ahsan et al., 2020; Buffiere et al., 2017). MCC was incor-
porated into natural polymer to enhance thermal, morphological
and mechanical properties of bio-composites (Bhatti et al., 2020; 2. Materials and method
Collazo-Bigliardi et al., 2018; Mukherjee and Kao, 2011; Norain
et al., 2019). MCC generally has high density of surface hydroxyl Bio-waste from pepper industry was obtained from CV. Hanum
group that formed hydrogen bonding with polymer matrix for the Shafira Kendari, Indonesia. The harvested pepper was soaked in
production of bio-composites (Do Nascimento et al., 2015; Tian water for several days to soften the cell walls of pepper. Thresher
et al., 2019). Boldizar et al. (1987) reported that MCC showed po- machine was used to separate the water-soaked peppercorn from
tential as filler for polymeric material that enhanced the mechan- the stalk. The as-received stalk was treated as described in section
ical behavior of natural polymer due to the high crystalline nature 2.1. The following analytically graded materials were used, i.e. PEG
and the short microfibrils of MCC. Since then MCC has been widely 400, sodium hydroxide (NaOH, 99%), glycerol 85%, hydrochloric
developed as reinforcement agent in the manufacturing of bio- acid (HCl, 37%) were purchased from Merck, Germany. Hydrogen
composite materials (Alashwal et al., 2020; Mohan Bhasney et al., peroxide (H2O2, 30% (w/w) in H2O), chitosan (medium MW, 75e85
2020; Zhang et al., 2020). deacetylated) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Germany and
In general, isolation of MCC from agricultural waste was carried Avicel® PH 101 (50 mm). Avicel PH 101 (a trade name of MCC) was
out via two steps treatment involving alkalization for removal of used as standard microcrystalline cellulose to provide comparison
lignin, and hydrolysis for generation of microcellulose (Collazo- on the physicochemical properties of the isolated MCC.
Bigliardi et al., 2018; Pachuau et al., 2019; Trache et al., 2014;
Xiang et al., 2016). Lignin is an amorphous polymer with three
dimensional structure based on phenyl propane molecule 2.1. Preparation of industrial pepper bio-waste
(Abhilash and Thomas, 2017). Removal of lignin is important for the
generation of microcrystalline cellulose since lignin slowed down Industrial pepper waste as raw material for the production of
the hydrolysis process (Yoon et al., 2014). Delignification reduced cellulose was obtained in the form of pepper stalk. 500 g of the stalk
the size of lignin macromolecules into small fragments that can be was immersed in deionized water at 80  C for 4 h under stirring
easily dissolved (Chen and Wang, 2017). Delignification was often followed by filtration and dried at 100  C for 24 h. The stalk was
carried out in alkaline condition such as digestion using sulfate ion then cut into small pieces and milled to form powder labeled as PW.
HS
and S2
, or condensation at high temperature using NaOH Particle size analysis of PW was measured using CILAS 1190 Particle
(Fearon et al., 2020). High concentration of NaOH was required to Size Analyzer (Fig. S1 supplementary) indicated the average
ensure efficient removal of lignin. However when NaOH was diameter of PW was approximately ~143.11 mm.
insufficient, delignification caused further condensation of frac-
tured lignin to form larger lignin molecules (Chen and Wang, 2017).
Commercial process for removal of lignin required high pressure 2.2. Cellulose isolation from PW
oxygen condition to generate active oxygen radical for lignin
degradation. However, active oxygen radical also caused degrada- Cellulose was isolated using the modified method reported by
tion of cellulose (Huang and Fu, 2013). Hydrothermal method Collazo-Bigliardi et al. (2018); Hussin et al. (2016); Prado and
provided eco-friendly high pressured system that proven efficient Spinace  (2019). The first alkalization step involved the addition of
even without the presence of catalysts (Chen et al., 2016). Under 5% NaOH solution to the PW powder and stirred for 2 h at 90  C. The
hydrothermal method, water was also deionized to increase the ratio of PW sample to sodium hydroxide was kept at 1:20 (w/v). The
concentration of OH
that contributed to disintegration of lignin at mixture was filtered and thoroughly washed with deionized water
minimum energy consumption (Peterson et al., 2008; Toor et al., to reach pH 7. The second step referred as bleaching process in
2011). Delignification with NaOH under hydrothermal condition which the residual hemicelluloses and lignin were removed by
reduced the hemicellulose and lignin content due to disintegration adding 1 g of the alkali treated PW powder with 40 mL of 3% (v/v)
of middle lamella layers of poplar wood (Shi et al., 2018). High H2O2 and 5% NaOH at solid to liquid ratio of 1:40 (w/v). The mixture
pressurize system in hydrothermal condition increased the surface was stirred at 55  C for 90 min, cooled at 27e30  C and then
area of biomass, facilitated the breaking down of the cell wall vacuum-filtered. The bleached PW was washed with deionized
(Kro€ger et al., 2018; Tanpichai et al., 2019). Hydrothermal deligni- water until the pH reached 6 and labeled as B-PW. The third step
fication also increased the dissociation of phenolic compound in was hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization, to further remove lignin
lignin (Arauzo et al., 2020). that still presence in the resulted B-PW. The re-alkalization process
Wide application of MCC in food processing, biomedical and was conducted using the same method with the alkalization by
pharmaceutical industries has prompted research in MCC produc- modifying the conventional thermal process into hydrothermal.
tion particularly from sustainable and natural resources. However, The B-PW sample was mixed with 5% NaOH solution (1:20, w/v)
to date no utilization of the industrial bio-waste from pepper in- and the mixture was place in autoclave and heated at 90  C, 2.2 bar
dustry has been reported for the formation of MCC. This study fo- for 1 h. The powder was filtered and washed with deionized water
cuses on the benefit of hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization reach pH 7, and dried at 60  C. The dried powder was denoted as H-
treatment on the pepper stalk in order to efficiently remove lignin PW.
2
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

