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CHAPTER

2 DIFFERENTIATION

Animation 2.1: Increasing and Decreasing Functions

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Usually the small changes in the values of the variables are taken as increments of variables.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Note: In this Chapter we shall discuss funcions of the form y = f(x) where xdDf and is
The ancient Greeks knew the concepts of area, volume and centroids etc. which are
called an independent variable while y is called the dependent variable.
related to integral calculus. Later on, in the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac Newton, an English
mathematician (1642-1727) and Gottfried Whilhelm Leibniz, a German mathematician,
2.1.1 AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE
(1646-1716) considered the problem of instantaneous rates of change. They reached
independently to the invention of differential calculus. After the development of calculus,
Suppose a particle (or an object) is moving in a straight line and its positions (from
mathematics became a powerful tool for dealing with rates of change and describing the
some fixed point) after times t and t1 are given by s ( t ) and s ( t1 ) , then the distance traveled in
physical universe.
the time interval t1 - t where t1 > t is s ( t1 ) - s ( t )
Dependent and Independent Variables
s ( t1 ) - s ( t )
In differential calculus, we mainly deal with the rate of change of a dependent variable and the difference quotient (i)
t1 - t
with respect to one or more independent variables. Now, we first explain the terms dependent
and independent variables. represents the average rate of change of distance over the time interval t1 - t .
We usually write y f ( x ) where f ( x ) is the value of f at x ∈ D f (the domain of the function If t1 - t is not small, then the average rate of change does not represent an accurate rate
of change near t. We can elaborate this idea by a moving particle in a straight line whose
v f ( x=
f ). Let us consider the functional relation = ) x 2 + 1 ....... (A)
position in metres after t seconds is given by
For different values of x ∈ D f , f ( x ) or the expression x 2 + 1 assumes different values.
s ( t =
) t2 + t
For example; if x = 1, 1.5, 2 etc., then
f (1=
) (1) + 1= 2 , f (1.5=
) (1.5)
2 2
+ 1= 2.25 + 1= 3.25 We construct a table for different values of t as under:

Interval Average rate of change (i.e. average speed)
( ) ( )
2
f 2 = 2 +1 = 4 +1 = 5
t = 3 secs to t = 5 secs s ( 5 ) - s ( 3) ( 25 + 5 ) - ( 9 + 3) 30 - 12
We see that for the change 1.5 - 1 = 0.5 in the value of x , the corresponding change in = = =9
5-3 2 2
the value of y or f ( x ) is given by
f (1.5 ) - f (1=
) 3.25 - 2= 1.25 t = 3 secs to t = 4 secs s ( 4 ) - s ( 3) (16 + 4 ) - 12 20 - 12
= = =8
It is obvious that the change in the value of the expression x + 1 (or f ( x ) ) depends
2
4-3 1 1
upon the change in the value of the variable x . As x behaves independently, so we call it the t = 3 secs to t = 3.5 secs  49 7  15
 +  - 12
independent variable. But the behaviour of y or f ( x ) depends on the variable x , so we call it s ( 3.5 ) - s ( 3)  4 2 
= = 4 =7.5
the dependent variable. 3.5 - 3 0.5 0.5
The change in the value of x (positive or negative) is called the increment of x and is
denoted by the symbol d x (read as delta x ). The corresponding change in the dependent We see that none of average rates of change approximates to the actual speed of the
variable y or f ( x ) for the change d x in the value of x is denoted by d y or d f = f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) . particle after 3 seconds.

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Now we construct a table by taking small intervals.

Interval Average rate of change f ( x1 ) - f ( x )
lim
t = 3 secs to t = 3.1 secs
((3.1) 2
)
+ 3.1 - 12
=
12.71 - 12 0.71
= =7.1
x1 → x x1 - x

3.1 - 3 0.1 0.1 provided this limit exists, is called the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x

t = 3 secs to t = 3.01 secs

((3.01) 2
)
+ 3.01 - 12
=
12.0701 - 12 0.0701
= =7.01
at x and is written as f ' ( x ) .
3.01 - 3 0.01 0.01 If x1 = x + d x i.e., x1 - x = d x ,then the expression (i) can be expressed as

t = 3 secs to t = 3.001 secs

((3.001) 2
)
+ 3.001 - 12
=
12.007001 - 12 0.007001
= =7.001
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
3.001 - 3 0.001 0.001 (ii)
dx
and
The above table shows that the average rate of change after 3 seconds approximates
to 7 metre/sec. as the length of the interval becomes very very small. In other words, we can f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
lim (iii)
say that the speed of the particle is 7 metre/sec. after 3 seconds. d x →0 dx
If t1 = t + d t
provided the limit exists, is defined to be the derivative of f (or differential coefficient
then the difference quoteint (i) becomes
of f ) with respect to x at x and is denoted by f ' ( x ) (read as “f-prime of x ”). The domain of
s (t + d t ) - s (t ) f ‘consists of all x for which the limit exists. If x ∈ D f and f ' ( x ) exists, then f is said to be

dt differentiable at x . The process of finding f ‘ is called differentiation.
which represents the average rate of change of distance over the interval d t and
Notation for Derivative
s (t + d t ) - s (t )
lim , provided this limit exists, is called the instantaneous rate of change Several notations are used for derivatives. We have used the functional symbol f ' ( x ) ,
d t →0 dt
of distance ‘s’ at time t . for the derivative of f at x . For the function y = f ( x ) .
y + d y = f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
2.1.2 Derivative of a Function
where d y is the increment of y (change in the value of y ) corresponding to d x ,the
Let f be a real valued function continuous in the interval ( x,x1 ) ⊆ D f (the domain of change in the value of x , then
f ), then d y = f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) (iv)
Dividing both the sides of (iv) by d x , we get
f ( x1 ) - f ( x )
difference quotient (i) dy f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
x1 - x = (v)
dx dx
the average rate of change in the value of f with respect to the change x - x in
represents 1
Taking limit of both the sides of (v) as d x → 0 , we have
the value of independent variable x .
If x1 , approaches to x , then
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dy f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
2.2 FINDING f’(x) FROM DEFINITION
lim
d x →0 d x
= lim
d x →0 dx
(vi) OF DERIVATIVE
dy dy dy
lim is denoted by , so (vi) is written as = f ' ( x)

d x →0 d x dx dx Given a function f , f ' ( x ) if it exists, can be found by the following four steps
Step I Find f ( x + d x )
Step II Simplify f ( x + d x ) - f ( x )
dy
Note: The symbol is used for the derivative of y with respect to x and here it is not a
dx f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
dy Step III Divide f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) by d x to get and simplify it
quotient of dy and dx. is also denoted by y ’. dx
dx f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
Step IV Find lim
d x →0 dx
Now we write, in a table the notations for the derivative of y = f ( x ) used by different The method of finding derivatives by this process is called differentiation by definition
mathematicians: or by ab-initio or from first principle.
Name of Leibniz Newton Lagrange Cauchy
Mathematician Example 1: Find the derivative of the following functions by definition
dy df (a) f ( x ) c=
(b) f ( x ) x 2
Notation used for derivative f ( x) f ' ( x) Df ( x ) =
dx or dx
If we replace x +dx by x and x by a, then the expression
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) becomes f ( x ) - f ( a ) . and the change d x in the independent variable, in this Solution: (a) For f ( x ) = c
case, is x - a . (i) f ( x + d x) =
c
(ii) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = c - c = 0
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) f ( x) - f (a)
So the expression is written as (vii)
dx x-a f ( x + d x) - f ( x) 0
(iii) = = 0
dx dx
Taking the limit of the expressiom(vii) when x → a , gives
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
f ( x) - f (a)
(iv) lim = lim = ( 0) 0
d x →0 dx d x →0
lim = f ' ( a ) . Here f ' ( a )
x →a x-a
d
is called the derivative of f at x = a . Thus f ' ( x ) = 0 , that is, (c) = 0
dx
(b) For f(x) = x2
f ( x + d x ) =( x + d x )
2
(i)
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) = ( x + d x ) - x 2 = x 2 + 2 xd x + (d x ) - x 2
2 2
(ii)
= 2 xd x + (d x )2 =( 2 x + d x )d x

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or
f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) ( 2 x + d x )d x
(iii) = 2x + d x ,
= (d x ≠ 0 ) Putting
= in f ( x )
x a= f (a)
x , gives= a
dx dx
So f ( x) - f (a) = x - a
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
(iv) lim = lim ( 2 x + d x=
) 2x Using alternative form for the definition of a derivative, we have
d x →0 dx d x →0

i.e., f ' ( x ) = 2 x f ( x ) - f ( a ) x- a
=
x-a x-a

Example 2: Find the derivative of x at x = a from first principle.

=
( x- a )( x+ a ) (rationalizing the numerator)
( x - a) ( x+ a )
Solution: If f ( x) = x , then x-a 1

= = ( x ≠ a ) (II)
(i) f ( x + d x ) = x + d x and (
( x - a) x + a ) x+ a

(ii) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = x + d x - x Taking limit of both the sides of (II)as x → a, gives

=
( x +dx - x )( x +dx + x )  rationalizing the 
 numerator 
lim = lim
f ( x) - f (a)
=
1 1
x →a x-a x →a x+ a a+ a
x +dx + x  
1
( x + d x) - x i.e., f '( a ) =
= 2 a
x +dx + x
dx
i.e., f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = (I)
x +dx + x 1 dy
Example 3: If y = 2
, then find at x = -1 by ab-initio method.
(iii) Dividing both sides of(1)by d x , we have x dx

f ( x + d x) - f ( x) dx 1 Solution: Here y =
1
, so (i)
= = (d x ≠ 0 ) x2
dx d x( x + d x + x ) x +dx + x
(iv) Taking limit of both the sides as d x → 0 , we have 1
y + d y = (ii)
( x + d x)
2

f ( x + d x) - f ( x)  1 
lim = lim   Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get

d x →0 dx d x →0
 x +dx + x
1 1
i.e., =f ' ( x) = ( x > 0) 1 x - ( x + d x)
2
1
2
x+ x 2 x =dy =
- 2
( ) x x2 ( x + d x )
2 2
1 x + d x
and f '( a ) =
2 a
=
( x + ( x + d x ))( x - ( x + d x ))
x2 ( x + d x )
2

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=
(=
2 x + d x )( -d x ) -d x ( 2 x + d x )
(iii)
3 3
  3
2
 2
x2 ( x + d x )
2
x2 ( x + d x )
2
 ( x + d x ) 3
 -  x  ( x + d x)
2
  - x2
= =
Dividing both sides of (iii) by d x, , we have 4 2 2 4 4 2 2 4

( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) .x + x 3
3 3 3
( x + d x) 3 + ( x + d x ) .x + x
3 3 3

d y -d x ( 2 x + d x ) - ( 2 x + d x )

= = (d x ≠ 0 ) d x ( 2x + d x)
d x x 2 ( x + d x )2 d x x 2 ( x + d x )2 i.e., f ( x + d x) - f ( x) = (i)
4 2 2 4

Taking limit as d x → 0 , , gives ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) .x + x 3

3 3 3

Dividing both the sides of (i) by d x , we get
dy -( 2x + d x)
lim = lim 2
x ( x + d x)
d x →0 d x 2

d x →0
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) 2x + d x
= 2 4
(ii)
dx 4 2
( x + d x)
+ ( x + d x ) .x + x
3 3 3 3

- ( 2x )
= (Using quotient theorem of limits) Taking limit of both the sides as d x → 0 , we have
x2 ( x2 )

dy -2 dy -2 -2 2x 2x 2
i.e., = and |x= = = 2 f ' (=
x) = =
( -1) -1
=-1 3 4 24 24 1
dx x3 dx
x + x .x + x
3 33
3x33
3x 3
2 1
dy dy and f '(8) =
= 1
Note: The value of at x = -1 is written as | . 3
dx dx x=-1 3.(8) 3

Example 5: Find the derivative of x3 + 2 x + 3 .

2
Example 4: Find the derivative of x and also calculate the value of derivative at x = 8.
3
Solution: Let y = x3 + 2 x + 3. Then
y + d y =( x + d x ) + 2 ( x + d x ) + 3
3
2 (i)
Solution: Let f ( x ) = x .Then 3

d y = ( x + d x ) + 2 ( x + d x ) + 3 -  x3 + 2 x + 3
3
(ii)
2
 
f ( x + d x ) =( x + d x ) 3

= ( x + d x ) - x3  + 2 ( x + d x ) - x  + ( 3 - 3)
3
and  

= ( x + d x ) - x  ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) x + x 2  + 2d x
2

 
 2 2
 4 2 2 4

 ( x + d x ) - x  ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) . x + x 
3 3 3 3 3 3

d y d x ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) x + x  + 2d x
2 2  2 2

f ( x + d x ) - f ( x) = ( x + d x ) 3 - x3 =  
4 2 2 4

(iii) =
( x + d x ) 3 + ( x + d x ) 3 .x 3 + x 3 dx dx

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= ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x ) x + x2 + 2
2
d n d 0
Note: If n = 0, then the formula
dx
( x ) = nx n-1 reduces to
dx
(
= x ) 0=
x 0-1 0 i.e.,
dy
lim = lim ( x + d x ) + ( x + d x) x + x 2 + 2 
2
(iv) d
d x →0 d x d x →0  
(1) = 0 which is correct by example 1 part (a).
dy dx
= (x) 2 + ( x ) x + x 2 + 2
dx

d 3
i.e.,
dx
( x + 2 x + 3) = 3 x 2 + 2 (b) Let y = x n where n is a negative integer.

Let n = -m (m is a positive integer). Then

2.2.1 Derivation of xn where ndZ.
1
= -m
y x= (i)
(a) We find the derivative of x when n is positive integer.
n xm

(a) Let y = x n . Then 1

and y +d y = (ii)
( x + d x)
m
y + d y =( x + d x )
n

and dy= ( x + d x ) - xn
n Subtracting (i) from (ii). gives
Using the binomial theorem, we have
1 x - ( x + d x)
m m
1
=dy =
-
( x + d x ) xm xm ( x + d x )
m m
 n(n - 1) n-2 
d y =  x n + nx n-1.d x + x ( (d x 2 ) + ... + (d x) n )  - x n
 2   m ( m - 1) m-2 m
x (d x ) + ... + (d x ) 
2
x m -  x m + mx m-1d x +
 2 
=
 n(n - 1) n-2  x ( x + d x)
m m
d y d x  nx n-1 +
i.e., = x .d x + ... + (d x) n-1  (i)
 2  (expanding ( x + d x ) by binomial theorem)
m

Dividing both sides of (i) by d x , gives
 m ( m - 1) m-2 m -1 
dy n( n - 1 ) n-2 -d x  mx m-1 + x d x + ... + (d x ) 
= nx n-1 + x . d x + ... + ( d x )n-1 (ii)  2 
dx 2 =
x .( x + d x )
m m

Note that each term on the right hand side of (ii) involves d x except the first term, so
dy -1  m-1 m ( m - 1) m-2 m -1 

dy
and
= . mx + x d
. x + ... + ( d x ) 
taking the limit as d x → 0 , we get = nx n-1
d x xm ( x + d x ) 
m
2 
dx
Taking limit when d x → 0 , we get
d n
=As y x=
, so
dx
( x ) n.x n-1
n

dy -1
= m m ( mx m-1 ) (all terms containing d x ,vanish)
dx x .x
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2.2.2 DIFFERENTIATION OF EXPRESSIONS OF THE TYPES:

=( -m ) x m-1.x -2 m =( -m ) x(
- m )-1
=nx n-1 [ -m =n]
d 1
( x ) = nx n-1
n
or ( ax + b ) and
n
, 1,2,3...
n=
dx
( ax + b )
n

d
[ x ] = nx n-1 , if n ∈ Z
n
So far we have proved that 1
We find the derivatives of ( ax + b ) and
n
dx from the first principle when n ∈ N
( ax + b )
n

The above rule holds if n ∈ Q - Z

Find from definition the differential coefficient of ( ax + b ) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ when n
n
Example 1:
d  23  2 23 -1 2 is a positive integer.
For example x  =
= x 1
dx   3
3x 3
Solution: Let y = (ax + b)n, (n is a positive integer)
d n n
Then y + d y=  a ( x + d x ) + b  = ( ax + b ) + ad x 
n
The proof of  x  = nx n-1 when n ∈ Q - Z is left as an exercise.
dx Using the binomial theorem we have

d n n n
( ax + b ) +   ( ax + b ) ( ad x ) +   ( ax + b ) ( ad x ) + ... + ( ad x )
n n -1 n-2 2 n
Note that  x  = nx n-1 is called power rule. y +d y =
dx 1  2
n n
( y + d y) - y = 1  ( ax + b ) ( ad x ) +  2  ( ax + b ) .a (d x ) + ... + a (d x )
n -1 n-2 2 n
dy= 2 n

Exercise 2.1    
 n  n n -1 
= d x   ( ax + b ) .a +   ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) 
n -1 n-2

1. Find by definition, the derivatives w.r.t ‘x’ of the following functions defined as:
 1  2 
1 1 1
(i) 2 x2 + 1 (ii) 2- x (iii) (iv) (v)
x x3 x-a d y n n
So =   ( ax + b ) a +   ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x )
n -1 n-2 n -1

