Toaz - Info Industrial Safety and Health Management5th Edasfahl Solution Manual PR

CHAPTER 1 SOLUTIONS TO END-OF-CHAPTER EXERCISES
1.1. Some standards are frequently cited because these standards cover (1)
areas in which industries are having difficulty complying, or (2) areas
in which enforcement agencies are giving a great deal of attention, or
both.
1.2. Many aspects about the standards might be useful. The text emphasizes
the importance of the "why" behind the standards that do exist.
1.3. No. It is an unattainable goal. Such a strategy fails to recognize

the need for discrimination among hazards to be corrected.
1.4. (1) Hazards that are physically infeasible to correct.
(2) Hazards that are physically feasible, but are economically
infeasible, to correct.
(3) Hazards that are physically feasible and economically feasible to
correct.
1.5. (1) Causes other more serious hazards to be overlooked while reacting
to less serious ones.
(2) Deteriorates credibility with top management.
1.6. A safety hazard is acute, causes or threatens to cause injuries, and is

usually more obvious than a health hazard.
A health hazard is chronic, causes or threatens to cause illness in the
long run, and is usually more subtle than a safety hazard.
1.7. Some example safety hazards:
unguarded belts, pulleys, gears, saws, and punch presses; fires;
explosions; open platforms; defective ladders; welding near open
flammable or combustible materials; overloaded or defective
cranes, hoists, or slings; ungrounded electrical equipment;
exposed live electrical conductors.
Some example health hazards:
coal dust, cotton dust, chronic loud noise, welding fumes,
asbestos, vinyl chloride, lead fumes, mercury, manganese,
cadmium.
1.8. Some valid examples are spray paint, coal dust, benzene, and carbon
disulfide.
1.9. Some valid examples are noise, welding, and radiation.
1.10. Health hazards are usually more subtle than safety hazards; the
industrial hygienist must look for "unseen" hazards.
1.11. Safety hazards may appear more grave, but there are probably many
health hazard-related illnesses and deaths which are not documented.
1.12. Work training, statistics, job placement, industrial relations.
1.13. A comprehensive safety and health program involves engineering, and

placement of the function within the personnel department may restrict
authority too much.
1.14. This places the Safety and Health Manager in an adversarial position
with enforcement officials.
1.15. CPSC concentrates on the responsibility of the manufacturers of the

machines and equipment, whereas OSHA concentrates on the responsibility
of the employer who places the equipment into use in the workplace.
1.16. (NSC) National Safety Council
1.17. ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

Prepares voluntary standards for occupational safety and health among
other types of standards. OSHA adopted many ANSI standards early on,
invoking its temporary right to promulgate "national consensus
standards."
1.18. OSHA is concerned with hazardous exposures to workers, i.e. worker

safety and health.
EPA is concerned with hazardous exposures to the public, particularly
as these hazards affect the earth, water, and atmosphere.
Many safety and health hazards inside the plant and outside are the
same, or are caused by the same chemical agents or physical factors.
Thus a firm's compliance with both EPA and OSHA regulations are often
the responsibility of the same individual.
1.19. 1-800-35-NIOSH; the agency that responds is, obviously, NIOSH, the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
1.20. Passage of The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, which
created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
1.21. Prior to passage of the OSHA law occupational health seemed remote and
not of a great deal of concern. Plant nurses were concerned with first
aid and physical examinations. After OSHA, occupational disease
prevention rose in importance.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
1.22. www.nsc.org
Resources include library resources, safety training, professional

development seminars, videos.
www.asse.org
Resources include training, professional development, standards,
publications, annual conference and exposition, government
affairs information, and a national registry of safety engineers
in various areas of specialty.
www.aiha.org
Resources include employment services, laboratory services, education,
annual meetings, a consultant registry, and training support
materials, such as power point lecture outlines on various topics
related to industrial hygiene.
1.23. The best websites for checking these requirements are the boards that
set the requirements. Following are the respective websites for the
certifications:
CSP: www.bcsp.com/
CIH: www.abih.org
1.24. An Internet search on the term ―Certified Industrial Hygienist‖ will

return thousands of sites, including many individuals who hold the
designation, plus job opportunities for CIHs, plus lists of qualified
CIHs.
1.25. An Internet search on the term ―Certified Safety Professional‖ will
return thousands of sites, including many individuals who hold the
designation, plus job opportunities for CSPs.
1.26. This data may be difficult to find on the Internet. It was once
available from the Board of Certified Safety Professionals. Suggestion:
search the BCSP website.
1.27. The OSHA website is dynamic, so changes can be expected from time to
time. As of this writing, there was a section on the main page entitled
"Cooperative Programs" and under this heading a link entitled "VPP."
The "VPP" link opened a variety of descriptive material, including a
link to "An Overview of VPP."
1.28. News Releases are an excellent source of current information on OSHA's