2.3. Preparation of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) mass was measured with up to ±0.0001 g of accuracy, and the
volume was obtained through the displacement of Xylene. This
Cellulose that was isolated from the bleached pepper bio-waste, process was performed in triplicate to obtain the average value of
B-PW and hydrothermal treated bio-waste H-PW were hydrolyzed density.
using hydrochloric acid to produce MCC following modification of The pH and the swelling index were determined by dispersion
methods described by Hussin et al. (2016) and Zhao et al. (2018). of 5 g of MCC samples in 50 mL of deionized water. This mixture
The B-PW and H-PW respectively were added into HCl solution was then centrifuged for 20 min and followed by the measurement
(2.5e4.5 N) at a solid/liquid ratio of 1:20, w/v. The mixture was of pH of the supernatant. The swelling index was determined using
stirred for 60e180 min at 50e80  C. The resulted solid was filtered the initial volume (V1) and the final sedimentation volume (V2),
and washed with distilled water until the supernatant becoming based on the following equation:
neutral. In addition, 10-mesh sieve were used to separate the solid
residues to confirm that there were no remaining unreacted cel- Swelling index ¼ V2=V (6)
1
lulose in the microcrystalline cellulose powder. Lastly, the powder
was dried at 60  C for 24 h and stored for further analysis. MCC The method reported by Fuentes-Alventosa et al. (2009) was
obtained from B-PW was labeled as B-MCC, meanwhile the MCC used to determine the water holding capacity (WHC) of MCC. The
from H-PW was labeled as PW-MCC. Equation (1) was used to procedure involved the homogenization of 5 g cellulose with 50 mL
calculate the yield of MCC. of water at 25  C for 1 h, followed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for
15 min. The supernatant was then discarded and the hydrated
Yield of MCCð%Þ ¼ W1=W  100 (1) cellulose accumulated and weighed. Similarly, the procedure was
2
also employed for the determination of oil holding capacity (OHC)
where W1 and W2 were the weights of MCC and PW cellulose. using soybean oil (density: 0.917 g/mL) and the water holding ca-
pacity and oil holding capacity were estimated using the formula
below:
2.4. Characterization

g
WHC; OHCð Þ ¼ W1
Wo Wo (7)
2.4.1. Composition of lignocellulosic bio-waste g
Determination of lignocellulosic composition was conducted
using neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and where Wo and W1 denoted the weights of the dry and the swollen
acid detergent lignin (ADL) methods (Mohammed et al., 2012). The samples.
samples were refluxed in boiled neutral detergent for 1 h to mea-
sure their NDF content. After refluxing, the solution was cooled at 2.4.3. FTIR spectroscopy
29  C and was filtered. The residue from the filtration process was Under solid state conditions, the IR spectra were examined from
washed using acetone and dried in the oven at 105  C for 6 h. The 4000 to 650 cm
1 by FTIR spectrophotometer (Bruker IFS 113v)
determination of ADF content was carried out using a similar with KBr/pellet ratio (99/1, w/w).
method as NDF content determination, but acid detergent was used
instead of neutral detergent. Meanwhile, the determination of ADL
2.4.4. X-ray diffraction
content was carried out by hydrolysis the remaining fiber from ADF
The crystallinity of cellulose and MCC of PW was determined
analysis with H2SO4 (72%, w/v). The determination of NDF, ADF and
using X-ray diffractometer (XRD, XDR JEOL JDX-3530) operated at
ADL (%) were based on the weight differences between the pre- and
40 kV and 30 mA, with Cu Ka radiation (l ¼ 1.541 Å). The data was
the post-treatment. The fibers were washed, dried, and burned in a
recorded at 2q from 5 to 40 . The crystallinity index (CI) was
furnace at 500  C. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents
evaluated using equation (8).
were calculated using the following equations:
CIð%Þ ¼ ½ðI002
Iam Þ = I002   100 (8)
Cellulose ð%Þ ¼ ADF
ADL (2)
where the maximum intensity of crystalline from the (002)
Hemicellulose ð%Þ ¼ NDF
ADF (3) diffraction denoted as I002 (2q ¼ 22.6 ) and Iam served as the
background scatter intensity for measuring the amorphous region.
Lignin ð%Þ ¼ ADL (4)
2.4.5. Morphological properties
The morphology of cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose of
PW were observed using SEM (Tescan) at 10.0 kV and FE-SEM
2.4.2. Physicochemical properties of MCC (JEOL). The dried sample was deposited on the double-sided cel-
The moisture content was evaluated using method reported by lophane tape and placed on the aluminum stub. Subsequently,
Jumaidin et al. (2017). 1 g of MCC was dried at 105  C with the Hummer Sputter Coater (Techincs EMS, Inc, VA) was used to coat
results were measured based on the average of three different the samples at 10 milliamps, with 25 nm gold-palladium, in a ratio
measurements. of 60:40, for 3 min.
.
MCð%Þ ¼ ½ðMi
Mf Þ Mi   100 (5) 2.4.6. Thermogravimetric analysis-differential scanning calorimetry
(TGA-DSC)
where MC means the moisture content, while Mi and Mf denote the TGA analysis was conducted to evaluate the decomposition
weights before and after treatment with drying. temperature and the thermal stability using Linseis STA PT-1000.
The ash content of the MCC (PW-MCC and C-MCC) was analyzed The decomposition was investigated from 28  C to 600  C (heat-
by weighing the residual powder following combustion in air at ing rate: 10  C/min, under air atmosphere). The experiment also
550  C to eliminate the carbon (Ohwoavworhua et al., 2009). generated DSC thermograms through the heating process from
Pycnometer was used to measure the density of MCC with the room temperature to 600  C.
3
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