3 5 d x 1  2
2 1
x ( x - 3) (viii) ( x + 4 ) x x
2 2
(vi) (vii) 3 (ix) (x)
x 4 Taking limit when d x → 0 , we have

xm , m ∈ N 1 40 -100
(xi) (xii) (xiii) x (xiv) x dy  n  n n -1 
m
x ,m∈ N =lim lim   ( ax + b ) .a +   ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) 
n -1 n-2

d x →0 d x
 1  2
d x →0

dy dy  n 
=   ( ax + b ) .a [All other terms tends to zero when d x → 0 ]
n -1
2. Find from first principle if Or
dx dx 1 
d
( ax + b ) = n ( ax + b ) .a
n n -1
Thus
1 dx
(i) x + 2 (ii)
x+a
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1 n
+   ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) ]
n-2 n -1
Example 2: Find from first principle, the derivative of w.r.t. ‘ x ’,
( ax + b )
n
2
dy 1 n
( ax + b ) .a
n -1
1 and =
- n
[
n  
dx 1
Solution: Let y = (when n is a positive integer). Then ( ax + b ) + ad x  ( ax + b )  
( ax + b )
n

n
+   ( ax + b ) .a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) ]
n-2 n -1

1 2
y + d y = n
and
 a ( x + d x ) + b 
Using the product and sum rules of limits when d x → 0 , we have
1 1
d y = y + d y - y = -
( ax + b )
n n
( ax + b ) + ad x 

( ax + b ) - ( ax + b + ad x )
n n
 d y dy 
or dy=  lim =
 d x→0 d x dx and 
n
( ax + b ) + ad x  ( ax + b )
n
dy 1 n  
n  (
ax + b ) .a
n -1
=
- .  all other terms containing 
( ax + b ) ( ax + b ) 1 
n
-1 dx  d x vanish 
or dy
n
x ( ax + b ) + ad x  - ( ax + b ) ]
n
(I)
n
( ax + b ) + ad x  ( ax + b )
n  
 
Using the binomial theorem, we simplify the expression
d  1  -na -( n +1)
n or =  n
= -n ( ax + b )
= .a
( ax + b ) + ad x  - ( ax + b ) ,That is, dx  ( ax + b )  ( ax + b )
n n +1

n
n
( ax + b ) + ad x  - ( ax + b ) = [( ax + b ) +   ( ax + b ) ( ad x )
n n n -1
Exercise 2.2
1 
n 1. Find from first principles, the derivatives of the following expressions w.r.t. their
+   ( ax + b ) .a 2 (d x ) + ... + ( ad x ) ]
n-2 2 n
respective independent variables:
2
( ax + b ) ( 2 x + 3)
3 5
n n (i) (ii)
=   ( ax + b ) .ad x +   ( ax + b ) .a 2 (d x ) + ... + a n (d x )
n -1 n-2 2 n

1  2
1
( 3t + 2 )
-2
(iii) (iv)
 n  n n -1 
( ax + b )
5
= d x   ( ax + b ) .a +   ( ax + b ) a 2d x + ... + a n (d x ) 
n -1 n-2

 1  2  1
(v)
( az - b )
7
Now (I) becomes

dx n
( )
n -1
dy=
- n
[  ax + b .a
( ax + b ) + ad x  ( ax + b )  
n
1

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

2.3 THEOREMS ON DIFFERENTIATION

d  43 
Example 1: Calculate  3x 
dx  
We have, so far proved the following two formulas:
d  43  d  43 
dy Solution:  3 x  = 3  x  (Using Formula 3)
1. ( c ) = 0 i.e.. the derivative of a constant function is zero. dx   dx  
dx
4 43 -1 1
d n = 3x = x 4x3
2.
dx
( x ) = nx n-1 power formula (or rule) when n is any rational 3
(Using power rule)
4. Derivative of a sum or a Difference of Functions:
number.
If f and g are differentiable at x , then f + g, f - g are also differentiable at x
Now we will prove other important formulas (or rules) which are used to determine
derivatives of different functions efficiently. Henceforth, in all subsequent discussion, f, g, h '
 f ( x ) + g ( x )  = f ' ( x ) + g ' ( x ) ,
d d d
and that is,  f ( x ) + g ( x=
)  f ( x )  +  g ( x )  Also
etc. all denote functions differentiable at x, unless stated otherwise. dx dx dx
 f ( x ) - g ( x )  = f ' ( x ) - g ' ( x ) . that is, d  f ( x ) - g ( x= d d
'
3. Derivative of y = cf ( x ) )  f ( x )  -  g ( x ) 
dx dx dx
Proof: Let y = cf ( x ) . Then
Proof: ( x ) f ( x ) + g ( x ) . Then
Let φ=
(i) y + d y= cf ( x + d x ) and
(i) φ ( x + d x ) = f ( x + d x ) + g ( x + d x ) and
(ii) y cf ( x + d x ) - cf ( x )
y +d y -=
(ii) φ ( x + d x ) - φ ( x ) = f ( x + d x ) + g ( x + d x ) -  f ( x ) + g ( x ) 
or d y= c | f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) | (factoring out c)
=  f ( x + d x ) - f ( x )  +  g ( x + d x ) - g ( x )  (rearranging the terms)
dy  f ( x + d x) - f ( x) 
(iii) = c  φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x) f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
dx  dx  (iii) = +
dx dx dx
Taking limit when d x → 0 Taking the limit when d x → 0
φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x)  f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x) 
dy  f ( x + d x) - f ( x)  f ( x + d x) - f ( x) lim
(iv) = lim  + 
(iv) lim lim
=  c.  c. lim d x →0 dx d x →0
 d x dx 
d x →0 d x d x →0 dx d x →0 dx
 
f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
A constant factor can be taken out from a limit sign. = lim + lim
d x →0 dx d x →0 dx
dy ' (The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits)
Thus = c f ' ( x ) ,that is, c f ( x )  = cf ' ( x ) '
dx φ ' x f ' ( x ) + g ' ( x ) , that is  f ( x ) + g ( x )  = f ' ( x ) + g ' ( x )
=
dy ' d d d
or = cf ' ( x ) = c f ( x )  = cf ' ( x ) or  f ( x ) + g ( x=
)  f ( x )  +  g ( x ) 
dx dx dx dx

The proof for the second part is similar.

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Note: Sum or difference formula can be extended to find derivative of more than two
functions. Example 3: ( )(
Find the derivative of y = 2 x + 2 x - x with respect to x. )

Example 1: Find the derivative of y =

3 4 2 3 1 2
x + x + x + 2 x + 5 w.r.t. x .
(
Solution: y = 2 x + 2 x - x )( )
4 3 2

=2 ( ) (
x +1 . x -1 2 x
x= ) ( x +1 )( x -1 )
3 4 2 3 1 2  32 1

Solution: y = x + x + x + 2x + 5 = 2 x ( x + 1=
) 2 x - x 2 
4 3 2  
Differentiating with respect to x, we have Differentiating with respect to x , we have

dy  3 4 2 3 1 2  d 3 4  d 2 3 d 1 2  d d
 x + x + x + 2 x=
+ 5  x  +  x  +  x  + ( 2 x ) + ( 5) dy d   32 1

dx  4 3 2  dx  4  dx  3  dx  2  dx dx
= 2  x - x 2 
dx dx   
(Using formula 4)
 d  32  d  12    3 23 - 1 1 12 - 1 
3 d 4 2 d 3 1 d 2 d = 2   x  -  x  = 2  x - x 
=
4 dx
( x )+
3 dx
( x )+
2 dx
( x ) + 2 ( x) + 0
dx
(Using formula 3 and 1)
 dx   dx     2 2 
1 -1
1 3x - 1
3 2 1 = 3x 2 - x 2 = 3 x - =
= ( 4 x 4-1 ) + ( 3 x3-1 ) + ( 2 x 2-1 ) + 2 (1.x1-1 ) (By power formula) x x
4 3 2
5. Derivative of a product. (The product Rule)
= 3x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 2

If f and g are differentiable at x, then fg is also differentiable at x and

Example 2: Find the derivative of y =( x + 5)( x + 7 ) with respect to x.
2 3

 f (=
'
x ) g ( x )  f ' ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ' ( x ) , that is,

Solution: y = ( x2 + 5)( x3 + 7 ) =x5 + 5 x3 + 7 x 2 + 35 d

=
d  d 
 f ( x ) g ( x )    f ( x )   g ( x ) + f ( x )   g ( x )  
Differentiating with respect to x, we get dx  dx   dx 

dy d 5 Proof: Let φ ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) . Then

=  x + 5 x3 + 7 x 2 + 35

dx dx (i) φ ( x + d x ) = f ( x + d x ) g ( x + d x )
d d d d
=  x5  + 5 ( x3 ) + 7 ( x 2 ) + [35] (Using formulas 3 and 4) (ii) φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x) = f ( x + d x) g ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x)
dx dx dx dx
Subtracting and adding f ( x ) g ( x + d x ) in step (ii), gives
= 5x + 5 x 3x + 7 x 2x
5-1 3-1 2-1
+0 φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x) = f ( x + d x) g ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) + f ( x) g ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x)
= 5x4 + 15x2 + 14x
=  f ( x + d x ) - f ( x )  g ( x + d x ) + f ( x )  g ( x + d x ) - g ( x ) 

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x)  f ( x + d x) - f ( x)   g ( x + d x) - g ( x)   1 1 
(iii) =
dx 
 dx  g ( x + d x) + f ( x) 
  dx 

= 2 
 2 x
x- x + ( ) ( ) 
x + 1 x 1 - 
 2 x 
Taking limit when d x → 0 x- x  
= 2
 2 x
+ x +1 ( )  2 2 x x- 1 
φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x)  
(iv) lim 1 
d x →0 dx =  x - x + 2x - x + 2 x - 1

x
 f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)  3x - 1
= lim  .g ( x + d x ) + f ( x ) .  =
d x →0
 dx dx  x

f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)
= lim . lim g ( x + d x ) + lim f ( x ) . lim 6. Derivative of a Quotient (The Quotient Rule)
d x →0 dx d x →0 d x →0 d x →0 dx
(Using limit theorems) f
If f and g are differentiable at x and g ( x ) ≠ 0 , for any x ∈ D ( g ) then is differentiable
g
Thus
= φ '( x ) f '( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g '( x )  lim g ( x + d x ) =
g ( x )
 d x →0  '
 f ( x)  f '( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g '( x )
d d d  at x and   =
 f ( x ) .g ( x )   f ( x )  .g ( x ) + f ( x )  g ( x )   g ( x) 
2
or =  g ( x ) 
dx dx  dx 
d  d 
d f ( x)
   
 f ( x ) 
  g ( x ) - f ( x )   g ( x )  
 dx   dx 
(
Example: Find derivative of y = 2 x + 2 x - x with respect to x )( ) that is,  =
dx  g ( x )   g ( x ) 
2

(
Solution: y = 2 x + 2 x - x )( ) Proof: Let φ ( x ) =
f ( x)
Then
g ( x)
= 2 ( x + 1)( x - x )
f ( x + d x)

Differentiating with respect to x, we get (i) φ ( x + d x) =
g ( x + d x)
dy d f ( x + d x) f ( x) f ( x + d x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x)
= 2 
dx dx 
( )(
x +1 x - x 
) (ii) φ ( x + d x ) -=
φ ( x) -=
g ( x + d x) g ( x) g ( x) g ( x + d x)
 d
= 2 
 dx
( )(
x +1  x - x +

) ( x +1 ) dxd ( x - x ) Subtracting and adding f ( x ) g ( x ) in the numerator of step (ii), gives

 1 12 - 1   1 12 - 1   f ( x + d x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) + f ( x) g ( x)
= 2  x + 0 x - x + ( ) ( )
x + 1 × 1 - x 
φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x) =
g ( x) g ( x + d x)
 2   2 
1
= ( f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) ( g ( x + d x ) - g ( x ) ) 
g ( x) g ( x + d x) 

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

(iii) φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x) 1  f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x) - g ( x)  1
 .g ( x ) - f ( x ) .  Using the product rule to f ( x ) . , we have
dx g ( x) g ( x + d x)  dx dx  g ( x)
Taking limit when d x → 0 d  1  d  1 d  1 
=  f ( x ).    f ( x )   . + f ( x ).  
dx  g ( x )   dx  g ( x) dx  g ( x ) 
φ ( x + d x) - φ ( x)
(iv) lim
dx d d
 f ( x )  -  g ( x ) 
d x →0

= dx + f ( x ) dx
g ( x)  g ( x ) 
2

 1  f ( x + d x) - f ( x) g ( x + d x ) - g ( x ) 
lim 
x →0 g ( x ) g ( x + d x )
 . g ( x ) - f ( x ) .  d  d 
  d x d x    f ( x )   g ( x ) - f ( x )   g ( x )  
d  f ( x )   dx
   dx 
i.e.,  =
Using limit theorems, we have dx  g ( x )   g ( x ) 
2

φ '( x )
1
 f ' ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g ' ( x )  =
g ( x ) .g ( x ) 
(
 lim g ( x + d x ) g ( x ) )  32 
d x →0

dy
( )
x + 1  x - 1
 ,
Example 2: Find if y = 1 ( x ≠ 1)
dx
' d  d 
 f ( x )   g ( x ) - f ( x )   g ( x )   x2 -1
 f ( x)  f '( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g '( x ) d  f ( )  dx
x   
Thus   dx 
  = or   Solution: Given that
 g ( x)  dx  g ( x ) 
2 2
 g ( x )   g ( x ) 

First Alternative Proof:  23 

( )
x + 1  x - 1
 
( 
)( )
x + 1  x - (1) 
3 3


f ( x) y
= =
φ ( x ) = can be written as f ( x ) = φ ( x ) g ( x ) 1
x -1
g ( x) x2 -1
( x +1 )( )(
x -1 x +1+ x )
Using the procedure used to prove product rule, quotient rule can be proved. =
x -1
= (
x +1 x +1+ x )( )
Second Alternative Proof: We first prove the reciprocal rule and then use product rule to
( )( )( ) ( x + 1) + ( )
2
prove the quotient rule. = x +1 x -1 x +1+ x= x +1 x
3 1

1 = x + 1 + 2 x + x x + x = x + 2 x + 2 x + 1 2 2

The reciprocal rule. If g is differentiable at x and g ( x ) ≠ 0 , then is differentiable at x and

g
dy d  32 1
 d  23  d d  12  d
=  x + 2 x + 2 x += 1  x  + ( 2 x ) +  2 x  + (1)
2
dx dx   dx   dx dx   dx
d
-  g ( x )  3 12 1 3 1
d  1  dx  (Proof of reciprocal rule is left as an exercise)
= x + 2 (1) + 2. +=0 x +2+
 = 2 2 x 2 x
dx  g ( x )   g ( x ) 
2

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 32   2 x +1 x + x +1
( )
x + 1  x - 1
  with respect to x.
x
 2=
-
x  2 x 2x + x - x - x - 1 x - 1
Example 3: Differentiate = =
3 1
x x.2 x
3
x2 - x2 2x 2

 32  2 x3 - 3x 2 + 5
( )
x + 1  x - 1
 
Example 4: Differentiate
x2 + 1
with respect to x .

Solution: Let y = 2 x3 - 3x 2 + 5
Solution: Let φ ( x ) =
3 1
. Then we take
x2 - x2 x2 + 1
 32  f ( x ) = 2 x3 - 3 x 2 + 5 and g ( x=) x2 + 1
( )
x + 1  x - 1
 

= d
x ( x - 1) Now f ' ( x )=  2 x3 - 3 x 2 + 5= 2 ( 3 x 2 ) - 3 ( 2 x ) + 0= 6 x 2 - 6 x
dx
d 2

(=
x + 1)( x - 1)( x + x + 1) ( x - 1) ( x + x +1 ) and g' ( x ) =  x + 1 = 2 x + 0 = 2x
dx 
x ( x - 1) ( )

x x -1
f '( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g '( x )
Using the quotient formula: φ ' ( x ) = ,we obtain
x + x +1  g ( x ) 
2
=
x
d  2 x 3 - 3 x 2 + 5  ( 6 x - 6 x )( x + 1) - ( 2 x + 3 x + 5 ) ( 2 x )
2 2 3 2
Differentiating with respect to x , we have
=
dx  x 2 + 1  ( x 2 + 1)
2

dy = d  x + x + 1 
  6 x 4 - 6 x3 + 6 x 2 - 6 x - ( 4 x 4 - 6 x3 + 10 x )
dx dx  x  =
(x + 1)
2 2

d d
x
dx
(
x + x +1 - x + x +1
dx
) ( ) ( x) 4 3 2 4 3
= 6 x - 6 x + 6 x - 6 x - 24 x + 6 x - 10 x
=
( ) ( x2 + 1)
2
x
 1 - 12   1 - 12  2 x 4 + 6 x 2 - 16 x

 2  2
(
x 1 + x + 0  - x + x + 1 . x 

)
=
(x 2
+ 1)
2

=
x
1  1


x 1 +
 2 x
 - x + x +1 (
2 x
) EXERCISE 2.3
=
x Differentiate w.r.t. x

a+x
1. x 4 + 2 x3 + x 2 2. x -3 + 2 x -3/2 + 3 3.
a-x

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Differentiating (ii) and (iii) w.r.t x and u respectively, we have.