website. They can be found under the general heading "Newsroom." Recent
news releases are searchable through the webpage search capability on
the main page. Older news releases are archived and can be searched by
keyword also. This is a good place to find the original announcement of
standards in the federal register. Then using the date of publication
from the announcement, you can go to the Federal Register (also
available on the OSHA website) and find the original promulgation of
the standard. The promulgation will include a lot of background
information in the "preamble."
1.29. Health hazards are usually due to unseen agents that must be identified
with scientific instruments. It is even difficult to determine and
quantify the degree of hazard, because health hazards have subtle
effects on the body. Another difficulty is long latency periods. A
worker's health is sometimes significantly and irreversibly affected,
but the effects do not appear until many years later. Safety hazards,
by comparison, have dramatic and instantaneous effects that can easily
be seen.
2.1. The achievement of worker safety lies principally in the hands of the
workers themselves and their direct supervisors; thus it is principally
a line function. Safety and health managers, however, are staff
positions.
2.2. Acting as a facilitator in assisting, motivating, and advising the line

function in achieving worker safety and health.
2.3. They too often are such emotional crusaders for the cause that they
lose their credibility and with it their eligibility to be considered a
"manager."
2.4. That safety must be achieved by line personnel facilitated by the staff
function.
2.5. Go to top management to re-determine its level of commitment to safety

and health.
2.6. The workers compensation system is a state, not federal system. The
system is nearly 100 years old; the first workers compensation laws
were introduced into state legislatures in 1909.
2.7. The ostensible purpose is to protect the worker by providing statutory

compensation levels to be paid by the employer for various injuries
that may be incurred by the worker.
An ulterior feature is immunity from additional liability for the
employer, except where "gross negligence" can be proven.
2.8. Management contends that some risk is inescapable in any line of work.
Therefore, their answer to the question is no. The worker bears some of
the risk in return for his/her pay for the job.
2.9. The employer or the employer's insurance carrier.

2.10. An industrial safety consultant employed by an insurance company. The
consultant's objective is to keep claims low among clients of his
insurance company.
2.11. A standardized recordkeeping system for industrial safety established

by the National Safety Council and later superseded by OSHA's system of
recordkeeping.
2.12. Differences in recordkeeping requirements for OSHA and its predecessor

Z16.1 system. Also other variations in conditions, such as employment
levels and recession cycles.
2.13. The "lost workdays" method would not reveal some very serious
accidents, especially fatalities, that do not cause a loss of a
workday.
2.14. One that is work related and requires medical treatment.
2.15. 25 x 200,000 = 25 = 8.33

300 x 40 x 50 3
2.16. The injury/illness incidence rate computation prescribed by OSHA

relates to 200,000 work-hours (roughly one year for a 100-employee
firm), whereas the traditional frequency rate relates to 1,000,000
work-hours (roughly one year for a 500 employee firm). Also the OSHA
injury/illness incidence rate applies to all work-related
injuries/illnesses which require medical treatment, whereas the
traditional frequency rate related only to "lost-time" cases.
2.17. Frequency measures the numbers of cases per standard quantity of work-
hours.
Severity measures the total impact of cases in terms of total "lost
workdays" per standard quantity of workhours.
Seriousness is the ratio of severity to frequency and measures the
average seriousness of all cases.
All three are obsolete terms now.
2.18. OSHA Form 300a, the annual "Summary of Work-Related Injuries and
Illnesses" must be posted on February 1 each year and remain posted
until April 30.
2.19. For general records: 5 years (Chapter 5 will reveal longer retention
requirements for certain records.)
2.20. Yes; they can help to discover hazards, but they can also dilute
responsibility for workplace safety and health and can degenerate into
spy parties. Without adequate orientation, safety and health
committees can often become unreasonable.
2.21. Direct costs are the "tip of the iceberg" compared to indirect costs.
2.22. (1) Costs of wages paid for time lost by workers who were not
injured.
(2) Cost of damage to material or equipment.
(3) Cost of wages paid for time lost by the injured worker.
(4) Extra cost of overtime work necessitated by the accident.
(5) Cost of wages paid supervisors for time required for activities
necessitated by the accident.
(6) Wage cost caused by decreased output of injured worker after
return to work.
(7) Cost of learning period of new worker.
(8) Uninsured medical cost borne by the company.
(9) Cost of time spent by higher supervision and clerical workers.
(10) Miscellaneous costs such as public liability claims, rental
equipment, and lost sales.
2.23. Noninjury accidents are usually caused by the same types of conditions
and practices that result in injury accidents.
2.24. First-line supervisors
2.25. A six-month work period = 1000 hours.
(a) General injury/illness rate = 18 x 200,000 = 72