2.4.7. FT-Raman analysis alkalization. Each isolation step plays an essential role in reducing
The microcrystalline cellulose powders (PW-MCC and C-MCC) the composition of hemicellulose and lignin. Following the first
were deposited onto glass slide and the Raman spectra were alkalization, the lignin content that was determined at 25.1% in PW
collected using SENTERRA, Bruker with wavelength Raman laser was reduced to 18.9%. In alkalization step, the hydroxide OH
ion
532 nm and maximum power 20 mW. The spectra were recorded was responsible to break the bond that formed the basic structure
from 3500 to 200 cm
1 using an operating spectral resolution of of lignin, while the Naþ ion bound into lignin to form the soluble
2 cm
1 of Raman shift, and 20 scans were averaged for each sample. sodium phenolate (Vijay et al., 2019). The dissolved lignin in the
form of sodium phenolate was filtered off as black solution and
2.5. Bio-composites preparation referred as black liquor.
Bleaching process was carried out to further reduce the
Chitosan/MCC and seaweed/MCC bio-composites were pre- remaining lignin and simultaneously improved the brightness and
pared by addition of 5 wt % of MCC to chitosan and seaweed, the purity of cellulose. Lignin concentration of B-PW was analyzed
respectively. The amount of MCC loading was chosen based on the at 12.5% and the cellulose concentration was increased to 67.6%. The
optimized loading reported by Abdul Khalil et al. (2018); Hasan hemicellulose content was also reduced from 12.2 in PW to 10.1% in
et al. (2019); Hermawan et al. (2019). PW-MCC was dispersed in B-PW. It is important to note that bleaching should preserve the
distilled water, stirred for 1 h and then the suspension was ho- cellulose content and prevent structural damage of cellulose. Per-
mogenized for 10 min (Qsonica Sonicator Q500, USA). In another hydroxyl anion (HOO
) oxidized the non-phenolic unit of lignin
part, 2.0 g of chitosan was dissolved in 2% of CH3COOH solution. through the release of one electron to form cation radical and
MCC was slowly added into the dissolved chitosan solution. Then, facilitated in the dissociation of the C-C bond (Brooks and Moore,
glycerol or polyethylene glycol (PEG) at 3.0 wt% was added, and 2000).
continuously stirred at 80  C for 20 min. Similar procedures were Lignin concentration was still significantly higher in B-PW
repeated using seaweed as natural polymer, but seaweed was only following alkalization and bleaching processes, therefore hydro-
mixed with 50 mL of distilled water. 50 mL of the suspension was thermal assisted re-alkalization was carried out to further disso-
poured on casting plate and dried in air-conditioned room for 48 h. ciate the non-phenolic unit of lignin. The hydrothermal assisted re-
The completely dry chitosan/MCC and seaweed/MCC composite alkalization method carried out in this study significantly reduced
films were stripped off from the plate. PEG and glycerol as plasti- lignin concentration to only 2.1 ± 0.5% and consequently enhanced
cizers were also added on seaweed and chitosan without the the cellulose content to 77.9%. Hydrothermal treatment in the
presence of MCC. For comparison, C-MCC was also used as filler on presence of NaOH disintegrated the macromolecular lignin struc-
seaweed and chitosan with glycerol as plasticizer. Details of the bio- tures and neutralize the organic acids produced during the process
composites film were summarized in Table 1. that was otherwise restricted due to the high stability of lignin
(Bobleter, 1994).
2.5.1. Mechanical properties of bio-composites
The tensile strength (MPa) and the elongation at break (%) of the 3.2. Optimization of hydrolysis parameters for microcrystalline
bio-composites were evaluated using universal testing machine cellulose production
(Strograph VG 10-E) at room temperature with 10 kN load ac-
cording to ASTM D-882-91. The bio-composite films were cut into The extracted cellulose (H-PW) was subsequently used as pre-
15 cm  3 cm prior to the measurement. cursor for the formation of MCC. Fig. 1a illustrated the effect of acid
concentration during hydrolysis on the yield and the crystallinity
3. Results and discussion index (CI) of PW-MCC. The variation of acid concentration was
evaluated under the following conditions (temperature: 60  C,
3.1. Composition of lignocellulosic bio-waste time: 90 min, solid/liquid ratio 1:20). The MCC yield was signifi-
cantly decreased with increasing the concentration of HCl, how-
Table 2 summarized the concentration of cellulose, hemicellu- ever, the crystallinity index improved when the HCl concentration
lose, and lignin in PW and the extracted powder following the was increased to 3.5 N. Significant reduction of MCC crystallinity
respective alkalization, bleaching and hydrothermal assisted re- was observed with further increase of HCl concentration to 4.5 N.
alkalization treatments. The cellulose content of the IPW was Hydrolysis required strong acid solution to break the glycosidic
evaluated at 39.8 ± 0.9% which was relatively higher in comparison oxygen linkage between two sugar units in cellulose (Xiang et al.,
to the cellulose content from rice husk at 33.8 ± 0.5% and coffee 2003). Proton, Hþ from acid interacted with oxygen atom in the
husk at 35.4 ± 0.9% (Collazo-Bigliardi et al., 2018). The isolation of b-1.4-glycosidic bond, while Cl
contributed to the hydrolysis
cellulose from PW was carried out following three stages of treat- process by weakening the glycoside bond (Trache et al., 2016). The
ment i.e. alkalization, bleaching and hydrothermal assisted MCC yield was reduced with increasing the concentration of acid
due to further hydrolysis of cellulose into smaller fragment (Zhao
et al., 2018). However, formation of MCC with high crystallinity
Table 1 index required hydrolysis using moderate acid concentration. Hy-
The summary of bio-composites and their compositions.
drolysis of cellulose is a heterogeneous reaction that involved
Bio-composites Natural Polymer Plasticizer Cellulose permeation of acid catalysts into the cellulose framework for
ChG Chitosan Glycerol e disintegration to form glucose and small cellulose fragment (Huang
ChP Chitosan PEG e and Fu, 2013). Kinetic analysis indicated that the initial stage of
SeG Seaweed Glycerol e hydrolysis predominantly involved degradation of amorphous
SeP Seaweed PEG e
fragment of cellulose (Stephens et al., 2008). High concentration of
ChMCCG Chitosan Glycerol MCC
ChMCCP Chitosan PEG MCC acid further disintegrated the crystalline fragments and reduced
SeMCCG Seaweed Glycerol MCC the crystallinity of MCC.
SeMCCP Seaweed PEG MCC The effect of hydrolysis time on the yield and the crystallinity of
SeCMCCG Chitosan Glycerol C-MCC MCC were presented in Fig. 1b. Hydrolysis was carried out using
ChCMCCG Seaweed Glycerol C-MCC
3.5 N of HCl with the temperature and the liquid/solid ratio was set
4
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