2
2x - 3  1 
4. 5. ( x - 5)( 3 - x ) 6.  x -  = =
du d
 g ( x )  g ' ( x )
2x + 1  x dx dx 
 3

( 
)
1+ x  x - x2 
 (x 2
+ 1)
2
x2 + 1
and
=
dy d
=  f ( u )  f ' u
du du 
7. 8. 9.
x x2 - 1 x2 - 3 Thus (i) can be written in the following forms
1+ x 2x - 1 a-x
10. 11. 12. d du
1- x x +12 a+x (a)
dx
( f (u )) = f '(u )
dx
x2 + 1 1+ x - 1- x x a+x dy dy du
13. 14. 15. (b) = .
x2 - 1 1+ x + 1- x a-x dx du dx
1 dy The proof of the Chain rule is beyond the scope of this book.
16. If =
y x- , show that 2 x + y = 2 x
x dx
dy
17. If y =x 4 + 2 x 2 + 2 , prove that= 4 x y - 1 Note:
=
n
g ( x )  and u g ( x )
1. Let y =
dx
dy
= n
Then y u= and nu n-1 (power rule)
2.4 THE CHAIN RULE du
dy dy du du
But
= = . nu n-1
The composition fog of functions f and g is the function whose values f [g(x)], are found dx du dx dx

( )
for each x in the domain of g for which g(x) is in the domain of f . f  g ( x )  is read as f of g or
d n n -1
 g ( x )  = n  g ( x )  .g' ( x )
 du 
 = g' ( x ) 
of x). dx  dx 

2. Reciprocal rule can be written as

Theorem. If g is differentiable at the point x and f is differentiable at the point g( x ) then
the composition function fog is differentiable at the point x and ( fog ) ' ( x ) = f '  g ( x )  .g ' ( x ) . d  1  d -1 -1-1
 =  g ( x )  = -1.  g ( x )  .g' ( x )
The proof of the chain rule is beyond the scope of this book. dx  g ( x )  dx
If y
= (=
fog )( x ) f  g ( x )  , then = ( -1)  g ( x )
-2
.g' ( x )
dy
=( fog ) ' ( x ) = f  g ( x )   '
dx
dy Find the derivative of ( x3 + 1) with respect to
9
⇒ = f '  g ( x )  .g ' ( x ) (i) Example 1:
dx
Let u = g ( x ) (ii)
( x3 + 1) and u =
9
Solution: Let y = x 3 + 1 Then y =
u9
Then y = f ( u ) (iii)
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

du dy dy a+x + a-x
=Now x 2 and
3= 9u 8 (Power formula) Example 3: Find if y = ( x ≠ 0)
dx du dx a+x - a-x
dy du
Using the formula = 9u 8 , we have
dx dx a+x + a-x
Solution: y=
d 3  du  a+x - a-x
( x + 1) =9 ( x3 + 1) ( 3 x 2 )  u = x3 + 1 and
9 8
or =3 x 2 
dx  dx  Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by a + x - a - x , gives
= 27 x ( x + 1)
2 3 8

a-x y =
( a+x + a-x )( a+x - a-x )
,( x ≠ -a ) with respect to x
Example 2: Differentiate
a+x ( a+x - a - x )( a+x - a - x )
1
a-x a-x
( ) ( )
2 2
Solution: Let y= = and u = . Then y u 2 a+x - a-x (=
a + x) - (a - x) 2x
a+x a+x = =
dy 1 12 - 1 1 - 12

( a + x ) + ( a - x ) - 2 a2 - x2 2a - 2 a 2 - x 2 (
2 a - a2 - x2 )
Now = =
du 2
u
2
u

d  d  x
( a - x ) ( a + x ) - ( a - x ) ( a + x ) that is, y =
du d  a - x   dx   dx  a - a2 - x2
=and =
dx dx  a + x 

(a + x)
2
Let f ( x ) =x and g ( x ) =-
a a 2 - x 2 , then
( 0 - 1)( a + x ) - (=
a - x )( 0 + 1) -a - x - a + x -2a d 2 1
1 2 1
2 2 -1 d

= = f ( x)' = 0 - (a - x ) =
1 and g' ( x ) = 2 2
- (a - x ) ( a2 - x2 )
(a + x) (a + x) (a + x)
2 2 2
dx 2 dx
1 x
=
- x ( -2 x ) =
Using the formula
dy dy du
= . , we have 2 a2 - x2 a2 - x2
dx du dx
dy f ' ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g ' ( x )
1 Using the formula = 2
, we have
d  a - x  1 - 12  -2a  1  a - x 
-
2 -2a  a-x dx  g ( x ) 
 = u  2
=   × 2 
u = 
dx  a + x  2  ( a + x )  2  a + x  (a + x)  a+x
1 dy
(
1. a - a 2 - x 2 - x. ) x
a2 - x2
( a - x ) × -a =
-
2 -a =
( )
2
= dx a - a2 - x2
1
( a + x )
2 1 3

( a + x ) (a - x) (a + x)2
-
2 2

a a2 - x2 - ( a2 - x2 ) - x2 a a2 - x2 - a2
= =
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
a -x a- a -x a2 - x2 a - a2 - x2

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

=
(
-a a - a 2 - x 2 ) =
-a y =( ax + b )
n
= ( ax + b )
-m
=
1
( ax + b )
m
(i)

(a - ) (a - )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a -x a -x a -x a -x
d
( ax + b ) . Let u =
m
We first find ax + b. Then
dx
3
dy
(1 + 2 x ) .x d d m d m du
3
Example 4: Find
dx
if y= 2

dx
( ax + b =
)
m

dx
( u=) dx
( u ) dx (using chain rule)

  12  
3
 d 
= mu m-1 x a=m ( ax + b )  ( ax + b ) =
3 m -1

( ) ( ) .a a
3
Solution: y =
1 + 2 x .x =
 1 + 2 x  x 
2
 dx 
   Now differentiating (i) w.r.t.’ x ’, we have
1

Let u= (1 + 2 x ).x 2
 (i )
 d d
(1) .( ax + b ) - 1. ( ax + b )
m m
Then y = u 3 ( ii )  dy d  1 
dx dx
= =  m
Differentiating (ii) with respect to u, we have  dx dx  ( ax + b )  ( ax + b )m 
2

2
 
dy  1

( ) ( ) 0.( ax + b ) - 1.m ( ax + b )
2 m m -1
= 3u 2 =
3 1+ 2 x x2  = 3 1 + 2 x .x .a
dx =
  ( ax + b )
2m

Differentiating (i) with respect to x , gives

( -m ( ax + b )m-1 .a ) x ( ax + b )-2m =
= -m ( ax + b )
m -1- 2 m
.a
du  1  12 1
=  0 + 2.
dx  
2 x
x + 1+ 2 x
2 x
( ) (-m ) ( ax + b )- m-1 . a =
= n( ax + b )n-1 .a ( -m =
n)

1+ 2 x 2 x +1+ 2 x 1+ 4 x
= 1+ = = dy p
2 x 2 x 2 x Example 6: if y = x n where n =
Find ,q≠0
dx q
dy dy du
Using the formula = . ,we have p p
dx du dx Solution: Given that y = x n where n = , q ≠ 0. putting n = ,we have
q q

d  3
 1+ 4 x 
( ) ( )
3 2 p
 1 + 2 x . x 2
 3
= 1 + 2 x .x x 
dx  y = x (i) q
  2 x 
3 Taking qth power of both sides of (i), we get
( ) x (1 + 4 x )
2
= 1+ 2 x
2 y q = x p (ii)

Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , gives

(1 + 2 x ) ( x + 4 x )
=
d q d p d q dy d p
Example 5: If y = (ax + b) where n is a negative integer, find
n
dy
using quotient theorem dx
(y ) =
dx
(x ) or
dy
(y ) .
dx
=
dx
( x ) (Using chain rule)
dx
dy
⇒ q y q -1 = px p -1 (iii)
Solution: Let n = -m where m is a positive integer. Then dx
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Multiplying both sides of (iii) by y, we have Now we explain the method of finding derivatives of functions given in the form of
parametric equations by the following examples.
dy dy
q . yq = py x p -1 or q. x p = p . x x p -1 (using (i) and (ii))
dx dx
p p dy
dy p 1 p +p-1-p Example 1: Find if x = at 2 and y = 2at.
⇒ = . p . x q x p -1 = × xq dx
dx q x q
p
p q -1  p  dy
= x = nx n-1 
 q = n  Solution: We use the chain rule to find
q   dx
d n dy d
Thus (x ) n x n-1 . Here = (2at ) = 2a.1=2a
dx dt dt
dx d
and = (at 2 ) = a (2t ) = 2at
dt dt
2.5 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
dy
If for each x d Df , f(x) = y and for each y d Dg, g(x) = x, then f and g are inverse of each dy dy dt 2a 2a
so = . = dt = = ( 2a = y )
other, that is, dx dt dx dx 2at y
( g o f= )( x ) g( =f ( x )) g(
= y) x (i) dt
2
and ( f o= g )(y ) f (g=
(y )) (x)
f= y (ii)  y  y2 y2
Eliminating t, we get x = a   = a. = ⇒ y2 = 4ax (i)
Using chain rule, we can prove that  2a  4a 2 4a
f '( x ). g'( y ) = 1 Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ we have

1 d 2 d
⇒ f ' (x) = (y ) = (4ax)
g' (y ) dx dx
d 2 dy d dy
 dy  (y ) . = 4a (x) ⇒ 2y = 4a (1)
 f (x ) = y ⇒ f ' (x ) = dx dx dx dx
dy 1 dx 
⇒ =   dy 2a
dx dx  and g (y ) = x ⇒ g'(y ) = dx  ⇒ =
 dx y
dy  dy 

2.6 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION GIVEN IN Example 2: Find

dy
if x 1 - t 2 and y = 3t 2 - 2t 3 .
THE FORM OF PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS dx

Solution: Given that x = 1 - t2 ...... (i) and y = 3t2 - 2t2 (ii)

2
The equations x = at and y = 2at express x and y as function of t . Here the variable t
is called a parameter and the equations of x and y in terms of t are called the parametric Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we get
equations.
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

dy d d d
= (1- t 2 ) = (1) - ( t 2 ) =-
0 2t =- 2t d  d
 ( 2t )  (1 + t ) - 2t x (1 + t )
2 2
dt dt dt dt
dy d  2t   dt  dt
= =  
(1 + t 2 )
2
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we have dt dt  1 + t 2 

dy d d d 2 (1 + t 2 ) - 2t ( 2t ) 2 + 2t 2 - 4t 2 2 - 2t 2 2 (1 - t )
2

dt= dt ( 3t - 2t )= dt ( 3t ) - dt ( 2t )
2 2 2 3
= = = =
(1 + t )
2 2
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
2 2 2

=3 ( 2t ) - 2 ( 3t 2 ) =6t - 6t 2 =6t (1 - t )

2 (1 - t 2 )
Applying the formula dy
dy dy dt dt (1 + t )
2 2
2 (1 - t 2 ) t 2 - 1
= .= = = =
dx dt dx dy - 4t -4t 2t
dy
(1 + t )
2
dy dy dt dt dx 2

= = .
dx dt dx dx
dt
6t (1- t )
2.7 Differentiation of Implicit Relations
= =-3 (1- t ) =3 ( t -1)
-2t
Sometimes the functional relation is not explicitly expressed in the form y = f ( x )
dy 1- t 2 2t
Example 3: Find= if x = , y but an equation involving x and y is given. To find dy from such an equation, we differentiate
dx 1+ t 2 1+ t dx
each term of the equation and use the chain rule where it is required.The process of finding

Solution: Given that x

=
(=
1+ t ) 2

( i ) and y
2t
( ii ) dy
1+ t 2
1+ t 2 in this way, is called implicit differentiation. We explain the implicit differentiation in the
dx
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we get following examples.

d  d
dx 
d  1- t   dt
(1- t 2 )  (1+ t 2 ) - (1- t 2 ) . (1+ t 2 )
2
 dt dy
= =  Example 1: Find if x 2 + y 2 =
4
2  2 2 dx
dt dt  1+ t  (1 + t )

( -2t ) (1 + t 2 ) - (1- t 2 ) ( 2t ) 2t ( -1 - t 2 - 1 + t 2 ) -4t Solution: Here x 2 + y 2 =

4 (i)
= =
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 ) (1 + t )
2 2 2 2

Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we get

Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ t ’ ,we have

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

2 x + 2 y
dy
0
= dy dy 2 ( 2 - x ) 2 - x
⇒ 2y =4 - 2x ⇒ = = (ii)
dx dx dx 2y y
dy dy x
or x + y 0 ⇒
= =
- Note: Solving (i) for y , we have
dx dx y
y 2 = 5 + 4 x - x ⇒ y =± 5 + 4 x - x 2
Solving (i) for y in terms of x, we have
2
Thus y = 5 + 4 x - x 2 (iii)
± 4- x
y=
or - 5 + 4 x - x2
y=
(iv)
2
⇒ y= 4- x (ii) Each of these equations (iii)
and (iv) defines a function.
2
or y =
- 4- x (iii) Let y = f1 ( x ) = 5 + 4 x - x 2 (v)
dy
found above represents the derivative of each of functions defined as in dx and y=f1 ( x ) =- 5 + 4 x - x 2 . (vi)
dx
(ii) and (iii) Differentiation (v) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we get

1
1 2- x
From (ii)
dy
=
1
x ( -2 x ) =
-
x f1 ' ( x )= ( 5 + 4 x - x ) × ( 4 - 2 x )=
2 - 2

dx 2 4 - x 2 2 5 + 4x - x2
4 - x2

=
x
-  4 - x2 =
y
( y ) From
= (v) , 5 + 4 x - x 2 y, =
so f1 ' ( x )
2- x
y
dy 1 -x x
From (iii)
dx
=- x ( -2 x ) = =-
y
 - 4 - x =y ( ) 1 1
2- x
2 4 - x2 - 4 - x2 Also f 2 ' ( x ) =-
2
( 5 + 4 x - x )
2 - 2
× ( 4 - 2x) =
- 5 + 4 x - x2
2- x
dy 5 + 4 x - x 2 y, =
From (vi) -= so f2 ' ( x )
Example 2: Find ,if y 2 + x 2 - 4 x =
5. y
dx
Thus (ii) represents the derivative of f1 ( x ) as well as that of f 2 ( x ) .
Solution: Given that y + x - 4 x =2 2
5 (i)

Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ ,we get dy

Example 3: Find if y 2 - xy - x 2 + 4 =0.
dx
d d
 y 2 + x 2 - 4 x  = ( 5 )
dx dx Solution: Given that y2 - xy - x2 + 4 = 0 (i)
dy  d 2 d 2 dy dy 
or 2y + 2x - 4 =0 =
 ( y ) = ( y ) 2y 
Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , gives
dx dx dx dx dx 
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

1  2 ( x - 1) 2 ( x 2 - 1)( x 2 + 1)
d 2 d 4
 y - xy - =
x 2 + 4  ( 0=
) 0 dy 1 
= 2 x + ( -2 ) . 3 = 2  x - 3  = =
dx dx
dx x  x  x3 x3
dy  dy  du 1 1 x2 + 1
or 2y - 1.y + x  - 2 x + 0 =0 and = 1 - ( -1) . 2 = 1 + 2 =
dx  dx  dx x x x2
dy dy 2 x + y dy dx 2 ( x - 1)( x + 1) 2 ( x 2 - 1)
2 2
⇒ (2 y - x) 2x + y
= ⇒ = dy x2  1
Thus = .= . = = 2 x - 
dx dx 2y - x du dx du x3 x2 + 1 x  x

dy EXERCISE 2.4
Example 4: Find if y 3 - 2 xy 2 - x 2 y + 3 x =
0.
dx
dy
Solution: Differentiating both sides of the given equation w.r.t. ‘x’ we have 1. Find by making suitable substitutions in the following functions defined as:
dx
d 3 d 1- x a+x
 y - 2 xy 2 + x 2 y + 3=
x  ( 0 )= 0 (i) y=
1+ x
(ii) y
= x+ x (iii) y=x
a-x
dx dx
d 3 d d d
or
dx
( y ) - ( 2 xy 2 ) + ( x 2 y ) + ( 3 x ) =
dx dx dx
0 (iv) y= ( 3x 2 - 2 x + 7 )
6
(v)
a2 + x2
a2 - x
d 3  d   dy 
( y ) - 2 1.y 2 + x ( y 2 )  +  2 xy + x 2  + 3 =0
dx  dx   dx 
2. Find
dy
if:
d 3 d 2 dx
Using the chain rule on
dx
( y ) and
dx
( y ) , we have (i) 3x + 4 y + 7 =0 (ii) xy + y 2 =
2
dy 2  dy   dy (iii) x 2 - 4 xy - 5 y =
0 (iv) 4 x 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =0
3 y - 2  y 2 + x  2 y   + 2 xy + x 2 +3=0
dx   dx   dx
(v) x 1+ y + y 1+ x =0 (vi) y ( x 2 - 1=
) x x2 + 4
dy
or (3 y 2
- 4 xy + x 2 )
dx
= 2 y 2 - 2 xy - 3
dy
3. Find of the following parametric functions
dy 2 y 2 - 2 xy - 3 dx
⇒ =
dx 3 y 2 - 4 xy + x 2
1 a (1 - t 2 ) 2bt
1 1 (i) x= θ + and y = θ +1 (ii)
= x = , y
Example 5: Differentiate x 2 + w.r.t. x - θ 1+ t2 1+ t2
x2 x