50 x 1000
(b) Traditional frequency rate = 4 x 1,000,000 = 80
50 x 1000
(c) Comparing with general statistics for the Year 2000 in Figure 2.2,
this appears to be a very dangerous industry. For the Year 2000,
the total incidence rate (lost workday cases + cases without lost
workdays) was 6.1, compared to this firm's general rate of 72. This
firm is approximately six times as dangerous as the "average firm"
in the private sector. Even compared to the most dangerous
industries in Figure 2.2 ("transportation by air" and
"transportation equipment") this firm is more than four times as
dangerous. The "traditional frequency rate" of 80 is not comparable
to Table 2.2 because it is based on a factor of 1,000,000, not
200,000. Had the "lost workday cases" rate been calculated using
the 200,000 factor, the result would have been 16. This would
compare with a general "private sector" rate of 3.0 for the Year
2000. So, by the "lost workday cases" criterion also, this is a
very dangerous firm.
2.26. (2 + 1) x 200,000
Total injury incidence rate = ------------------------
25 x 2000
= 300/25 = 12
LWDI = 1 x 200,000 = 4
25 x 2000
2.27. (a) Total incidence rate = (3+1+1+1+1) x 200,000

62 x 2000
= 11.29
(b) (According to current OSHA recordkeeping policy, count calendar

days, not just workweek days, i.e. 7 days/wk, not 5 days/wk)
Number-of-lost-workdays rate = (7+7+42) x 200,000
62 x 2000
= 90.3
(c) LWDI = 1 x 200,000 = 1.6
62 x 2000
(excludes illnesses and all fatalities)
2.28. The 12 first-aid cases are non-recordable. The two illnesses do not
enter into the calculation of the LWDI, but the lost-time injuries
would. Therefore, the LWDI would be calculated as:
LWDI = 3 x 200,000 = 6.67 for the 4-month period

135 x (4/12) x 2000
Since 6.67 > 3.6, this would indicate that improvement is needed to
meet the objective. However, if no more lost time injuries occurred
for the year (an unlikely outcome):
LWDI = 3 x 200,000 = 300 = 2.22

135 x 2000 135
and the objective LWDI of 3.6 would easily be met.
2.29. The classification of the 12 accident files in this case study is

subject to some variation due to individual judgment. This analysis
will assume the following classification:
Columns on the OSHA 300 Log
File G H I J K L M1 M2 M3 M4 M5
1 not recordable
2 X 14 X
3 not recordable
4 X 28 7 X
5 X X
6 X X
7 not recordable
8 X X
9 X 14 X
10 not recordable
11 X X
12 X 42 3 X
Column Totals: 1 4 0 3 70 38 4 2 0 1 1
(a) LWDI = 1 x 200,000 = 1 = .11

900 x 2000 9
(The LWDI excludes fatalities, excludes illnesses, and includes all
"lost-time" injuries, including those injuries in which the worker has
"restricted work activity days," i.e. is temporarily transferred to
another job, even if there are no days away from work.)
Total Injury rate = (4 - 1) x 200,000 = 3 = .33

(excluding fatalities) 900 x 2000 9
Total Illness rate = (2+0+1+1) x 200,000 = 4 = .44

900 x 2000 9
Fatality rate = 1 x 200,000 = 1 = .11

900 x 2000 9
Number-of-lost-workdays rate = (70 + 38) x 200,000

900 x 2000
= 108/9 = 12
Specific hazard incidence rate (fractures) = (1 + 1) x 200,000
900 x 2000
= 2/9 = .22
(b) Comparing National Safety Council Statistics for 2000 (see Figure
2.2 of the text):
Total incidence (including fatalities)

.89 << 6.1 therefore, much safer than the all industry average
2.30. To complete the table, add up the columns to get the following totals:
Column totals: 1 2 3 3 67 16 4 2 2 0 1
(a) Injury incidence = (4 - 1) x 200,000 = 6

(excludes the fatality) 50 x 2000
(b) Illness incidence = 5 x 200,000 = 10

50 x 2000
(c) Number-of-lost-workdays rate = (67 + 16) x 200,000

50 x 2000
(counts restricted work activity days)
= 83 x 200,000 = 166
100,000
(d) LWDI = 1 x 200,000 = 2

50 x 2000 (Don't count injuries in which there
were no lost workdays; also
exclude fatalities)
2.31. 1998 premium $120,000