Table 2
The cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents (wt. percentage) of industrial pepper waste and following different treatment steps (dried PW), after alkali treatment (A-PW),
after bleaching process (B-PW) after the hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization (H-PW).

Samples Cellulosea (%) SD CV (%) Hemicellulosea (%) SD CV (%) Lignina (%) SD CV (%)

PW 39.8 0.90 2.27 12.2 0.21 1.71 25.1 0.79 3.16

A-PW 49.4 0.31 0.62 11.9 0.70 5.90 18.9 1.21 6.42
B-PW 67.6 0.69 1.02 10.1 0.10 0.99 12.5 1.33 10.62
H-PW 77.9 0.80 1.03 12.1 0.89 7.35 2.10 0.50 23.81
a
Average values from three measurement; SD: standard deviation; CV: (standard deviation (SD)/mean of data)  100.

Fig. 1. Effects of acid concentration (a), reaction time (b) and reaction temperature (c) on the yield and crystallinity index (CI) of MCC. Reaction conditions (a. 60  C, 90 min, 1:20, b.
60  C, 3.5 N, 1:20 and c. 3,5 N, 90 min, 1:20).

at 60  C and 1:20. The reaction time was varied at 60e180 min. Table 3
The physicochemical properties of the MCC isolated from pepper waste (PW-MCC)
Fig. 1b showed that the MCC yield was decreased when the hy-
and commercial MCC (Avicel PH 101).
drolysis was extended up to 150 min. However, at 90 min, the
crystallinity was significantly enhanced to 75.8% suggesting effi- Parameters PW-MCC C-MCC
cient removal of amorphous component of cellulose. Amorphous Moisture content (%) 5.30 ± 0.20 5.15 ± 0.30
cellulose consisted of disordered structures that was susceptible Ash content (%) 0.13 ± 0.03 0.15 ± 0.01
towards acid hydrolysis (Trache et al., 2016). Understanding the Density (g/cm3) 1.41 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02
pH 5.90 ± 0.03 6,05 ± 0.02
mechanism of acid hydrolysis, the process occurred on the outer-
Water holding capacity 3.75 ± 0.05 2.64 ± 00.4
most surface of cellulose fiber which involved dissociation of the b- Oil holding capacity 3.10 ± 0.03 2.73 ± 0.03
1,4-glycosidic bond before further penetration into the fiber bulk Swelling index 1.63 ± 0.29 1.27 ± 0.25
structures (Kusumattaqiin and Chonkaew, 2015). Prolonged sub-
mersion of cellulose in HCl caused excessive hydrolysis of cellulose
to glucose and reduced the MCC yield. Nevertheless, increasing the The effect of variation of temperature during hydrolysis was
hydrolysis duration was also important for the removal of amor- carried out using 3.5 N of HCl concentration for 90 min at the solid/
phous components in the cellulose which subsequently increased liquid ratio of 1:20. Fig. 1c showed the yield of MCC was rapidly
the crystallinity index of MCC that represented the purity of MCC decreased with the color of MCC was changed into dark brown
(Hou et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018).
5
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

Fig. 2. FTIR spectra of PW, B-PW, H-PW, B-MCC, PW-MCC and C-MCC.

Fig. 3. X-ray diffractograms of PW, B-PW, H-PW, B-MCC, PW-MCC and C-MCC.