1 1 dy 1- t2 2t
Solution: Let y =
x 2 + 2 and u =
x - . Then 4. Prove that y = +x 0 =
if x 2
, y
=
x x dx 1+ t 1+ t

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

5. Differentiate

1 dx 
(i) x2 - w.r.t x 4 (ii) (1 + x )
2 n
w.r .t x2 sin    dx 
 2 → 0 
2
x  dx  2 
= lim cos  x +  dlim
x2 + 1 x -1 ax + b ax 2 + b dx
→0  2  →0 d x
x  
(iii) w.r .t (iv) w.r .t 2 2
2  when d x → 0 
2
x -1 x +1 cx + d ax 2 + d
x2 + 1  dx 
(v) w.r .t x3  sin
2
x -1 Thus
=
dy
cos x .1. lim =

cos  x +
dx
cos x and
= lim 2 1
 d x / 2 →0 d x

dx 
d x / 2 →0  2  
 2 
2.8 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC Let y= cos x, then y + d y= cos ( x + d x )
FUNCTIONS and d y = cos ( x + d x ) - cos x
= cos x cos d x - sin x sin d x - cos x

While finding derivatives of trigonometric functions, we assume that x is measured in
 1 - cos d x 
sin x 1 - cos x - sin x sin d x - cos x 
= 
radians. The limit theorems
= lim 1=
and lim 0 are used to find the derivative  dx 
x →0 x x →0 x
formulas for sin x and cos x. dy sin d x  1- cos d x 
( - sin x ) .
= - cos x  
We prove from first principle that d x dx  dx 
dy  sin d x  1 - cos d x  
d d lim lim ( - sin x )
= - cos x  
dx ( sin x ) = cos x and dx ( cox x ) = - sin x d x →0 d x d x →0
 dx  dx 
Let y = sin x Then y + d y = sin ( x + d x )  sin d x    1 - cos d x  
= lim ( - sin x )  - lim  - cos x  
d x →0  d x  d x →0   dx 
and d y = sin ( x + d x ) - sin x
 x +dx + x   x +dx - x   dx  dx 
sin d y
= 2 cos  sin = 2 cos x +  sin    
 2
 
  2



 2   2   d x→0 d x = 1and 
 lim
dy
Thus ( - sin x ) .1 - ( cos x )( 0 )
= 
1 - cox d x

dx  lim   

2 cos  x +
dx  dx  dx   d x →0   = 0
 sin   sin     dx  
dy  2  2 
=  dx  2 
= cos  x +  d
dx dx  2  dx ( cos x ) = - sin x
or
2 dx
d d
 d x  Now using ( sin x ) = cos x and ( cos x ) = - sin x, we prove that
 sin    dx dx
dy  dx  2 
=lim lim cos  x +  dx  d d
d x →0 d x d x →0
  2   ( sec x ) sec
= = x tan x and ( cot x ) cosec 2 x
dx dx

 2 

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Now we write the derivatives of six trigonometric functions

d
Proof of ( sec x ) = sec x tan x. d d
dx (1) ( sin x ) = cos x ( 2) ( cos x ) = sin x
1
dx dx
Let =y sec
= x (i) d d
cos x ( 3) ( tan x ) = sec 2 x ( 4) ( cot x ) = - cosec 2 x
dx dx
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we have d d
( 5) ( cosec x ) = - cosec x cot x ( 6) ( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d  d
d d  1   dx   (1)  cos x - 1. ( cos x )  Using 
dx  quotient 
= ( y) =     Example 1: Find the derivative of tan x from first principle.
( cos x )
2
dx dx  cos x   formula 
 
0.cos x - 1.( - sin x )
= Solution: Let y= tan x, then y + d x= tan ( x + d x ) and
cos 2 x
d y = y + d x - y = tan ( x + d x ) - tan x
1 sin x
= = . sec x tan x
cos x cos x
sin ( x + d x ) sin x sin ( x + d x ) cos x - cos ( x + d x ) sin x
d = -=
Thus ( sec x ) = sec x tan x cos ( x + d x ) cos x cos ( x + d x ) cos x
dx
d sin ( x + d x - x ) sin d x
Proof of ( cot x ) = cos ec 2 x = =
dx cos ( x + d x ) .cos x cos ( x + d x ) cos x

cos x dy 1 sin d x
Let
= y cot
= x (i) = .
sin x
d x cos ( x + d x ) .cos x d x
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get dy  1   sin d x 
or lim = lim   . lim  
d x →0 d x d x →0 cos ( x + d x ) .cos x d x →0  d x 
 
d  d
d  cos x   dx
( cos x )  sin x - cos x ( sin x )  Using 
d dx  quotient   lim cos ( x + d x ) = cos x 
= ( y) = 1
dx dx  sin x  ( sin x )
2 
 formula 
 Thus
=
dy
= .1 sec 2 x
 d x →0 
  dx ( cos x )( cos x )  sin d x 
 and dlim =1 
( - sin x ) sin x - cos x ( cos x )  x →0 dx 
=
sin 2 x dy d
Thus = sec 2 x or ( tan x ) = sec 2 x
- ( sin x + cos x )
2 2
1 dx dx
= 2 = - 2 = - cos ec 2 x
sin x sin x
d
Thus ( cot x ) = cos ec 2 x
dx
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Example 2: Differientiate ab-initio w.r.t. ‘ x ‘

(i) cos 2x (ii) sin x (iii) cot 2 x  x +dx + x   x +dx - x 

cos   sin  
 2 .  2 
x +dx + x x +dx - x
Solution: (i) Let= y cos 2 ( x + d x )
y cos 2 x, then y + d=
2
and d y= cos ( 2 x + 2d x ) - cos 2 x   x +dx - x 
 x +dx + x  lim  sin 
 cos  
2 x + 2d x + 2 x 2 x + 2d x - 2 x dy 2   2 
-2 sin
= sin -2 sin ( 2 x + d x ) sin d x
= =Thus lim  . x + d x - x → 0
2 2 dx d x→0  x +dx + x  x +dx - x 
  2  
   2 
dy sin d x  
Now -2 sin ( 2 x + d x ) .
=
dx dx  x+ x
 cos   x +dx - x 
dy  sin d x  dy 2 cos x  → 0 when 
Thus lim  -2 sin ( 2 x + d x ) .
= = =  .1 2
dx   
dx d x→0  d x  
x+ x 

2 x  dx→0 
 
 
sin d x
-2 lim ( sin 2 x + d x ) . lim
=
d x →0 d x →0 d x ( iii ) Let y = cot 2 x, then
 sin d x  y cot 2 ( x + d x )
y + d=
( -2 sin 2 x ) .1 =
= -2 sin 2 x  lim sin ( 2 x + d x ) =
sin 2 x and lim
d x →0 d x
=1
 d x →0  y cot 2 ( x + d x ) - cot 2 =
d= x cot ( x + d x ) + cot x  x cot ( x + d x ) - cot x 

(ii) Let y sin x , then y + d y = sin x + d x  cos ( x + d x ) cos x 

= cot ( x + d x ) + cot x  . - 
and d=
y sin x + d x - sin x  sin ( x + d x ) sin x 
sin x cos ( x + d x ) - cos x sin ( x + d x )
 x +dx + x   x +dx - x  = cot ( x + d x ) + cot x  ×
= 2 cos   sin   sin ( x + d x ) sin x
 2   2 
 sin x cos ( x + d x ) - cos x sin ( x + d x ) 
d y  cot ( x + d x ) + cot x  - sin d x
As ( x +dx + x )( )
x + d x - x =( x + d x ) - x =d x,
= 

.
d x  sin ( x + d x ) sin x  d x
= sin ( x - ( x + d x ) ) sin
= ( -d x ) =
- sin d x



 x +dx - x  dy  cot ( x + d x ) + cot x sin d x 
sin   =lim lim  .( -1) 
 sin ( x + d x ) sin x
 x +dx + x  2 d x →0 d x dx 
dy  
d x →0
So = 2 cos  .
dx  2  dx
dy cot x + cot x  lim cot ( x + d x ) = cot x 
 x +dx + x   x +dx - x  Thus
= .( -1) . 1  d x →0

2 cos   sin   dx sin x sin x  and lim sin ( x + d x ) =sin x 
 2   2   d x →0 
= -2 cot x
( )( )
2
x +dx + x x +dx - x = .1 = -2 cot x co sec x
sin 2 x

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Example 3: Differentiate sin3 x w.r.t. cos 2 x

 π π
Then
= x Sin=
y or x sin y for y ∈  - ,  (ii)
Solution:
= Let y sin
= 3
x and u cos x 2
 2 2 

Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get

dy du
Now = 3 sin 2 x cos x and= 2 cos x ( - sin x ) d d dy dy
dx dx = 1 = ( sin y ) (=
sin y ) cos y
dx dx dx dx
 
dy dy dx 1  dx 1 
Thus= = .
du dx du
( 3 sin2 x cos x ) . -2 cos x sin x =

du dx  =
⇒
dy 1
for
 π π
y ∈ - , 
  dx cos y  2 2
 du 
3 1   π π 
= - sin x. =  cos y is positive for y ∈  - , 
2 1 - sin 2 y   2 2 
d
Thus = ( sin -1 x )
1
for - 1 < x < 1
dx 1 - x2
2.9 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS Proof of (2). Let y = Cos -1 x (i)
Then
= x Cos
= y or x cos y for y ∈ [0, π ] (ii)
Here we want to prove that
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , gives
d 1
1.  sin -1 x  = , x ∈ ( -1 , 1) or - 1 < x < 1 d d dy dy
dx 1 - x
2
1= ( cos y ) = ( cos y ) = - sin y
dx dx dx dx
d 1
2. Cos -1 x  = - , x ∈ ( -1 , 1) or - 1 < x < 1 dy 1
dx 1 - x 2 ⇒ =
- for y ∈ ( 0 ,π )
dx sin y
d 1
3. Tan -1 x  = - , x ∈R
dx 1 + x 2 1
= -  sin y is positive for y ∈ ( 0 ,π ) 
d 1 1 - cos 2 y
4. Cosec -1 x  = - , x ∈ [ -1 , 1]' , [ -1 , 1]' = ( -∞ ,-1) ∪ (1,∞ ) d 1
dx | x | x2 - 1 Thus
dx
( Cos -1 x ) =- for - 1 < x < 1
d 1 1 - x2
5.  Sec -1 x  = - , x ∈ [ -1 , 1]' , [ -1 , 1]' = ( -∞ ,-1) ∪ (1,∞ )
dx | x | x2 - 1 Proof of (3). Let y = Tan -1 x (i).
d 1
6. Cot -1 x  = - , x ∈R
dx 1 + x 2  π π
Then x=Tan
= y or x tan y for y ∈ - ,  (ii)
 2 2
Proof of (1). Let y = Sin -1 x (i).
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we have

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

d d dy dy  π 

= 1 = ( tan y ) (=
tan y ) sec 2 y When y ∈  - ,0  ,cosec y and cot y are negative
dx dx dx dx  2 
dy 1  π π
=⇒ for y ∈ - ,  As cosec y = x, so x is negative in this case
dx sec 2 y  2 2
1 1 and cot y = - cosec 2 y - 1 = - x 2 - 1 when x < -1
= = for x ∈ R
1 + tan y 1 + x 2
2

d 1 d -1
Thus = Tan -1 x  for x ∈ R Thus= Co sec -1 x  ( x < -1)
dx 1 + x2 dx
(
x - x2 - 1 )
Proof of (4). Let y = Co sec -1 x (i) -1
= ( x < -1)
(-x) x2 - 1
 π π
Then
= sec y or x cos ec y for y ∈  - ,  - {0}
x Co= (ii) d 1
 2 2 cosec -1 x  = - for x ∈ [ -1, 1]'
dx | x | x2 - 1

 π π  π   π Proof of (5). is left as an exercise

 - ,  - {0} is also written as  - 2 0  ∪ 0 , 2 
 2 2 Proof of (6). is similar to that of (4)
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get

d d dy dy x

= 1 = ( cosec y ) ( cosec y ) Example 1: Find if =y x Sin -1  + a 2 + x 2
dx dx dx dx a
dy
= ( - cosec y cot y )
dx x
Solution: Given that=y x Sin -1   + a 2 + x 2
dy 1  π π a
⇒ =- for y ∈  - ,  - {0}
dx cosec y cot y  2 2
Differentiating w.r.t. x , we have

 π dy d 
When y ∈  0 ,  , cos ec y and cot y are positive. -1 x 2 d  -1 x  d 2
 2 =
dx dx 
x Sin
a
+ a=2
+ x  dx  x Sin +
a  dx
( a + x )
2 1/ 2

As cosec y = x , so x is positive in this case x 1 d x 1 2 1

2 2 -1 d
= 1 . Sin -1
+ x. . + .( a + x ) ( a2 + x2 )
2 dx  a 
and cot y= co sec 2 y - 1= x2 - 1 for all x > 1 a x   2 dx
1-  
a
d -1
Thus
=
dx
( Co sec -1 x ) for x >1
x x2 - 1

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

dy
3. Find if
1
x 1 1 dx
Sin -1 . ++x .( -2 x )
a
x2 a 2 a2 - x2 (i) y = x cos y (ii) x = y sin y
1- 2
a
Sin-1 x + x a . 1 - 1 = Sin -1
x 4. Find the derivative w.r.t. x
a a2 - x2 a a2 - x2 a
1+ x 1 + 2x
(i) cos (ii) sin
1 + 2x 1+ x
dy 4 (1 + y )
2
 -1 x  5. Differentiate
Example 2:
= If y tan
=  2 Tan  ,show that
 2 dx 4 + x2
(i) sin x w.r.t. cot x (ii) sin 2 x w.r.t. cos 4 x

x dy
Solution: Let u = 2 Tan -1 , then 6. If tan y (1 + tanx ) =
1 - tan x,show that -1
=
2 dx
y =tan u ⇒
dy
=sec 2 u =1+ tan 2 u =
1 + y2 7. If=y
dy
tan x + tan x + tan x + ...∞ ,prove that ( 2 y - 1)= sec 2 x.
du dx
du d  -1 x  1 d x 2 1 4 dy
and
=  2 Tan
=  2. .   =
= . 8. If =x a cos 3 θ =
, y b sin3 θ , show that a + btan= θ 0
dx dx  2 2 2
 x  dx  2  1 + x 2 4 + x
2 dx
1+   dy
2 4 9. Find if x = a ( cos t + sin t ) , y =a ( sin t - t cos t )
dx
dy dy du 4 4 (1 + y ) 2

Thus = . =
dx du dx
(1 + y2 ) .
4 + x2
=
4 + x2 10. Differentiate w.r.t. x

x x 1 a
(i) Cos -1 (ii) Cot -1 (iii) Sin -1
EXERCISE 2.5 a a a x
 x2 + 1   2x 
1. Differentiate the following trigonometric functions from the first principle, (iv) Sin -1 1 - x 2 (v) Sec -1  2  (vi) Cot -1  2 
 x -1 1- x 
(i) sin x (ii) tan 3 x (iii) sin 2 x + cos 2 x (iv) cos x 2
 1 - x2 
(v) tan x2
(vi) tan x (vii) cos x (vii) Cos  -1
2 
1+ x 

2. Differentiate the following w.r.t. the variable involved

dy y y x
(i) 2
x sec 4 x (ii) tan θ sec θ
3 2 11.
= = if Tan -1
dx x x y
( sin 2θ - cos 3θ )
2
(iii) (iv) cos x + sin x
12. If y tan ( p Tan -1 x ) , show that=
= (1 + x2 ) y1 - p (1 + y 2 ) 0
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

2.10 DERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS:

 ah - 1 
= a .( ln a )  Using lim
x
= log
= a
e ln a 
 h →0 h 
A function f defined by
d x
f ( x) = a x
or
dx
( a ) = a x .( ln a )
a > 0 , a ≠ 1 and x is any real number.
is called an exponential function dy 2
Example 1: Find if : (i) y = e x +1 (ii) y = a x
If a = e , then y = a becomes y = e . e is called the natural exponential function.
x x x
dx
Now we find derivatives of e x and a x from the first principle:
1. Let y = e x then Solution: ( i ) Let u x 2 + 1 , then
=
y + d y =e x +d x and d y =y + d y - y =e x +d x - e x =e x . ed x - e x
du d 2
y = eu ....( A ) and =
dx dx
( x +=
1) 2 x
dy  ed x - 1 
e x ( ed x - 1)
That is , d y = and ex . 
= 
dx  dx  Differentiating both sides of ( A ) w.r.t. 'x' , we have
dy  ed x - 1  x  ed x - 1 
Thus lim
= lim e 
= x
 e . dlim d d u d u du
d x →0 d x d x →0
 dx  x →0

 dx 
 =
dx
( y) =
dx
( e )
du
( e ) . dx (Using the chain rule)

 lim x  u du  d x x
 Using ( e ) e 
x
 dx→0 e =e 
 e=
= .
  dx  dx 
dy  eh - 1  dy  du 
e x +1 .( 2 x )
2
= e= x
.1  Using lim 1 Thus = x 2 + 1 and
 u = 2x 
=
dx  h →0 h  dx  dx 

d x ( ii ) Let u ( A)
or
dx
( e ) = ex = x
= Then y au

du d 1/ 2 1 -1/ 2 1
2. Let y = a x , then and=
dx dx
(
= x ) =
2
x
2 x
y + d y= a x +d x and d y = a x +d x - a x= a x . ad x - a x= a x ( ad x - 1)
Differentiating both sides of ( A ) w.r.t. 'x' , gives
Dividing both sides by d x , we have
dy d u d u du  dy dy du 
dy  a -1 dx = =
dx dx
( a )
du
( a ) dx =
 . 
 dx du dx 
= ax  
dx  dx  du  d 
dy  a -1 x dx
 a - 1  lim  dx
= (=
a ln a ) .
u

dx


Using
dx
(a ) x
a x ln a 

Thus
= lim
= ax  a . lim  =  ax ax 
 
dx d x→0  d x  d x →0
 d x  d x → 0  d
Thus =
dx
a x ( ) (a x
)
ln a .
1
2 x
=

 u

x and
=
du 1 
dx 2 x 

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

ln a 1 dy 1  dx
= .a x
. Now= ln 1 + 
2 x dx dx  x 

x
1 x  d x  1  d x d x
= . ln 1 + = ln 1 + 
x d x  x  x  x 
Example 2: Differentiate y = a x w.r.t. x.
 x
  x

dy  1  dx  1 d x
  dx xd
Thus lim = lim ln 1 +  = lim ln 1 + 
d x →0 d x d x →0  x  x   x d x →0   x  
Solution: Here y = a x    