6
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

when the temperatures were increased from 50 to 90  C. The was also measured in water indicating that both the MCC sam-
crystallinity of MCC was also enhanced when the reaction tem- ples from PW and commercial MCC showed relatively low swelling
perature was increased to 70  C. index.
Optimization studies of acid hydrolysis of treated PW to form
MCC indicated the yield and the crystallinity index, CI of MCC were 3.4. Fourier transform-infrared of PW and MCC from PW
significantly influenced by the concentration of HCl, the reaction
temperatures and the hydrolysis duration. The optimum condition Industrial pepper bio-waste mainly contained major compo-
for isolation of MCC from B-PW were determined at 3.5 N of HCl nents of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, and FT-IR spectroscopy
concentrations, 1:20 of solid/liquid ratio, 70  C of reaction tem- provided information on the chemical and structural changes of
perature and at 90 min of reaction. The MCC produced from the cellulose (Jonoobi et al., 2011; Mandal and Chakrabarty, 2011). The
optimum condition was further characterized and discussed in the FT-IR spectra of PW, PW after alkalization and bleaching (B-PW),
following section. after further hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization (H-PW) and also
MCC derived from treated PW and commercial MCC were shown in
3.3. Physicochemical properties of MCC Fig. 2. In general, all samples exhibited the main cellulose molecular
absorption bands at 3400, 2905, 1640, 1430, 1060 and 897 cm
1.
Physicochemical properties of MCC hydrolyzed from hydro- The absorption band at 3400 cm
1 was assigned to the O-H group
thermally treated PW (H-PW) were compared with commercial stretching vibration that was related to the hydrophilicity of the
MCC (Avicel PH 101) in Table 3. The moisture content of PW-MCC samples (El Achaby et al., 2019). The absorption band for aliphatic
was determined at 5.30 ± 0.20%, which was comparable with the saturated C-H stretching vibration appeared at 2901 cm
1 (Julie
commercial MCC (5.15 ± 0.30). Moisture content determined Chandra et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2019). The absorption bands at
functionality and mechanical properties of microcrystalline cellu- 2860, 1740 and 1503 cm
1 were only observed on PW and B-PW
lose (Thoorens et al., 2014), with high water content generally samples after the first alkalization and bleaching processes. The
reducing the mechanical strength of polymer composites (Jumaidin absorption band at 2860 cm
1 was assigned to the asymmetric and
et al., 2017; Miao and Hamad, 2013). Visual, compaction and tensile symmetric stretching vibration of the CH2 group of hemicellulose
strength of MCC were also dependent on moisture content (Abdul Razak et al., 2020). The band at 2860 cm
1 was disappeared
(Doelker, 1993; Sun, 2008). following further hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization (H-PW)
Ash composition in PW-MCC was analyzed at  0.15% which was indicating the reduction of hemicellulose content in the samples.
within the range of Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) and United States The absorption band centered at 1740 cm
1 of untreated PW cor-
Pharmacopoeia (USP) standards and within the range reported responded to the ketone, aldehyde or carboxylic acid groups in
from MCC derived E. glaucum at approximately 0.11 ± 0.02% hemicellulose and disappeared in H-PW (Alemdar and Sain, 2008;
(Pachuau et al. (2019) and MCC from Posidonia oceanica brown Chen et al., 2009; Oun and Rhim, 2016; Trache et al., 2014). It is
algae at 0.75 ± 0.03% (Tarchoun et al., 2019). The pH of MCC interesting to note that analysis of hemicellulose content in Table 2
following immersion in water was determined at 5.90 which was exhibited insignificant changes of hemicellulose concentration
approximately similar to the commercial MCC ~6.05 ± 0.02. The following different stages of treatment. Therefore it was suggested
slightly acidic of MCC was presumably due to the residual acid that the disappearances of 1740 cm
1 and 2860 cm
1 bands may be
following the hydrolysis of cellulose. due to the increased intensity of the adjacent 2905 cm
1 and
The density of microcrystalline cellulose provided important 1640 cm
1 cellulose bands respectively due to the increase con-
information during material selection and determined the perfor- centration of cellulose in the powder. The absorption band at
mance of bio-composites (Ilyas et al., 2018). The density of PW-MCC 1503 cm
1 on PW and B-PW were assigned to C¼C aromatic skel-
was measured at 1.41 ± 0.02 g/cm3, comparable to the density of C- etal vibration of ester linkage of lignin (Oun and Rhim, 2016; Rosa
MCC (1.40 ± 0.02 g/cm3). The value was also approximately similar et al., 2010). The disappearance of the ester linkage of lignin in H-
with the MCC that was previously reported; Avicel PH101 (1.540 g/ PW indicated a thorough removal of lignin from PW was achieved
cm3) (Amidon and Houghton, 1995), and Avicel PH 102 (1.558 g/ following hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization step (Tarchoun
cm3) (Hentzschel et al., 2012), but lower than MCC prepared from et al., 2019; Xiang et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2018). Synthesis of
Ensete glaucum (1.833 ± 0.47 g/cm3) (Pachuau et al., 2019). MCC from hydrothermal alkalization of PW (H-PW) showed that
Water holding capacity (WHC) indicated the capacity of fiber to the increased intensity of the absorption band at 1430 cm
1 was
hold water within its domain and provided important benchmark corresponded to the bending vibration of symmetric CH2, known as
for the modification of viscosity and the texture of bio-composites the “crystallinity band” (Kalita et al., 2013; Rosa et al., 2010). The
(Rodríguez-Ambriz et al., 2008). WHC was influenced by the crys- results indicated the isolation of cellulose via hydrothermal assis-
talline index and the size of MCC Liu et al. (2018); Ul-Islam et al. ted re-alkalization produced PW-MCC with high level of crystalline
(2012), Zain et al. (2014). Particles size analysis of PW-MCC structures. The C-O-C stretching of the b-1,4-glycosidic linkages in
(Fig. S2 supplementary) showed significantly smaller diameter PW-cellulose and C-H rocking vibration were observed at
with narrow particles size distribution than C-MCC, however there 1060 cm
1 and 897 cm
1, respectively (Singh et al., 2019; Trache
were no significant differences between the crystallinity indexes. et al., 2016). In general, the results obtained from FTIR analysis
MCC derived from H-PW showed a higher WHC level at further confirmed the benefit of hydrothermal assisted re-
3.75 ± 0.05 g/g than the commercial MCC at 2.64 ± 00.4 g/g, indi-
cating the narrow particle size distribution of PW-MCC significantly
improved the WHC level. Apart from WHC, the oil holding capacity Table 4
Crystalline index (CI) of B-PW, H-PW, B-MCC, PW-MCC and C-MCC.
(OHC) of PW-MCC was also determined at 3.10 ± 0.03 g/g which
was slightly higher than the commercial MCC (2.73 ± 0.03 g/g). The Samples Treatment Crystalinity index (%)
high OHC value implied the presence of high acyl group content in B-PW Bleaching, H2O2þNaOH 48.3
cellulose. Cellulose with high OHC showed potential as food addi- H-PW Hydrothermal, NaOH 51.6
tives as it enhanced the stabilization of emulsion and high-fat food B-MCC Hydrolysis of B-PW 47.8
product, and facilitated the dispersion of two unmixable liquids PW-MCC Hydrolysis of H-PW 78.9
C-MCC Commercial Avicel MCC 79.2
(Rodríguez-Gutie rrez et al., 2014). The swelling index of PW-MCC