= e x ln a  x

dy 1  d x d x 
Differentiating w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we have = . ln  lim 1 + 
dx x  d x →0  x  
x 
dy d
= e x ln a , ( x ln a )  dx 
dx dx  → 0 when d x → 0 
= a= x
.( In a ) ( e x In a a x )  x 

 lim
( e x In a a x ) 1 
1
= x
a= .( In a ) = ln e  (1 + z ) e
z =

x  z → 0 
1 1
= =
x
.1
x
( log
= e
e
1)
2.11 DERIVATIVE OF THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
Now we find derivative of the general logarithmic function.
Let y = log a x then
Logarithmic Function:
y log a ( x + d x ) and
y + d=
If a > 0 a ≠ 1 and x =
a , then the function defind by
 x +dx   dx
d y = log a ( x + d x ) - log a=
x
log   log a 1 +
=
=

y log a ( x > 0)
x
 x  

x 
is called the logarithm of x to the base a. dy 1  dx 1 x  dx
= log a 1 + =  . log a 1 + 
The logarithmic functions log e and log x x
10 are called natural and common logarithms dx dx  x  x dx  x 
respectively, y =log e x is written as y = ln x . x
1  d x d x
= log a 1 + 
x  x 

d
( In x ) .    
x x
We first find dy 1  d x  
d x 1  d x  x
d
dx 
Thus = lim log a 1 + = 
lim log a 1 + 
dx d x→0  x  x   x d x →0   x  
Let y = ln x Then    

y + d y= In ( x + d x ) and lim x 
1  dx x
d
= log a  d x 1 + 
 x +dx   dx x   x  

d y = ln ( x + d x ) - ln x =   = ln 1 +   x →0 
 x   x 
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

1
2.12 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION
 1

= log a x  z →0 (
 lim 1 + z )z =
e
x  
Algebraic expressions consisting of product, quotient and powers can be often
d 1 1  1 1  simplified before differentiation by taking logarithm.
or log a=
x
 .  log
= a
e
= 
dx x ln a  log e a ln a 
f ( x)
Example 1: Differentiate y = e w.r.t.' x '.
dy
Example 1: Find =if y log10 ( ax 2 + bx + c )
dx f ( x)
Solution: Here y=e
(i)
Solution: Let u = ax 2 + bx + c Then
Taking logarithm of both sides of (i), we have
u dy 1 1 In y = f ( x ) . In e
y= log10 ⇒ =
du u In 10 = f ( x ) ( In e = 1)

du d
and =
dx dx
( ax + bx + c ) = a ( 2 x ) + b (1) = 2ax + b Differentiating w.r.t x , we get

1 dy
dy dy du  1 1  du . = f ' ( x)
Thus
= = .  .  y dx
dx du dx  u ln 10  dx
dy
y × f ' ( x) =e ( ) × f ' ( x)
f x
So =
1 dx
= ( 2ax + b )
( ax 2
+ bx + c ) ln 10 or
d f ( x)
( )
e = e ( ) × f ' ( x)
f x

dx

or
d 
log ( ax 2
+ bx + c )  = 2 2ax + b
dx   (ax + bx + c) ln 10
10
x x2 + 3
Example 2: Find derivative of
x2 + 1
Example 2: Differentiate ln ( x 2 + 2 x ) w.r.t. ' x '.
x x2 + 3
Solution: Let y = 2 ......( i )
Solution: Let =y ln ( x 2 + 2 x ) , then
( x + 1)
Taking logarithm of both sides, we have

dy d  1 d 2
= ln ( x 2 + 2 x =
) . ( x + 2x) ( Using chain rule )  x x2 + 3 
dx dx  ( x 2
+ 2 x ) dx ln
= y ln  2 =
 x +1 

 ln x x 2 + 3

( ) - ln ( x 2 + 1)
1 2 ( x + 1)
= .(=
2x + 2)
2
x + 2x x2 + 2 x 1
or ln y= ln x + ln ( x 2 + 3) - ln ( x 2 + 1) ......( ii )
d  2 ( x + 1) 2
Thus
dx 
ln ( x 2
+ 2 x ) =
 x2 + 2 x Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t ‘ x ‘,
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

d d  1
2.13 DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

[ In=
y]  In x + In ( x 2 + 3) - In ( x 2 + 1) 
dx dx  2 
The functions defined by:
1 dy 1 1 1 1
= + . 2 × 2x - 2 × 2x
y dx x 2 x +3 x +1 ex - e
-x
e x + e- x
sinh x = , x ∈ R ; cosh x = ; x∈R
1 x 2x 2 2
= + 2 - 2

x x + 3 x +1 sinh x e x - e - x
tanh
= x = ;x∈ R
=
(x 2
+ 3)( x 2 + 1) + x . x ( x 2 + 1) - 2 x . x ( x 2 + 3)
cosh x e x + e - x

x ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1) are called hyperbolic functions.

x4 + 4 x2 + 3 + x4 + x2 - 2 x4 - 6 x2 3 - x2 The reciprocals of these three functions are defined as:
=
x ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1) x ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1)
1 2
cos ech=x = x - x , x ∈ R - {0} ;
dy y (3 - x ) 2
x x2 + 3 3 - x2 sinh x e - e
Thus
= = .
dx x ( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 1) x 2 + 1 x ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1) 1 2
sec
= hx = x , x∈R
cosh x e + e - x
3 - x2 1 e x + e- x
= coth
= = x , x ∈ R - {0}
x 2 + 3 . ( x 2 + 1) tanh x e - e - x
2

Derivatives of sin h x, cos h x and tan h x are found as explained below:

Differentiate ( ln x ) w.r.t. ' x '.
x
Example 3: d d 1 x 1 x -x 1 x
-x 

dx
( sinh x ) = 
dx  2
( e - e )  =
 2

 e - e ( -1 )
 =
2
( e + e - x ) = cosh x

Solution: Let y = ( ln x ) (i)

x

d d 1 x -x  1 x 1 x
Taking logarithm of both sides of (i) , we have
dx
( cosh x ) = 
dx  2
( e + e )  =
 2

 e + e -x
.( -1 ) 
 =
2
( e - e - x ) = sinh x

= ( In x ) x  x In ( In x )
In y In=
 
d
=
d  e x - e- x 
[tanh x ] =
(e x
+ e- x ) ( e x + e- x ) - ( e x - e- x ) ( e x - e- x )
Differentiating w.r.t x , dx dx  e x + e - x  (e + e ) x -x 2

1 dy 1 d e + e + 2 - (e + e - 2)
2x -2 x 2x -2 x
4
= 1 . In ( In x ) + x .
. ( In x ) = =
(e + e ) (e -x 2
+ e- x )
2
y dx In x dx x x
2
1 1 1  2 
=In ( In x ) + x . . =In ( In x ) + = =x -x 
sec h 2 x.

In x x In x e +e 

dy  1   1  The following results can easily be proved.
= y  In ( In x ) + ( In x )  In ( In x ) + In x 
x
=

dx  In x   
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

d d 2.14 DERIVATIVES OF THE INVERSE

( cos eh x ) = - coth x cos ech x ; ( sec h x ) =
- tanh x sec h x
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:
dx dx
d
( coth x ) = - cos ech2 x.
dx The inverse hyperbolic functions are defined by:
1.
= y sinh' -1 x=
if and if x sinh y ; x, y ∈ R
dy
Example 1: Find if y = sinh 2 x 2.
= y cosh -1 x if and=
only if x cosh y ; x ∈ 1,∞) , y ∈ [ 0 ,∞ ]
dx
3.
= y tanh -1 x if and
= only if x tanh y ; x ∈ ( -1,1) , y ∈ R
Solution: Let u = 2 x, then '
4.
= y coth -1 x if and
= only if x coth y ; x ∈ [ -1,1] , y ∈ R - {0}
=5. y sec h -1 x if and only if x= sec h y ; x ∈ (0 ,1` ] , y ∈ [ 0 ,∞)
dy

= y sinh u =
⇒ cosh u 6.
= only if x cos ech y ; x ∈ R - {0} , y ∈ R - {0}
y cos ech -1 x if and =
du
du d The following two equations can easily be derived:
and
= = ( 2 x ) 2.
dx dx
dy dy du du
(i ) (
sinh -1 x = In x + x 2 + 1 ) ( ii ) cosh -1 x = (
In x + x 2 - 1 )
Thus
= = . cosh=
u. cosh (=
2 x )  .2 2 cosh 2 x
dx du dx dx 
d
Proof of (i).
or [ sinh 2 x ] = 2 cosh 2 x . =Let y sinh -1 x for x, y ∈ R,then
dx
e y - e- y
dy =x sinh y ⇒=x
Example 2 : Find if y = tanh ( x 2 ) 2
dx
⇒ 2 xe y =e 2 y - 1
2 y
dy or e - 2 xe y - 1 =0
Solution: Let = 2
y tanh u ⇒ = sec h 2 u
u x ,then =
du Solving the above equation for e y , we have

du d 2 x ± 4 x2 + 4
ey =
and
= =
dx dx
( x ) 2x 2
2 x ± 2 x2 + 1
= x ± x2 + 1
=
dy dy du du  2
Thus
= = . sec h 2=u.  sec h 2 ( x 2 )  × 2 x
dx du dx dx
As e y is positivefor y ∈ R, so we discard
d
or tanh x 2  = 2 x sec h 2 x 2
dx
x - x2 + 1

x + x2 + 1 ⇒ y =
Thus e y = In x + x 2 + 1 ( )
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Derivative of cosh -1 x:

-1
(
⇒ sinh x = In x + x + 1 2
) =Let y cosh -1 x ; x ∈ [1∞) , y ∈ [ 0 ,∞ )
Proof of ( ii )
Let y cosh -1 x for x ∈ [1 , ∞ ), y ∈ [ 0 ,∈ ), then
= Then x = cosh y

e y + e- y
x cosh y ⇒
= = x ⇒ e 2 y - 2e y =
+1 0 ......( I )  
2  
dx dy 1  dy 1 
2 x ± 4 x2 - 4 2 x ± 2 x2 - 1 and
= sinh y ⇒
= =
Solivng ( I ) gives, e = y
= x
=± x2 - 1 . dy dx sinh y  dx dx 
2 2  
 

e y =-
x x 2 - 1 can be written as y =In x - x 2 - 1 ( ) dy 1 1
 dy 

or = = ( sinh y > 0, as y > 0 )

( )
If x = 1, then y = ln 1 - 1 - 1= ln (1=
) 0 but dx sinh y 2
cosh y - 1

( )
ln x - x 2 - 1 is negative for all x > 1, that is Thus
=
dy d
=
dx dx
( cosh -1 x )
1
x2 - 1
( x > 1)
for each x ∈ (1,∞ ) , y ∉ ( 0 ,∞ ) ,so we discard this value of e y

(
As cosh -1 x = In x + x 2 - 1 , so )
Thus e y =+
x x 2 + 1 which give y = (
In x + x 2 - 1 , that is )

cosh -1 x = In x + x 2 - 1 . ( ) d
cosh x =
dx 
-1

1 
1 +
x + x 2 - 1 
2x 
=
1
2 x 2 - 1  x + x 2 - 1
.
x2 - 1 + x
x2 - 1
=
1
x2 - 1
Derivative of sinh -1 x :
Derivative of tanh -1 x :
=Let y sinh -1 x ; x , y ∈ R
Let y = tanh -1 x ; x ∈ ( -1, 1) , y ∈ R

Then x = sinh y  
 
dx dy 1  dy = 1 
Then x = tanh y and = sec h 2 ⇒ =
  dy dx sec h 2 y  dx dx 
   
dx dy 1  dy 1   dy 
= cosh y =
⇒ =  
dy dx cosh y  dx dx 
dy 1 1
 

 dy  dx
=
1 - tanh 2 y
=
1 - x2
(sec h 2
y = 1 - tanh 2 y )

dy 1 1 d 1
or = =
dx cosh y 1 + sinh y2
( cosh y > 0 ) =
Thus
dx
tanh x
1 - x2
( -1
) ; -1<x <1or x < 1

The following differentiation formulae can be easily proved.
dy d 1
dx dx (
= = sinh -1 x ) ( x ∈ R)
1 + x2 d 1 1
dx
( coth x ) -1
=
1 - x2
or - 2
x -1
; x >1

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

EXERCISE 2.6
d 1
dx
( sec h -1 x ) =-
2
; 0 < x <1
x 1 - x
1. Find f ' ( x ) if
d 1
( cosech -1 x ) = - ;x>0 1
dx x 1 + x2 (i) f ( x) = e x -1
f ( x) x e
(ii) = 3 x
( x ≠ 0 ) (iii) f ( x ) = e x ( I + ln x )
d 1
or
dx
( cos ech -1 x ) =- ; x ∈ R - {0}
x 1 + x2 e ax - e - ax
(iv) ex
f ( x) = -x (v) ln ( e + e
x -x
) (vi) fx = ax
e + 1 e + e - ax
dy
Example 1: Find=
dx
if y sinh -1 ( ax + b ) (vii) =
f (x) ln ( e 2 x + e -2 x ) (viii) f (x) = ln ( e 2 x + e -2 x )
Solution: Let =
u ax + b , then
dy
2. Find if
dx
dy 1
=
y sinh -1 u =⇒
dx 1 + u2 x
(i) y = x 2 ln x (ii) y = x ln x (iii) y=
dy dy du 1 du ln x
= = . .
dx du dx 1 + u dx
2

( )
x2 - 1
1
(iv) y = x ln (v)
2
y = ln 2 (vi) y = ln x + x 2 + 1
d 1  du d  x x +1
Thus  sinh -1 ( ax +=
 b) .a  = ( ax +=
b) a 
dx  dx dx
1 + ( ax + b )  y= e - x ( x3 + 2 x 2 + 1)
2
y ln ( 9 - x 2 ) (viii) y = e sin 2 x
-2 x
(vii) = (ix)
( x + 1)
x
(x) y = x e sin x (xi) y = 5e3 x -4 (xii) y
=
dy
Example 2: Find
= if y cosh -1 ( sec x ) 0 ≤ x ≤ π /2
dx
x 2 - 1 ( x + 1)
(xiii) y = ( ln x )
ln x
(xiv) y=
(x +1)
3 3/ 2
Solution: Let u = sec x, then

dy 1 dy
=y cosh -1 u ⇒
= 3. Find if
dx dx
u2 -1
du d (i) y = cosh 2 x (ii) y = sinh 3 x
=and = ( sec x ) sec x tan x
dx dx
π π
Thus
= =
dy dy du
.
1
.
du (iii) y tanh -1 ( sin x ) -
= <x< (iv) y = sinh -1 ( x3 )
dx du dx 2 2
u - 1 dx
2

1 1 x
= = ( sec x tan x ) = ( sec x tan x ) sec x (v) y = ln ( tanh x ) (vi) y = sinh -1  
sec x tan x 2

d
or cosh -1 ( sec x )  = sec x
dx

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

2.15 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION

(OR HIGHER DERIVATIVES): Example 2: Find
d3y
dx 3
if y = ln x + x 2 + a 2 ( )
Sometimes it is useful to find the differential coefficient of a derived function. If we Solution: Give that y = ln x + x 2 + a 2 ( ) (i)
denote f ’ as the first derivative of f, then (f ’)’ is the derivative of f ’ and is called the second
derivative of f .For convenience we write it as f”. Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , we have
Similarly (f ”)’. the derivative of f ”, is called the third derivative of f and is written as f ’”.
In general, for n ≥ 4 , the nth derivative of f is written as f .(n)
=
dy
dx 2
x+ x +a
d1
2 dx
x + x2 + a2 ( )
Here we state different notations used for derivatives of higher orders..
1  1× 2 x 
1st derivative 2nd derivative 3rd derivative nth derivative = . 1 + 
y’ y ’’ y ’’’ y (n)
x + x2 + a2  2 x 2 + a 2 

1  x2 + a2 + x 
dy d2y d3y dny = × 
x + x2 + a2  2 x2 + a2 
dx dx 2 dx3 dx n  

y1 y2 y3 yn 1
That is, dy = (ii)
dx 2
x +a 2

Dy D 2y D 3y D ny
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’, we have
df d2 f d3 f dn f 2
d y d  2 1 2
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n =
dx 2 dx 
( x + a )
2 -1/ 2 

=
-
2
( x + a ) × 2x
2 -3 / 2

d 2y x
Example 1: Find higher derivatives of the polynomial or = - (iii)
( )
2 3/ 2
2
dx x 2
+ a
1 4 1 3 1 2
f ( x )= x - x + x + 2x + 7 Differentiating (iii) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we get
12 6 4

3 2
1 . ( x2 + a2 ) ( x + a 2 ) .2 x
3/ 2 1/ 2
3 - x.
1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 d y3 = - 2
Solution:
12
( 4 x3 ) - ( 3 x 2 ) + ( 2 x ) + 2 + 0=
f ' ( x )=
6 4 3
x - x + x+2
2 2 dx ( x 2
+ a ) 
2 3/ 2

1 1 1 1
f '' ( x ) = ( 3 x 2 ) - ( 2 x ) + (1) + 0 = x 2 - x + ( x + a ) ( x + a ) - 3x 2 2 1/ 2 2 2 2
 a2 - 2 x2
3 2 2 2 =
-  =
-

(x + a ) 2 3
( x2 + a2 )
5/ 2
f "' ( x= ) 2x - 1 2


f iv ( x ) = 2 d3y 2 x2 - a2
=
(x + a2 )
5/ 2
dx 3 2
All other higher derivatives are zero.

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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

Example 1: a (θ sinθ ) , y =
If x =- a (1 + cosθ ) . Then
d2y
Example 3: Find if y3 + 3ax 2 + x 3 =
0
dx 2 d2y
show that y 2 +a=0
Solution: Given that y3 + 3ax 2 + x3 =
0 (i) dx 2

Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , gives Solution: Given that=

x a (θ + sinθ ) (i)

and y a (1 + cos θ ) (ii)
=
d  y 3 + 3ax 2 + x3= 
d
( 0 )= 0 Differentiating ( i ) and ( ii ) w.r.t 'θ ' , we get
dx  dx
dy dy
3y2 + 3a ( 2 x ) + 3 x 2 =0 ⇒ y2 = - ( 2ax + x 2 ) dx
= a (1 + cos θ ) (iii)
dx dx dθ

dy 2ax + x 2 dy
⇒ = - 2
(ii) and = a ( -sinθ ) (iv)
dx y dθ

Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ , gives

dy
dy dy dθ dθ
Using= = . we have
 dy  dx dθ dx dx
( 2a + 2 x ) y 2 - ( 2ax + x 2 )  2 y 
2
d y 
d 2ax + x 2
  dx  dθ
( -1) 
dx 2 =  =
-
(y )
2 2
dx  y  2
- a sin θ -sin θ
= =

 2ax + x  2
a (1 + cos θ ) 1 + cos θ
2 ( a + x ) y 2 - ( 2ax + x 2 ) . 2 y × - 
 y2  dy sinθ
= - 4 That is, = - (v)
y dx 1 + cosθ


2 ( a + x ) y +
2 ( 2ax + x 2 )( 2ax + x 2 ) 
 Differentiating (v) w.r.t. ‘ x ’
 y 
= -
y4 2
d  sin θ  d  sin θ  dθ
d y2 = - =-  ×
2 ( a + x ) y 3 + ( 2ax + x 2 ) 
2
dx dx  1+cos θ  dθ  1+cos θ  dx
 
= -  4
y .y
cos θ (1 + cos θ ) - sin θ ( -sin θ ) dθ
(
2 ( a + x ) -3ax 2 - x 3 + x 2 ( 2a + x ) 
2
) = - .
=
- 
y 5

( y 3
= 2
- 3ax - x 3
) (1 + cos θ )
2
dx

d y2 = - cos θ +cos θ +sin θ dθ
2 2 2
2 x 2  - ( a + x )( 3a + x ) + ( 4a 2 + x 2 + 4ax )  .
(1 + cos θ )
2
= - dx dx
y5
1 + cosθ 1  dx 
2 x 2  - ( 3a 2 + 4ax + x 2 ) + 4a 2 + x 2 + 4ax  =- ×  = a (1 + cosθ ) 
(1 + cos θ ) a (1 + cos θ )  dθ
2
= - 
y5

2 x 2  a 2  -2a 2 x 2
=
- =
y5 y5
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2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab 2. Differentiation eLearn.Punjab

dy  dy  d d2y dy  dy 
Now   = [ -ay ] ⇒ 2 =-a ( -a )( -ay )
=  = -ay 
1 1 1 1  y dx  dx  dx dx dx  dx 
=- . - .
=
a (1 + cos θ ) 2
a  y 2 1 + cos θ = 
 a
 
a d2y
1 a2 a
or 2
= a2 y (i)
=- × 2 = - 2 dx
a y y
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ‘ we get
d2y d2y
or y 2
= -a ⇒y 2
0
+a =
dx 2 dx 2
d d2y d 2 d3y dy
 2  =  a y  ⇒ 3 =a2 a 2 ( -ay ) =
= -a3 y
dx  dx  dx dx dx
Example 5: Find the first four derivatives of cos ( ax + b ) .

d3y
Solution: Let
= y cos ( ax + b ) , then Thus 3 + a3 y =
0
dx
d d
y1 = cos ( ax + b )  =
- sin ( ax + b ) . ( ax + b )
dx dx x -3
Example 7: If
= y Sin -1
y2 x ( a - x )
, then show that= 2 2 2

- sin ( ax + b ) × ( a + 0 ) =
= - a sin ( ax + b ) a

d
-a
y2 = sin ( ax + b )  =
( -a ) cos ( ax + b ) × ( a + 0 )
dx  Solution: y = sin -1
x
, so
- a 2 cos ( ax + b )
= a

d

- a2
y3 =
dx
(
cos ( ax + b )  = - a 2 )  - sin ( ax + b ) × ( a + 0 ) 
dy d  -1 x  1 d  x
=y = Sin = ×  
dx  a 
1
dx x
2 dx  a 
= a 3 sin ( ax + b ) 1-  
a
d
y4 = a 3 sin ( ax + b )  = a 3 × cos ( ax + b )  × a = a 4 cos ( ax + b ) 1 1 a 1
(a - x2 )
-1/2
dx = .= .= 2

a2 - x2 a a2 - x2 a
d y 3 a2
Example
= 6: If y e - ax , then show
= that + a3 y 0
d 1
y2 = ( a 2 - x 2 )  =- ( a 2 - x 2 ) × ( -2 x ) =x ( a 2 - x 2 )
3
dx -1/2 -3/2 -3/2

dx   2
dy d - ax d
Solution: As y= e - ax , so =
dx dx
( e )= e - ax . ( - ax )= e - ax . ( - a )
dx

dy
That is
dx
= -ay ( e - ax
= y)

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EXERCISE 2.7 f ( x ) =a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 + a5 x 5 + ...... + an x n + ..... f ( 0 ) =a0

f ' ( x ) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2 + 4a4 x 3 + 5a5 x 4 + ...... + na x n 1 + ..... f ' ( 0 ) = a1
1. Find y2 if f '' ( x ) = 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2 + 20a5 x 3 + ... + n ( n - 1) an x n-2 + ... f '' ( 0 ) = 2a2
1 f ''' ( x ) =6a3 + 24a4 x + 60a5 x 2 + .... f ''' ( 0 ) = 6a3
( 2 x + 5)
5 4 3 3/2
(i) y= 2 x - 3 x + 4 x + x - 2 (ii) =
y (iii) y
= x+
x f(=
)
( x)
4
24a4 + 120a5 x ........

f(
4)
( 0 ) = 24a4
2. Find y2 if
f '' ( 0 ) f ''' ( 0 ) f( ( 0)
4)
So we have
= ( 0 ) , a1 f=
a0 f= '
( 0 ) , a2
= , a3 = , a4
 2x + 3  2! 3! 4!
(i) y = x 2 . e - x (ii) y = ln  
 3x + 2  f n ( 0)
Following the above pattern, we can write an =
n!
3. Find y2 if
(i) x2 + y 2 =
a 2 (ii) x3 - y 3 =
a (iii)
= cosθ , y a sin θ
x a= Thus substituting these values in the power series, we have
2
(iv)=x at= , y bt 4 (v) x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =0 f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4
4
f n ( 0) n
f ( x=
) f (0) + f ( 0) x +
'
x + x + x + .... + x + ....
4. Find y4 if 2! 3! 4! n!

(i) y = sin 3 x (ii) y = cos3 x (iii) =y ln ( x 2 - 9 ) This expansion of f ( x ) is called the Maclaurin series expansion.
The above expansion is also named as Maclaurin’s Theorem and can be stated as:
5. If
= , y Sin mθ , Show that (1 - x 2 ) y2 - xy1 + m=
x Sin θ= 2
y 0 If f ( x ) is expanded in ascending powers of x as an infinite series, then

f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4 f n ( 0) n
4
d2y dy
6.
= x
If y e sin x, show that= 2
-2 + 2y 0 f ( x=
) f (0) + f ( 0) x +
'
x + x + x + .... + x + ....
dx dx 2! 3! 4! n!
d2y dy
7.
= If y e ax sin bx, show that 2
-=2a + ( a 2 + b2 ) y 0 Note that a function f can be expanded in the Maclaurin series if the function is defined
dx dx
in the interval containing 0 and its derivatives exist at x = 0 .
( ) ( )
2
8.
= If y Cos -1 x ,prove that = 1 - x 2 y2 - xy1 - 2 0
The expansion is only valid if it is convergent.
2
9. If y = a cos (ln x) + b sin (ln x), prove that x 2 d y2 + x dy + y =
0.
dx dx
Example 1: Expand f ( x ) = 1 in the Maclaurin series.
1+ x
2.16 SERIES EXPANSIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Solution: f is defined
= that is, f ( 0 ) 1 . Now we find successive derivatives of f and
at x 0=
A series of the form a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x3 + a4 x 4 + ...... + an x n + ..... is called a power series their values at x = 0 .
expansion of a function f ( x ) where a0 ,a1 ,a2 , ... an , ... are constants and x is a variable. f ' ( x ) =
( -1)(1 + x ) and f ' ( 0 ) =
-2
- 1,
We determine the coefficient a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an , ... to specify power series by finding f '' ( x ) =( -1)( -2 ) (1 + x ) and f '' ( 0 ) =-
-3
( 1) 2
2

successive derivatives of the power series and evaluating them at x = 0 . That is, f ''' ( x ) =
( -1)( -2 ) ( -3)(1 + x ) and f ''' ( 0 ) =-
-4
( 1) 3
3

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f(
4)
( x) =
( -1)( -2 ) ( -3)( -4 )(1 + x ) and f (
4)
( 0 ) =-
( 1)
-5 4
4
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4 f ( ) ( 0 )
4 5

f ( x) =f ( 0) + f ( 0) x + '
x + x + x + + ...,we have
2 3 4 5
Following the pattern, we can write f ( n ) ( 0 ) = ( -1)n n 0 2 -1 3 0 4 1 5 0 6 -1 7
0 + 1 .x +
sin x = x + x + x + x + x ++ x + ...
Now substituting f ( 0 ) =
1, f ' ( 0 ) =
- 1, f '' ( 0 ) =
( -1) 2 .
2
2 3 4 5 6 7
f ''' ( 0 ) =
( -1) 3, f ( ) ( 0 ) =
3
( -1) 4,.... f (
4 4 n)
( 0) =
( -1) n in the formula.
n
x3 x5 x7
=x - + - + ......
3 5 7
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0 ) 4 f ( ) ( 0) x
4 n

f ( x) =
f ( 0) + f ( 0) x + '
x + x + x =... + x + ,...
2 3 4 n
Example 3: Expand ax in the Maclaurin series.

+
f(
n)
( 0 ) x x + ,... we have Solution: Let f ( x ) = a x , then

n
f ' ( x ) a= ln a, f '' ( x ) a x ( ln a ) , f ''' ( x ) a x ( ln a )
x 2 3
= =
( -1) n x n + ...
n
1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4
= 1 + ( -1) x + ( -1) x + ( -1) x 3 + ( -1) x + ... + =f ( ) ( x ) a=
x
( ln a ) , ..., f ( ) ( x ) a x ( ln a ) .
4 4 n (n)
1+ x 2 3 4 n
Putting x = 0 in f ( x ) , f ' ( x ) , f '' ( x ) , f ''' ( x ) , f ( ( x ) , ... f ( n) ( x ) , we get
4)

Thus, the Maclaurin series for 1 is the geometric series with the first term 1 and
1+ x
common ratio -x. f ( 0=
) a=0 1, f ' ( 0=) a 0 ln =
a ln a, f '' ( 0=
) ( ln a )
2
, f ''' ( 0=
) ( ln a )
3

f ( ) ( 0) (=
ln a ) , ... , f ( ) ( 0 ) ( ln a )
4 4 n n
= .
a
Note: Applying the formula S = 1 , we have Substituting these values in the formula
1- r
1 1 f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0) n
n
1 - x + x2 - x=
3 + ... = f ( x=
) f ( 0) + f ( 0) x + '
x + x + ... + x + ..., we have
1 - (-x) 1 + x 2 3 n

( ln a ) ( ln a ) ( ln a )
2 3 n

a x
=1 + ( ln a ) .x + x 2
+ x 3
+ ... + x n + ...
2 3 n
Example 2: Find the Maclaurin series for sin x
Note: If we put a = e in the above expansion, we get

( x ) sin x. Then f=
Solution: Let f = ( 0 ) sin
= 0 0. x 2 x3 xn
e x =1 + x + + + ... + + . .. ( In e = 1)
f ' ( x) =
cos x and f ' ( 0 ) = 1 ; f '' ( x )=
cos 0 = - sin x and f '' ( 0 ) =
- sin 0 =
0; 2 3 n
f ''' ( x ) =- cos x and f ''' ( 0 ) =- cos 0 =-1 ; f ( ( x )=- ( - sin x ) =- sin x
4)
Replacing x by 1, we have
( 0 ) sin
and f = = ( 0 ) 0. ( 4)
1 1 1
e =1+1 + + + ... +
f ( ) = ( x ) = cos x and f ( ( 0 ) = cos 0 = 1, f ( ( x ) = - sin x
5 5) 6)

2 3 n
and f (6)
( 0) = - cos x and f ( 0 ) =
0; f = (7)
-1 (7)

Putting these values in the formula

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Example 4: Expand (1 + x)n in the Maclaurin series.

f ' ( x) =
a1 + 2a2 ( x - a ) + 3a3 ( x - a ) + 4a4 ( x - a ) + ... + nan ( x - a )
2 3 n -1
+ ...
f '' ( x )= 2a2 + 6a3 ( x - a ) + 12a4 ( x - a ) + ... + n ( n - 1) an ( x - a )
2 n-2
Solution: Let f ( x =
) (1 + x ) , then
n + ...

f ' (=
x ) n (1 + x )
n -1
, f '' ( x ) = n ( n - 1) (1 + x )
n-2 f ''' ( x ) = 6a3 + 24a4 ( x - a ) + ......

f ''' ( x ) =n ( n - 1)( n - 2 )(1 + x ) ,f( ( x ) =n ( n - 1)( n - 2 )( n - 3)(1 + x )
n -3 4) n-4
f '' ( a )
Putting x = a , we get f ' ( a =
) a1 ; f '' ( a =) 2a2 ⇒ a2= ; f ''' ( a =
) 6a3
Putting x = 0 , we get 2
f ( 0 ) =(1 + 0 ) = ( 0 ) =n (1 + 0 ) =n , f ''' ( a )
n n -1
1, f '

⇒ a3 =
f '' ( 0 ) = n ( n - 1)(1 + 0 ) = n ( n - 1)
n-2
3
f ''' ( 0 ) = n ( n - 1) ( n - 2 )(1 + 0 ) = n ( n - 1)( n - 2 ) ,
n -3

f(
4)
( 0 ) = n ( n - 1)( n - 2 )( n - 3)(1 + 0 )
n-4
= n ( n - 1)( n - 3) Following the above pattern , we have
f( )
(a)

Substituting these values in the formula

Substituting the values of a0 ,a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,..., , w e g e t
f ''
( 0) x2 + f '''
( 0 ) x3 + ... , we have
f ( x) =
f ( 0) + f '
( 0) . x + f '' ( a ) f ''' ( a )
f ( x=
) f ( a ) + f ' ( a )( x - a ) + ( x - a) + ( x - a ) + ...
2 3
2 3
2 3
n ( n - 1) 2 n ( n - 1)( n - 2 ) 3
(1 + x )
n
1+ n . x +
= x + x + ...
2 3 f(
n)
(a)
( x - a)
n
+ + ...
n