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H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of (a) PW; (b) B-PW; (c) H-PW; (d) C-MCC; (e) PW-MCC and (f) FE-SEM analysis of PW-MCC.

8
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

alkalization treatment to enhance lignin dissolution and further Microcrystalline cellulose was considered to have high crystalline
improved the crystallinity of MCC. structures when the crystallinity index was measured in the range
of 55e80% (Haafiz et al., 2013).
3.5. X-ray diffraction of PW and MCC from PW
3.6. Morphological properties
XRD analysis provided information of the structural changes of
The morphology of the extracted cellulose fibre from pepper
cellulose in PW following lignin removal and the transformation to
bio-waste and the microcrystalline cellulose were analyzed using
microcrystalline cellulose. X-ray diffraction pattern of all samples in
SEM and FE-SEM (Fig. 4). SEM analysis of waste pepper before
Fig. 3 showed similar diffraction peaks observed at 2q: 15e16 ,
preparation, PW showed a rough and aggregated surface area
22.6 and 34 . The industrial pepper bio-waste, PW showed a broad
consisting of hemicellulose, lignin, and other non-cellulosic sub-
diffraction peak due to the high content of hemicellulose and lignin
stances covering the untreated PW (Fig. 4a). B-PW showed the
that are naturally present in amorphous form (Owolabi et al., 2017).
corrugated texture of the cellulose fiber was disappeared following
The peaks observed at 16.3 , 22.3 , and 34.7 were corresponded to
alkali and bleaching treatments, formed a smooth and uniformed
the respective (110), (200), and (040) crystallographic planes of the
cellulose surface (Fig. 4b). H-PW obtained from further alkali-
cellulose I polymorph structure (Lu et al., 2014). No evidence of
hydrothermal treatment showed the reduction of cellulose fiber
cellulose II indicated by the absence of doublet peak at 22.6 (Rosa
rigidity that was due to the disintegration of the lignin structures
et al., 2012). Microcrystalline cellulose (B-MCC) produced from
(Fig. 4c). Following acid hydrolysis of H-PW, the small irregular
hydrolysis of B-PW showed no significant changes of the peak in-
MCC structures were produced as the result of acid penetration into
tensity suggesting the unsuccessful isolation of MCC from cellulose
the amorphous region to dissociate the b-1,4-linkage between the
following alkalization and bleaching processes. High concentration
cellulose repeating units (Fig. 4e). The morphology of PW-MCC was
of lignin ~12.5 ± 1.3% in B-PW that was not successfully removed
during first alkalization and bleaching steps affected the efficiency
of hydrolysis process for the formation of MCC. The increase of peak Table 5
intensity at 22.6 is the main indicator to confirm the formation of Thermal analysis data of B-PW, H-PW, B-MCC, PW-MCC and C-MCC.
microcrystalline cellulose with high crystallinity and structural ri- Samples Tonset(oC)a Tpeak(oC)b DH (J/g)c W residue 600  C (%)d
gidity (CIH-PW: 51.6 > CIPW-MCC: 78.9) (Rosa et al., 2012). It was
PW 300.4 332.6 1008 24.659
apparent that the crystallinity of PW-MCC obtained from hydro- B-PW 301.2 329.0 1165 1.601
thermally assisted re-alkalization of PW (H-PW) was significantly B-MCC 306.6 336.8 1240 1.059
higher than the B-PW. Low composition of lignin in H-PW allowed PW-MCC 319.8 345.6 1403 1.043
the dissociation of glycosidic bonds for the removal of amorphous C-MCC 325.3 352.2 1410 1.019
cellulose during acid hydrolysis and the formation of micro- a
Initial decomposition temperature using DSC results.
b
crystallite structures (Spagnol et al., 2012). The crystallinity index, Peak temperature of DSC.
c
CI was calculated on PW-MCC with the levels was comparable to Heat of decomposition.
d
Residual weight at 600  C.
the C-MCC index at 78.9% and 79.2% respectively (Table 4).

Fig. 5. DSC thermograms of PW, B-PW, H-PW, PW-MCC and C-MCC.

9
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

relatively similar to the commercial MCC. However, the commercial average diameter of 16.39 mm. Commercial MCC Avicel showed a
MCC exhibited relatively longer fiber sticks than the MCC isolated much broader distribution with the average particle size was
from industrial pepper bio-waste (Fig. 4d). FE-SEM analysis of determined at 38.85 mm.
microcrystalline cellulose, PW-MCC showed the formation of a rod
shape structures with a well-defined edges (Fig. 4f). The analysis
also revealed the formation spherical shape cellulose within 3.7. Thermal properties
nanoscale size region presumably produced from further hydrolysis
of MCC. Particle size distribution of MCC from pepper waste was Thermal properties of cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose
compared with commercial MCC from Avicel (Fig. S2 supplemen- determined using DSC and TGA/DTG provided information on the
tary). PW-MCC showed a narrow particle size distribution with the degradation pattern of the samples. DSC analysis in Fig. 5 showed
the presence of general endothermic decomposition pattern of PW.

Fig. 6. TGA (a) and DTG (b) profiles of PW, B-PW, H-PW, PW-MCC and C-MCC.

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H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

The PW-MCC showed relatively high degradation energy due to the 3.8. FT-Raman spectroscopy
highly ordered molecular structures in comparison to cellulose
derived from B-PW. The enthalpy of PW-MCC and C-MCC were Raman analysis of microcrystalline cellulose, PW-MCC was
determined at 1403 J/g and 1410 J/g. Table 5 summarized the carried out and compared with the commercial C-MCC (Fig. 7). The
thermal analysis data from DSC that showed the onset temperature results showed that the peaks observed in PW-MCC were similar
(Tonset), the melting temperature (Tpeak) and the enthalpy of heating with the Raman shift of C-MCC. The characteristic peaks of
(DH) of the PW-MCC were significantly higher than the rest of microcrystalline cellulose at 380, 897, 1095, 1120, 1380 and
cellulose derived from pepper waste, and comparable to the com- 1481 cm
1 were appeared with strong intensities for both com-
mercial MCC, which further proved the formation of high crystal- mercial and PW-MCC (Fechner et al., 2003). The bands observed at
line PW-MCC (Azubuike and Okhamafe, 2012) (Azubuike and 380, 897, 1378, 1481 and 1121; 1095 cm
1 were assigned to the
Okhamafe, 2012). bending vibration of CCC; HCC and HCO; HOC, HCO, and HCC; CH2
TGA/DTG profiles of microcrystalline cellulose revealed two and the stretching vibration of symmetric and asymmetric of COC
stages of weight loss for MCC from PW (PW-MCC) that was similar in b-(1,4)-glycosidic linkage, respectively (Gierlinger et al., 2012).
to the commercial MCC (C-MCC) (Fig. 6). However, the extracted The ratios between the intensity of Raman peaks at 380/1096 cm
1
cellulose fibers from PW via alkali and bleaching treatments (B- (I380/I1096) and 1121/1096 cm
1 (I1121/I1096) were correlated with
PW) and further hydrothermal assisted re-alkalization (H-PW) the crystallinity of the fiber (Alves et al., 2016), in which the peak
indicated three stages of weight loss. The first decomposition intensity ratio of C-MCC and PW-MCC were calculated at 0.52; 0.49
occurred at ~50-150  C which involved ~10% of weight loss, and was (I380/I1096) and 0.97; 0.96 (I1121/I1096) respectively. The ratios be-
attributed to the water evacuation from samples. The second tween C-MCC and PW-MCC were relatively similar that implied the
decomposition was observed at 250-400  C, that was due to the crystallinity index of C-MCC was comparable to PW-MCC i.e. 78.9%
degradation processes of cellulose, including dehydration, decom- and 79.2%, respectively.
position, and depolymerization of the glycoside units. The third
thermal stage at 420e600  C, corresponded to the oxidation of
3.9. Bio-composites properties
carbonaceous residues to low molecular weight gasses (Kalita et al.,
2013; Vasconcelos et al., 2017). Hemicellulose and lignin were re-
MCC derived from PW (PW-MCC) was used as filler for natural
ported to have lower decomposition temperatures than cellulose
polymer chitosan and seaweed, using glycerol and polyethylene
(Mora n et al., 2008). Thermal degradation of microcrystalline cel-
glycol (PEG) as plasticizer. The mechanical properties of the bio-
lulose occurred at 319  C, significantly higher than the rest of the
composites i.e. the tensile strength and the elongation at break
extracted celluloses from PW which implied high crystallinity of
were analyzed and presented in Fig. 8. In general, bio-composites
MCC contributed to the thermal stability (Hussin et al., 2016;
with glycerol as plasticizer have relatively higher tensile strength
Katakojwala and Mohan, 2019; Tarchoun et al., 2019; Trache et al.,
and elongation at break than polyethylene glycol. Glycerol has
2014). C-MCC and PW-MCC also showed significantly lower ash
lower molecular weight and relatively higher OH- functional group
residues than the PW, B-PW and H-PW. Thermal degradation of
per weight than polyethylene glycol (Bourtoom, 2008; Vieira et al.,
cellulose was described to complete at 600  C and the lower weight
2011). Therefore, glycerol is easy to be incorporated within the
of ash residue from thermal decomposition indicated the high
matrix and to form strong hydrogen bond (Donhowe and Fennema,
purity of MCC (Hou et al., 2019; Tarchoun et al., 2019).
1993; McHugh et al., 1994). Seaweed also produced bio-composites
with better mechanical properties than chitosan. Seaweed is

Fig. 7. Raman spectra of MCC from PW (PW-MCC) and Avicel PH 101 as standard (C-MCC).