2.17 TAILOR SERIES EXPANSIONS This expansion is the Taylor series for f at x = a . The expansionisonly valid if it is
OF FUNCTIONS: convergent .
If a = 0, then the above expansion becomes
If f is defined in the interval containing ' a' and its derivatives of all orders exist at
f '' ( 0 ) 2 f '' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0) n
n

x = a , then we can expand f ( x ) as f ( x=

) f ( 0) + f ' ( 0) x + x + x + ... + x + ...
2 3 n

f ( x )= f ( a ) + f ' ( a )( x - a ) +
f ''
(a) f '''
(a) which is the Maclaurin series for f at x = a .
( x - a) ( x - a)
2 3
+
2 3 Replacing x by x + h and a by x , the expansion in (A) can be written as
f(
4)
(a) f(
n)
(a)
( x - a) ( x - a)
4 n
+ + ... + + ...
f '' ( x ) 2 f ''' ( x ) 3 f ( ) ( x) n
n
4 n
f ( x + h=
) f ( x) + f ' ( x)h + h + h + ... + h + ... (B)
2 3 n
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 ( x - a ) + a2 ( x - a ) + a3 ( x - a ) + a4 ( x - a ) + ...
2 3 4
Let
The expansions in (B) is termed as Taylor’s Theorem and can be stated as: If x and h
+ an ( x - a ) + ...
n

are two independent quantities and f ( x + h ) can be expanded in ascending power of h as

Obviously f ( a ) = a.0 (  putting x = a , all other terms vanish )
an infinite series, then
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f '' ( x ) 2 f ''' ( x ) 3 f ( ) ( x) n
n
Now taking the successive derivative of sin x and evaluating them at π , we have
f ( x + h=
) f ( x) + f ' ( x)h + h + h + ... + h + ... 6
2 3 n
π  π 3
f '
( x) = cos x

and f '=
  cos
=
6 6 2
Example 1: Find the Taylor series expansion of In (1 + x) at x = 2.
f '' ( x ) = - sin x π  π -1

and f ''   =- sin =-
6 6 2
Solution: Let f ( x ) = ln (1 + x ) , then f ( 2 )= ln (1 + 2 )= ln 3
π  π 3
Finding he successive derivatives of ln (1 + x ) and evaluating them at x = 2 f '''
( x) = -cos x

and f '''   =- cos =-
6 6 2
1 1 1
f ' ( x) = ( 2)
and f '= = 4 π  π 1
1 + x 1+ 2 3 f(
4)
( x ) =- ( - sin x ) =sin x
and f ( ) =
  sin
=
6 6 2
1
f '' ( x ) =
( -1) (1 + x ) and f '' ( 2 ) =- (1 + 2 ) =-
-2

Thus the Taylor series expansion at a = π is

9
2 6
f ''' ( x ) =-
( 1)( -2 )(1 + x ) and f ''' ( 2 ) = 2 . (1 + 2 ) =
-3 -3

27 1 3
π  -2  π - 2 
2 3
3 1 3 π
( 4)
( x) =( -1) ( -2 )( -3)(1 + x ) ( -1) 3(1 + x ) and f ( ) ( 2 ) =
-4 3 -4 4
f = - sin x = + x- + x-  +  x -  + ...
81 2 2  6 2  6 3  6
2 3
The Taylor series expansions of f at x = a is 1 3 π 1  π 3 π
= + x- - x-  -  x -  + ....
2 2  6  2 2 6 2 3 6
f '' ( a ) f ''' ( a ) π
f ( x=
) f (a) + f '
(a) .( x - a) + ( x - a) +
2
( x - a ) + ......
3 = ( 310 - 300 ) = 10 ≈ .017455
310 , x -
For x =
2 3 6
1 3 1 3
( .017455) - ( .017455) - ( .017455)
2 3
sin 310 ≈ +
Now substituting the relative values, we have 2 2 4 12

1 2 3 ≈ .5 + .015116 - 0.000076 ≈ .5150

- -
1
ln (1 + x ) = ln 3 + ( x - 2 ) + 9 ( x - 2 ) + 27 ( x - 2 ) + 81 ( x - 2 ) + ....
2 3 4

3 2 3 4
x  h2 h3 
x - 2 ( x - 2) ( x - 2 ) - ( x - 2 ) + .... Example 3: Prove that e x +=
2 3 4 h
e 1 + h + + + ....
= ln 3 + - 2
+  2 3 
1.3 2.3 3.33 4.34

Example 2: Use the Taylor series expansion to find the value of sin 310. Solution: Let
= f ( x + h ) e x + h ,=
then f ( x ) e x ...(i)

By successive derivatives of (i) w.r.t ‘x’ we have

Solution: We take a = 30° = π
6 =f ' ( x ) e=
x
, f '' ( x ) e=
x
, f ''' ( x ) e x etc .
π  π 1
( x ) sin x, then f =
Let f=   sin
= By Taylor’s Theorem we have
6 6 2
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2 3
2.18 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION
f ( x + h )= f ( x ) + h f ' ( x ) + h f '' ( x ) + h + f ''' ( x ) + ... OF A DERIVATIVE
2 3
Putting the relative values, we get
Let AB be the arc of the graph of f defined by the equation y = f ( x ) .
h 2 x h3 x
e x+h x
e +h e +
= x
e + e + ...
2 3 Let P ( x, f ( x ) ) and Q ( x + d x. f ( x + d x ) ) be two
 h 2 h3  neighbouring points on the arc AB where x ,
= e x 1 + h + + + ...
 2 3  x + d x ∈ Df .
The line PQ is secant of the curve and it makes
∠XSQ with the positive direction of the x -axis. (See
EXERCISE 2.8 the figure 2.21.1)
Drawing the ordinates PM , QN and
1. Apply the Maclaurin series expansion to prove that: perpendicular PR to NQ , we have

x 2 x3 x 4
(i) ln (1 + x ) = x - + - + ......
2 2 2 RQ = NQ - NR = NQ - MP = f ( x + d x) - f ( x)

x2 x4 x6 and PR = MN = ON - OM = x + d x - x = d x
(ii) cos x =1 - + - + ......
2 4 6 Thus tan m ∠XSQ = tan m ∠RPQ
x x 2 x3 RQ f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
(iii) 1+ x = 1+ - + + ...... = =
2 8 16 PR dx
x 2 x3 Revolving the secant line PQ about P towards P, some of its successive positions
(iv) ex =1 + x + + + ......
2 3 PQ1 , PQ2 , PQ3 ,... are shown in the figure 2.21.2. Points Qi ( i = 1,2,3,...) are getting closer and
2 3
4 x 8x closer to the point P and PRi i.e; d xi (i = 1, 2, 3, ...) are approaching to zero.
(v) e2 x 1 2x +
=+ + + ......
2 3 In other words we can say that the
2. Show that: revolving secant line approaches the tangent
line PT as its limiting position at P while d x
h2 h3 approaches zero, that is,
cos ( x + h )= cos x - h sin x - cos x + sin x + ......
2 3 tan m ∠ XSQ → tan m ∠XTP when d x → 0
and evaluate cos 61°.
f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
or → tan m∠XTP as d x → 0
dx
( ln 2 ) ( ln 2 )
2 3
h2 h3
3. Show that 2 x+h
2 {1 + ( ln 2 )
= x
h+ + + ...} f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
2 3 so lim = tan m∠XTP
d x →0 dx
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Example 2: 0 at the point

Find the equations of the tangents to the curve x 2 - y 2 - 6 y =
or ( x ) tan m ∠XTP
f '=
whose abscissa is 4.
Thus the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at ( x, f ( x ) ) is f ' ( x ) .

Solution. Given that x 2 - y 2 - 6 y =

0 (i)
Example 1: Discuss the tangent line to the graph of the function | x | at x = 0 .
We first find the y-coordinates of the points at which the equations of the tangents are to
be found. Putting x = 4 is (i) gives 2 2
16 - y - 6 y =
0 ⇒ y + 6 y - 16 =
0
Solution: Let f ( x) = | x |
-6 ± 36 + 64 -6 ± 100 -6 ± 10
f (= 0 ) |= 0 | 0 and, or y = = =
2 2 2
, that is ,

f ( 0 + d x ) = | 0 + d x |=
| d x |,
y=
-6 + 10 4
= = 2 or y =
-6 - 10 -16
= = -8
so f ( 0 + d x ) - f ( 0 ) = | d x | - 0 2 2 2 2
Thus the points are (4, 2) and (4, - 8).
f ( 0 + d x ) - f ( 0) | d x |
and = Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ we have
dx dx
dx dy dy dy dy x
Thus f ' ( 0 ) = lim 2x - 2 y -6 0
= ⇒ 2 ( y + 3) =
2x ⇒ =
d x →0 dx dx dx dx dx y + 3
Because d x = d x when d x > 0 4 4
The slope of the tangent to (i) at (4, 2)
= == .
and d x = - d x when d x < 0 2+3 5
Therefore, the equation of the tangent to (i) at (4, 2) is

so we consider one-sided limits 4

y - 2 = ( x - 4) ⇒ 5 y - 10 = 4 x - 16
dx dx
5
Lim = Lim = 1 or 5=
y 4x - 6
d x →0 d x d x →0 d x
+ +

dx -d x
and Lim = Lim = -1 4 4
d x →0 d x d x →0 d x
- - The slope of the tangent to (i) at (4, - 8) = = -
-8 + 3 5
Therefore the equation of the tangent to (i) at (4, - 8) is
dx
The right hand and left hand limits are not equal, therefore, the Lim does not
dx 4
y - ( -8 ) =-
( x - 4)
d x →0
exist.
5
This means that f ' ( 0 ) ,the derivative of f at x = 0 does not exist and there is no tangent 5 y + 40 =
-4 x + 16 ⇒ 4 x + 5 y + 24 =
0
line to the graph of f and x = 0
(see the figure 2.21.3).

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2.19 INCREASING AND DECREASING f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 ) < 0 ( x2 - x1 > 0 and x 2 + x1 < 0 )

FUNCTIONS ⇒ f ( x2 ) < f ( x1 )
⇒ f is decreasing on the interval ( -∞ ,0 )
Let f be defined on an interval (a, b) and let x1 , x2 ∈ ( a, b ) . Then
If x1 ,x2 ∈ ( 0 ,∞ ) and x2 > x1 , then
(i) f is increasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x2) > f(x1) whenever x2 > x1
(ii) f is decreasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x2) < f(x1) whenever x2 > x1 f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 ) > 0 ( x2 - x1 > 0 and x 2 + x1 > 0 )

⇒ f ( x2 ) > f ( x1 )
⇒ f is increasing on the interval ( 0 , ∞ )

Here f ' ( x ) 2 x and f ' ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈ ( -∞ ,0 ) , therefore,

=
f is decreasing on the interval ( -∞ ,0 )
Also f ' ( x) > 0 for all x ∈ ( 0 ,∞ ) , so f is increasing on the interval
( 0, ∞ ) .
From the above theorem we can conclude that
We see that a differentiable function f is increasing on (a,b) if tangent lines to its graph 1. f ' ( x1 ) < 0 ⇒ f is decreasing at x1
at all points (x, f(x)) where xd(a, b) have positive slopes, that is,
2. f ' ( x1=
) 0 ⇒ f is neither increasing nor decreasing at x1
f ’ (x) > 0 for all x such that a < x < b
3. f ' ( x1 ) > 0 ⇒ f is increasing at x1
and f is decreasing on (a, b) if tangent lines to its graph at all points ( x, f ( x ) ) where
x ∈ ( a, b ) , have negative slopes, that is, f ' ( x ) < 0 for all x such that a < x < b
Now we illustrate the ideas discussed so far considering the function f defined as
Now we state the above observation in the following theorem.
f ( x=
) 4 x - x 2 (I)
To draw the graph of f, we form a table of some ordered pairs which belongs to f
Theorem:
x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Let f be a differentiable function on the open interval (a,b). Then
y = f ( x) -5 0 3 4 3 0 -5
(i) f is increasing on (a,b) if f ' ( x ) > 0 for each x ∈ ( a,b )
(ii) f is decreasing on (a,b) if f ' ( x ) < 0 for each x ∈ ( a,b )
Let f ( x ) = x 2 , then
f ( x2 ) - f ( x1 ) = x2 2 - x12 = ( x2 - x1 )( x2 + x1 )

If x1 ,x2 ∈ ( -∞ , 0 ) and x2 > x1 ,, then
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The graph of f is shown in the figure 2.22.1. i.e. 4 - 2 x > 0 ⇒ -2 x > - 4 ⇒x<2
Thus it is increasing in the interval ( -∞ , 2 ) . Similarly we can show that it is decreasing,
in the interval ( 2, ∞ ) .

Now we give an analytical approach to the above discussion.

Let f be an increasing function in some interval in which it is differentiable. Let x and

x + d x be two, points in that interval such that x + d x > x .
As the function f is increasing in the interval, it conveys the fact that f(x + dx) > f(x).

Consequently we have, f ( x + d x ) - f ( x ) > 0 and ( x + d x ) - x > 0 , that is,

f(x + dx) - f(x) > 0 and dx > 0

f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
or > 0
dx
The above difference quotient becomes one-sided limit

f ( x + d x) - f ( x)
From the graph of f, it is obvious that y rises from 0 to 4 as x increases from 0 to 2 and lim+
d x →0 dx

y falls from 4 to 0 as x increases from 2 to 4. As f is differentiable, so f ‘ (x) exists and one sided limit must equal to f ‘ (x).
In other words, we can say that the function f defined as in (I) is increasing in the Thus f ‘ (x) > 0
interval 0 < x < 2 and is decreasing in the interval 2 < x < 4.
The slope of the tangent to the graph of f at any point in the interval 0 < x < 2 , in which
Example 1: Determine the values of x for which f defined as f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x - 3 is
the function f is increasing is positive because it makes an acute angle with the positive
(i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
direction of x-axis. (See the tangent line to the graph of f at (1, 3)).
(iii) find the point where the function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
But the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any pointin the interval
2 < x < 4 in which the function f is decreasing is negative as it makes an obtuse angle with the
positive direction of x-axis. (See the tangent line to the graph of f at (3, 3)). Solution: The table of some ordered pairs satisfying f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x - 3 is given below:

As we know that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at ( x, f ( x ) ) is f ' ( x ) , so
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
the derivative of the function f i.e., f ' ( x ) , is positive in the interval in which f is increasing and y = f(x) 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0 5
f ' ( x ) , is negative in the interval in which f is decreasing.
The function f under consideration is actually increasing at each x for which f ' ( x ) > 0 .

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The graph of f is shown in the figure2.22.2.

( x - 1) ( x - 3) > 0 ‘ in the intervals ( -∞ ,1) and ( 3,∞ )
f ' ( x=
) 2x + 2
f ' ( x ) < 0 ⇒ ( x - 1)( x - 3) < 0
The condition f ' ( x ) > 0
(i) ⇒ 2x + 2 > 0
⇒ 2x > -2
( x - 1)( x - 3) < 0 if x > 1 and x < 3 that is 1 < x < 3

which gives x > -1 , so the function f defined as
f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x - 3 is increasing in the interval ( - 1,∞ ) . 2.20 RELATIVE EXTREMA

(ii) And the condition f ' ( x ) < 0 ⇒ 2 x + 2 < 0 Let ( c - d x, c + d x ) ⊆ D f , , (domain of a function f), where
d x is small positive number.
⇒ 2 x < -2
If f ( c ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x ∈ ( c - d x, c + d x ) then the function
which gives x < - 1 , so the function f under
f is said to have a relative maxima at x = c .
consideration in the example I is decreasing in the
Similarly if f ( c ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x ∈ ( c - d x, c + d x ) , then
interval ( -∞ ,-1) .
the function f has relative minima at x = c .
(iii) The function is neither increasing nor decreasing where f ' ( x ) = 0 , that is, Both relative maximum and relative minimum are
2 x + 2 = 0 ⇒x= -1. called in general relative extrema.
If x = - 1 then f ( -1) =-
( 1) + 2 ( -1) - 3 =-4 . Thus f is neither increasing nor deceasing at
2 The graph of a function is shown in the adjoining figure.
the point (-1, -4). It has relative maxima at x = b and x = d . But at x = a and
Note: Any point where f is neither increasing nor decreasing is called a stationary x = c , it has relative minima.
point, provided that f ‘ (x) = 0 at that point. Note that the relative maxima at x = d is not the highest point of the graph.

Example 2: Determine the intervals in which f is increasing or it is decreasing if 2.21 CRITICAL VALUES AND
f ( x ) =x3 - 6 x 2 + 9 x CRITICAL POINTS

Solution. f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 -12 x + 9

If c ∈ Df and f ' ( c ) =
0 or f ' ( c ) does not exist, then the number c is called a critical value
for f while the point (c. f(c)) on the graph of f is named as a critical point.

= 3 ( x 2 - 4 x + 3)
=3 ( x - 1)( x - 3) Note: There are functions which have extrema (maxima or minima) at the points

where their derivatives do not exist. For example, the derivatives of the function f and φ
f ' ( x) > 0
defined as.
⇒ x2 - 4 x + 3 > 0
⇒ ( x - 1)( x - 3) > 0

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f ( x ) = x We note that f ' ( x ) > 0 before x = 0 , f =

' ( x ) 0=
at x 0 and f ' ( x ) < 0 after x = 0 .
The graph of f shows that it has relative maxima at x = 0.
2 - x x > 0
and φ ( x ) =  Thus we conclude that a function has relative maxima
= at x c if f ' ( x ) > 0 , before
2 + x x ≤ 0
= f ' ( c ) 0 and f ' ( x ) < 0 after x = c.
x c=
do not exist at (0, 0) and (0, 2) respectively.
But f has minima at (0, 0) and φ has maxima at
(0, 2). See the adjoining figures. Considering an interval (2 - dx, 2 + dx) in the neighbourhood of x = 2 we find the values
Those critical points on the graph of f at which of f ‘ (2-e) and f ‘ (2 + e) when 2 - ed(2 - dx, 2) and 2 + ed(2, 2 + dx)

f ' ( x ) = 0 are called stationary points of f.

Now we discuss relative maxima and relative f ' ( 2 - e )= 3 ( 2 - e )( 2 - e - 2 ) ' ( x ) 3 x ( x - 2 ) 
 f =
minima of the differentiable function f defined as: = 3 ( 2 - e )( -e )

y =f ( x ) =x3 - 3 x 2 + 4 ....(1) -3e ( 2 - e ) < 0
= ( e > 0, 2 - e > 0 )

and f ' ( 2 + e )= 3 ( 2 + e )( 2 + e - 2 )
Graph of f is drawn with the help of some ordered pairs tabulated as below: = 3e ( 2 + e ) > 0 ( e > 0, 2 + e > 0 )

X -3/2 -1 -1/2 0 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2 3
Y -49/8 0 25/8 4 27/8 2 5/8 0 7/8 4 We see that f ' ( x ) < 0 before x = 2, f ' ( x ) = 0 at x = 2 and f ' ( x ) > 0 after x =
2.

Now differentiating (i) w.r.t. ' x' we get It is obvious from the graph that it has relative minima at x = 2 .
f ' ( x ) = 3x 2 - 6 x = 3x ( x - 2 ) Thus we conclude that a function has relative minima
= at x c if f ' ( x ) < 0 before
f ' ( x ) = 0 ⇒ 3x ( x - 2 ) =
0 ⇒
= x 0 or=x 2 c, f ' ( x) =
x= c and f ' ( x ) > 0 after x =
0 at x = c.
Now we consider an interval ( -d x , d x ) in the neighbourhood of x = 0 . Let 0 - e is a
First Derivative Rule:
point in the interval ( -d x,0 ) We see that
Let f be differentiable in neighbourhood of c where f ' ( c ) = 0.
f ' ( 0 - e ) = 3 ( -e ) ( -e - 2 ) ( f =
' ( x ) 3x ( x - 2 ) )
= 3e ( e + 2 ) > 0 ( e > 0, e + 2 > 0 ) 1. If f ' ( x ) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then

f ( c ) the relative maxima of f.
That is f ' ( x ) is positive for all x ∈ ( -d x, 0 ) .
Let 0 + e1 is a point in the interval ( 0, d x ) , then we have 2. If f ' ( x ) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, then
f ' ( 0 +=
e1 ) 3 ( e1 )( e1 - 2 )
f ( c ) is the relative minima of f.
-3e1 ( 2 - e1 ) < 0 ( 2 - e1 > 0, e1 > 0 ) , that is,
=

f ' ( x ) is negative for all x ∈ ( 0 ,d x )

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Note: 1. A stationary point is called a turning point if it is either a maximum point or Example 1: Examine the function defined as
a minimum point. f ( x ) =x 3 - 6 x 2 + 9 x for extreme values.

2. If f ‘ (x) > 0 before the point x = a, f ‘ (x) = 0 at x = 0 and f ‘ (x) > 0 after x = 0, Solution: f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 - 12 x + 9
then f does not has a relative maxima.
= 3 ( x 2 - 4 x + 3) = 3 ( x - 1)( x - 3)
See the graph of f (x) = x3. In this case, we have
f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 , that is, First Method

f ' ( 0 - e ) =3 ( -e ) =3e 2 > 0
2

If x = 1 - e where e is very very small positive number, then
and f ' ( 0 + e ) = 3 ( e ) = 3e 2 > 0
2
( x - 1)( x - 3) =(1 - e - 1)(1 - e - 3) =( -e )( -e - 2 ) =e ( 2 + e ) > 0 that is ,
The function f is increasing before x = 0 and also f ' ( x ) > 0 before x =1. For x =
1 + e , we have
it is increasing after x = 0. ( x - 1)( x - 3) =(1 + e - 1)(1 + e - 3) =(e )( -2 + e ) =-e ( 2 - e ) < 0

Such a point of the function is called the That is, f ' ( x ) < 0 after x = 1
point of inflexion.
As f ' ( x ) > 0 before x = 1, f ' ( x ) = 1 and f ' ( x ) <0 after x =
0 at x = 1
Thus f has relative maxima at x =1 and f (1) =-1 - 6 + 9 =4.
Let x= 3 - e , then
Second Derivative Test:
( x - 1)( x - 3) =( 3 - e - 1)( 3 - e - 3) =( 2 - e )( -e ) =-e ( 2 - e ) < 0
We have noticed that the first derivative f ' ( x ) of a function changes its sign from
That is f ‘(x) < 0 before x = 3.
positive to negative at the point where f has relative maxima, that is, f ‘ is a decreasing
For x = 3 + e
function in the neighbouring interval containing the point where f has relative maxima.
(x - 1) (x - 3) = (3 + e - 1)(3 + e - 3)= (2 + e)(e) > 0
That is, f ' ( x ) > 0 after x =
3.
Thus f '' ( x ) is negative at the point where f has a relative maxima.
As f ' ( x ) < 0 before x = 3 , f ' ( x ) at x = 3 and f ' ( x ) > 0 after x =3 ,
But f ' ( x ) of a function f changes its sign from negative to positive at the point where f
x 3. and f (=
3) 3 ( 3) - 12 ( 3) +=
2
has relative minima, that is, f ’ is an increasing function in the neighbouring interval containing Thus f has relative minima at= 9 0
the point where f has relative minima. Second Method: f '' ( x ) = 3 ( 2 x - 4 ) = 6 ( x - 2 )
f '' (1) =6 (1 - 2 ) =- 6 < 0 , therefore,
Thus f '' ( x ) is positive at the point where f has relative minima.
Second Derivative Rule
f has relative maxima at x =1 and f (1) =(1) - 6 (1) + 9 (1)
3 2

Let f be differential function in a neighbourhood of c where f ' ( c ) = 0 . Then

=1 - 6 + 9 = 4
1. f has relative maxima at c if f '' ( c ) < 0 .
f '' ( 3) =6 ( 3 - 2 ) =6 > 0, therefore f has relative minima at x = 3 and f ( 3) = 27 - 54 + 27 = 0
2. f has relative minima at c if f '' ( c ) > 0 .

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Example 2: Examine the function defined as f ( x ) = 1 + x3 for extreme values 1

f '' ( x ) =
- sin x - ( cos 2 x ) × 2 =
- sin x - 2 cos 2 x
2
Solution: Given that f ( x ) = 1 + x3 π  π
As f ''   =- sin - 2 cos π =-1 - 2 × ( -1) = 2 - 1 > 0
Differentiating w.r.t. ' x' we get f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 2 2
f ' ( x) = 0 ⇒ 3x 2 =
0 ⇒x=0  3π 
and f ''   =- sin
3π
- 2 cos 3π =- ( -1) - 2 ( -1) =1 + 2 > 0

f '' ( x ) = 6 x ( 0 ) 6=
and f ''= ( 0) 0  2  2
The second derivative does not help in determining the extreme values. π 3π
Thus f ( x ) has minimum values
= for x = and x
f ' ( 0 - e ) = 3 ( 0 - e ) = 3e
2 2
>0 2 2
f ' ( 0 + e ) = 3 ( 0 + e ) = 3e 2 > 0
2
π  π π 1 1
As f ''   = - sin - 2 cos = - - 2 .0= - <0
As the first derivative does not change sign at x = 0 , therefore (0, 0) is a point 4 4 2 2 2
of inflexion.  3π  3π 3π 1 1
and f ''   = - sin - 2 cos = - - 2 .0= - <0
 4  4 2 2 2
1
( x ) sin x +
Example 3: Discuss the function defined as f = cos 2 x for extreme values in
2 2 π 3π
the interval ( 0 , 2π ) . Thus f ( x ) has minimum values
= for x = and x
4 4
1
( x ) sin x +
Solution: Given that f = cos 2 x
2 2
EXERCISE 2.9
1 1
f ' ( x ) =cos x + ( -2 sin 2 x ) =cos x - sin 2 x 1. Determine the intervals in which f is increasing or decreasing for the domain
2 2 2
1 mentioned in each case.
cos x -
= ( 2 sin x cos x ) =
cos x - 2 sin x cos x
2 (i) f ( x ) = sin x ; x ∈ ( -π ,π )
= cos x 1 - 2 sin x
( )  -π π 
(ii) f ( x ) = cos x ; x ∈ , 
 2 2
(iii) f ( x )= 4 - x 2 ; x ∈ ( -2 ,2 )
Now f ' ( x ) = 0 (
⇒ cos x 1 - 2 sin x =
0 )
(iv) f ( x ) = x 2 + 3x + 2 ; x ∈ ( -4 , 1)
π 3π
⇒ cos x =
0 ⇒ x=,
2 2
2. Find the extreme values for the following functions defined as:
1 π 3π
or 1 - 2 sin x =
0 ⇒ sin x = ⇒ x=, (i) f ( x ) = 1 - x3 (ii) f ( x) = x2 - x - 2
2 4 4
(iii) f ( x ) = 5 x 2 - 6 x + 2 (iv) f ( x ) = 3x 2
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. ‘ x ’ , we have
(v) f ( x ) = 3 x 2 - 4 x + 5 (vi) f ( x ) = 2 x 3 - 2 x 2 - 36 x + 3
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(vii) f ( x=
) x 4 - 4 x 2 (viii) f ( x) =( x - 2 ) ( x - 1)
2
= 3[ 2 x - 12] = 6 ( x - 6 )

(ix) f ( x ) = 5 + 3x - x3
As f '' ( 3) =6 (3 - 6) =6 ( -3) =-18 which is negative.
3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function defined by the following Thus f ( x ) gives the maximum value if x = 3 , so the other positive integer is 6 because
equation occurring in the interval [ 0 ,2π ] 9 - 3 = 6.

( x ) sin x + cos x.
f=
Example 2: What are the dimensions of a box of a square base having largest
ln x volume if the sum of one side of the base and its height is 12 cm.
4. Show that y = has maximum value at x = e .
x
1 Solution: Let the length of one side of the base (in cm) be x and the height of the box (in
5. Show that y = x x has a minimum value at x = .
e cm) be h, then V=x 2 h
Application of Maxima and Minima It is given that x + h =
12 ⇒ h = 12 - x
Now we apply the concept of maxima and minima to the practical problems. We first Thus V=x 2 (12 - x ) and
form the functional relation of the form y = f(x) from the given information and find the
dV
maximum or minimum value of f as required. Here we solve some examples = 2 x (12 - x ) + x 2 ( -1)= 24 x - 3 x 2= 3 x ( 8 - x )
dx
relating to maxima and minima problems.
dV
= 0 ⇒ 3 x ( 8 - x ) = 0 . In this case x cannot be zero,
dx
Example 1: Find two positive integers whose sum is 9 and the product of one with
the square of the other will be maximum. so 8 - x = 0 ⇒ x = 8.

d 2V
= 24 - 6 x which is negative for x = 8
Solution: Let x and 9 - x be the two required positive integers such that dx 2
Thus V is maximum if x = 8(cm) and h = 12 - 8 = 4(cm)
x ( 9 - x ) will be maximum.
2

f (=
x) x ( 9 - x ) . Then
2
Let Example 3: The perimeter of a triangle is 20 centimetres. If one side is of length 8
f ' (=
x ) 1 . ( 9 - x ) + x . 2 ( 9 - x ) × ( -1)
2 centimetres, what are lengths of the other two sides for maximum area of the triangle?

= ( 9 - x ) [9 - x - 2 x ] = ( 9 - x )( 9 - 3 x ) = 3 ( 9 - x )( 3 - x )
Solution: Let the length of one unknown side (in cm) be x , then the length of the other
f ' ( x ) = 0 ⇒ 3 ( 9 - x )( 3 - x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 9 or x = 3
unknown side (in cm) will be 20 - x - 8 = 12 - x .
In this case x = 9 is not possible because Let y denote the square of the area of the triangle, then we have

9 - x = 9 - 9 = 0 which is not positive integer. y 10 (10 - 8 )(10 - x )(10 - 12 + x )

=  20
s = 10 and area of the triangle
= s ( s - a )( s - b )( s - c ) )
 2
f '' ( x ) = 3 ( -1)( 3 - x ) + ( 9 - x ) × ( -1) = 3[ -3 + x - 9 + x ] = 10.2 (10 - x )( x - 2 ) = 20 ( - x 2 + 12 x - 20 )
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dy d 2V
= 20 ( -2 x + 12 ) =-40 ( x - 6 ) is negative for x = 5 because 12 ( 2 × 5 - 23)= 12 ( -13)
dx dx 2
dy
=0 ⇒x= 6 Thus V will be maximum if the length of a side of the corner square to be cut off is 5 cm.
dx
d2y
As is -ve,so x = 6 gives the maximum area of the triangle. Example 5: Find the point on the graph of the curve y = 4 - x2 which is closest to
dx 2
The length of other unknown side = 12 - 6 = 6 ( cm ) the point (3, 4).
Thus the lengths of the other two sides are 6 cm and 6 cm.
Solution: Let l be distance between a point ( x, y ) on the curve y= 4 - x 2 and the point (3 ,
Example 4: An open box of rectangular base is to be made from 24 cm by 45cm
( x - 3) + ( y - 4 )
2 2
4). Then l =
cardboard by cutting out square sheets of equal size from each corner and bending the
+ ( 4 - x2 - 4) ( ( x, y ) is on the curve y= 4 - x2 )
2
( x - 3)
2
sides. Find the dimensions of corner squares to obtain a box having largest possible =
volume.
( x - 3)
2
= + x4

Solution: Let x (in cm) be the length of a side of each square sheet to be cut off from each
comer of the cardboard. Then the length and breadth of the resulting box (in cm) will be
45 - 2 x and 24 - 2 x respectively. Obviously the height of the box (in cm) will be x . Thus the
volume V of the box (in cubic cm) will be given by
V = x ( 24 - 2 x )( 45 - 2 x ) = 2 x (12 - x )( 45 - 2 x )
= 2 x ( 540 - 69 x + 2 x 2 )

dV
and = 2 1.( 2 x 2 - 69 x + 540 ) + x ( 4 x - 69 ) 
dx
(
= 2 6 x 2 - 138 x + 540 )
= 12  x 2 - 23 x + 90  = 12 ( x - 5 )( x - 18 )

dV Now we find x for which l is minimum.

=0 ⇒ 12 ( x - 5 )( x - 18 ) =
0 ⇒ x 5 or
= = x 18
dx
dl 1
⇒x= 5 [ if x =18, then 12-x =12 - 18 =-6 , that is , = . ( 2 ( x - 3) + 4 x 3 ) 
dx 2. ( x - 3)
2
+ x4
V is negative which is not possible]
1
2 = .2 ( 2 x3 + x - 3)
d y 2l
= 12 ( 2 x - 23)
dx 2

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1 6. Find the lengths of the sides of a variable rectangle having area 36 cm 2 when its
=
l
( 2 x 3 + x - 3) perimeter is minimum.
1
= ( x - 1) ( 2 x 2 + x - 3) 7. A box with a square base and open top is to have a volume of 4 cubic dm. Find the
l
dl 1 dimensions of the box which will require the least material.
= 0 ⇒ ( x - 1) ( 2 x 2 + 2 x + 3) = ⇒ x - 1 0 or 2x 2 +
0 = = 2x + 3 0
dx l
8. Find the dimensions of a rectangular garden having perimeter 80 metres if its area
⇒x= 1 ( 2 x 2 + 2 x + 3 = 0)
is to be maximum.
l is positive for 1 - e and 1+e where e is very very small positive real number.
9. An open tank of square base of side x and vertical sides is to be constructed to
2 contain a given quantity of water. Find the depth in terms of x if the expense of lining
 1 5  1 5
Also 2 x + 2 x + 3 = 2  x 2 + x +  + = 2  x +  + is positive,for x =1 - e
2
the inside of the tank with lead will be least.
 4 2  2 2
and x = 1 + e
10. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area which fits inside the
dl semi-circle of radius 8 cm as shown in the figure.
The sign of depends on the factor x - 1 .
dx
x - 1 is negative for x = 1 - e because x - 1 = 1 - e - 1 = - e ..... (i)
x - 1 is positive for x = 1 + e because x - 1 = 1 + e - 1 = e ..... (ii)

dl
From (i) and (ii), we conclude that changes sign from -ve to +ve at x = 1.
dx
Thus l has a minimum value at x = 1.
Putting x= 1 in y= 4 - x 2 , we get the y-coordinate of the required point which
is 4 - (1) =
2
3
Hence the required point on the curve is (1, 3).
11. Find the point on the curve y = x2 - 1that is closest to the point (3, -1).

EXERCISE 2.10
12. Find the point on the curve y = x2 + 1 that is closest to the point (18, 1).

1. Find two positive integers whose sum is 30 and their product will be maximum.
2. Divide 20 into two parts so that the sum of their squares will be minimum.
3. Find two positive integers whose sum is 12 and the product of one with the square
of the other will be maximum.
4. The perimeter of a triangle is 16 centimetres. If one side is of length 6 cm, what are
length of the other sides for maximum area of the triangle?
5. Find the dimensions of a rectangle of largest area having perimeter 120 centimetres.
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