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H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

Fig. 8. Tensile strength (a) and elongation at break (b) of bio-composites film with glycerol and PEG as plasticizer. Chitosan (Ch) and seaweed (Se) were used as natural polymer,
meanwhile Glycerol (G) and PEG (P) were used as plasticizer.

12
H. Holilah, D. Prasetyoko, R. Ediati et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 305 (2021) 127229

thoroughly dissolved in water that increased the dispersion and reducing lignin concentration to ~2.1 ± 0.5%. Optimum condition
distribution when incorporated with MCC (Hasan et al., 2019; for the formation of microcrystalline cellulose from PW was
Reddy and Rhim, 2014; Rhim et al., 2013; Shankar and Rhim, 2016). determined at 3.5 N of HCl concentration, at 70  C, and for 90 min
Meanwhile chitosan is insoluble in water restricting the dispersion with solid/liquid ratio of 1:20, produced 86% of MCC yield. Char-
during bio-composites formation. The tensile strength of the chi- acterization studies indicated similar physicochemical properties of
tosan/MCC bio-composites showed the enhancement from MCC derived from PW with the commercial MCC (Avicel PH 101).
36.5 MPa to 43.4 MPa when using glycerol, and to 41.6 MPa with FTIR and XRD analysis confirmed the formation of cellulose I
PEG as plasticizer. Seaweed/MCC bio-composites also showed polymorph structures with high crystallinity index. The MCC dis-
enhancement of the tensile strength from 37.3 MPa to 44.3 MPa played the short fiber strand morphology with well-defined edges.
when using PEG and 46.9 MPa with glycerol. The enhancement of Incorporation of MCC at 5% of weight loading on seaweed and
tensile strength suggested the compatibility of MCC derived from chitosan as reinforcement filler showed the improvement of the
PW as filler to transfer the applied stress from natural polymer tensile strength and the elongation at break of the bio-composites.
matrix to the MCC fiber (Abdul Khalil et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2012). Finally, the investigation exhibited the potential use of industrial
The elongation at break profile of bio-composite was evaluated to pepper bio-waste to produce microcrystalline cellulose, MCC that
provide information on the flexibility of the films. The addition of can be used as filler for reinforcement of bio-composites for the
MCC on seaweed when using glycerol as plasticizer showed the production of bio-degradable food packaging.
increase of elongation at break from 27.0% to 38.8%. Similar
enhancement on the elongation properties of seaweed was found CRediT authorship contribution statement
when using PEG as plasticizer at 31.4%.
The tensile strength and the elongation at break of the bio- Holilah Holilah: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
composite films was also compared using C-MCC as filler. The Investigation, Writing e original draft, Writing e review & editing,
tensile strengths were measured at 40.5 MPa (chitosan) and Funding acquisition. Didik Prasetyoko: Supervision, Conceptuali-
41.8 MPa (seaweed), meanwhile the elongation at break were zation, Validation, Writing e review & editing, Funding acquisition.
determined at 29.7% (chitosan) and 30.9% (seaweed), respectively. Ratna Ediati: Supervision, Conceptualization. Hasliza Bahruji:
PW-MCC as filler had a higher mechanical value than C-MCC pre- Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation, Writing e review &
sumably due to the small particle size of PW-MCC (Fig. S3 sup- editing, Funding acquisition. Aishah Abdul Jalil: Conceptualization.
plementary). Small sized MCC occupied the sites within the natural Asranudin Asranudin: Resources, Validation, Visualization. Sus-
polymer domain to create a strong interfacial interaction with the anti Dhini Anggraini: Resources.
polymer matrix (Shankar and Rhim, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020). The
interaction between MCC and natural polymer occurred via the Declaration of competing interest
formation of hydrogen bond, therefore high concentration of sur-
face hydroxyl as reported in FTIR analysis (Fig. 2) improved the The authors declare that they have no known competing
tensile strength of the bio-composites (Hasan et al., 2019). The financial interests or personal relationships that could have
well-distributed and strongly adhered MCC fiber efficiently trans- appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
ferred the applied stress across the composite (Catto et al., 2019;
Huang et al., 2018). Acknowledgement
SEM analysis of the top view and the cross-section of seaweed
film with PEG as plasticizer exhibited homogeneous and smooth Authors would like to acknowledge Doctoral Scholarship Fund
surface, with compact structures (Fig. S3 supplementary). However, “BPPDN 2019” awarded to Holilah from Kemendikbud DIKTI and
introduction of 5% MCC from pepper waste produced bio- doctoral research grant 860/PKS/ITS/2021 KemenristekBRIN,
composite film with rough and uneven surfaces. The SEM analysis Indonesia. Authors also would like to acknowledge Universiti
was also compared with bio-composite film produced using com- Brunei Darussalam Research Grant UBD/RSCH/URC/RG(b)/2019/012
mercial Avicel MCC as filler that produced film with significantly for funding to H. Bahruji.
rougher surface than PW-MCC. The cross-section image indicated a
highly uneven surface morphology in comparison to MCC from Appendix A. Supplementary data
pepper waste that presumably due to a large particle size of C-MCC
compared to PW-MCC. SEM analysis also indicated that the MCC Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
fibers were successfully embedded and evenly distributed within https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127229.
the seaweed bio-composite matrix. The microcrystalline cellulose
fibers isolated from industrial pepper bio-waste was compatible as References
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