1998 modifier 1.05
unadjusted premium: $120,000/1.05 = $114,286
2001 modifier .80
2001 premium: $114,286 x .80 = $91,429
Actual savings: $120,000 - $91,429 = $28,571
% savings = ($28,571/120,000) x 100% = 23.8%
2.32. a. Lost Workday Cases:
OSHA 300 cols H + I
b. Cases Involving Days Away From Work & Deaths:
OSHA 300 cols G + H
c. Nonfatal Cases Without Lost Workdays:
OSHA 300 col J
d. Total Cases:
OSHA 300 cols G + H + I + J
(or the total of all of the M columns)
e. Lost Workdays
OSHA 300 cols K + L
f. Days Away From Work
OSHA 300 col L
2.33. To complete the table, add up the columns to get the following totals:
Column totals: 1 2 3 3 67 16 4 2 2 0 1
The following calculations are compared to National Safety Council
(NSC) estimates reported in Injury Facts, 2002 edition:
Cases Involving Days
Away From Work & Deaths = (1+2) x 200,000 = 1.82 versus 1.8 (NSC)
(cols G + H) 165 x 2000
Total recordable cases = (1+2+3+3) x 200,000 = 5.45 vs 6.1 (NSC)

(cols G + H + I + J) 165 x 2000
Days Away From Work = 16 x 200,000 = 9.70
(cols L) 165 x 2000
(Injury Facts, 2002 edition, reports 85,000,000 days away from work for
injuries incurred in the previous year (2001). The total worker force
was estimated at approximately 136,500,000. Applying the formula to the
national data:
Days Away From Work = 85,000,000 x 200,000 = 62.27

136,500,000 x 2000
This figure is considerably higher than the 9.70 figure calculated for
the data in this problem.
2.34. For a military ―rated‖ officer the fatality dollar valuation used by
the U.S. Air Force is $1,100,000 and for a civilian fatality the
corresponding number is $460,000. The difference is believed to be due
to the government investment in expensive flight training for the rated
officer.
2.35. The text shows the current National Safety Council cost estimates as
follows:
fatality: $790,000
work injury: $28,000
Each year the NSC publishes updates for these estimates in Injury
Facts. Students might want to check the library for the latest update.
The 2002 edition shows the following estimates:
fatality: $1,020,000
work injury: $29,000
2.36. $120
2.38. Action on Smoking and Health lobbies for OSHA to promulgate a standard
on Indoor Air Quality. OSHA has proposed a standard, but as of early
2003 it had not been promulgated as a Final Standard.
2.39. Workplace violence
2.40. The company did preemployment drug screening tests for all applicants
in a three month hiring period (750 applicants). Surprisingly, half of
the 750 applicants failed the test. The test was a urinalysis designed
to indicate whether drugs had been used in the preceding two or three
days and was conducted by a hospital laboratory service. The test
results indicated that the use of marijuana was the most prevalent.
ALCOA hired 130 applicants who passed the test and reported that as a
group those hired were better workers than those hired prior to the
drug screening program.
2.41. The firm may face discrimination charges unless it is fair and even-
handed in its policies for hiring and employee termination in cases of
alcohol or drug abuse. The same rules that are applied to new
employees should be applied to existing employees.
2.42. No; workplace homicide is often associated with despair over downsizing
or a termination notice for some other reason. There is evidence that
homicide in the workplace is committed in a methodical and selective
way.
2.43. Although preemployment testing has been shown to be effective in

recruiting dependable and safer employees, the program can run afoul of
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 if the testing program is
discriminatory against females or racial minorities. The EEOC has
published guidelines for such programs. Of particular interest is the
comparative failure rates of the tests when the scores of white males
is compared to those of females or racial minorities. Another
consideration is the Americans with Disabilities Act that protects
disabled workers in much the same way as the Civil Rights Act protects
females and racial minorities.
2.44. a. control of sharps
b. effective system of housekeeping
c. effective laundry
d. effective disposal of waste
e. washing, cleaning, and disinfecting exposed surfaces
f. provision for storage and consumption of food in areas protected
from exposure
g. prohibition of application of cosmetics, lip balm, or contact
lenses in exposed areas of the plant
h. provision of personal protective equipment.
2.45. the eyes
RESEARCH EXERCISES
2.46. One outstanding example is found in OSHA News Release 97-17 (1/14/97)
reporting an OSHA proposed penalty of $720,700 against Landis Plastics,
Solvay NY, for grossly under-recording worker injuries and illnesses.
2.47. The answer to this question will vary from year to year. The most
recent issue (2002) of the NSC’s Injury Facts at the time of this
writing (2003) showed statistics for the nine-year period 1992 - 2000,
to be 10,287. The most recent single year statistics are found in the
2000 edition and report 709 occurrences of workplace violence. The
incidence of workplace violence has diminished in recent years. Still,
workplace violence ranks number 2, just behind traffic accidents, as
the leading cause of worker fatalities. The 2003 edition of Injury
Facts will likely include victims of the September 11, 2001 tragedies
and will show a significant difference in the statistics due to this
tragic day in the history of the American worker.
2.48. OSHA News Release 96-99 (3/14/96) reports one study done by the U.S.
Department of Justice in a National Crime Victimization Survey, which
showed approximately one million persons assaulted each year in the
five-year period of the study (1987 to 1992). Of this number, 600,000
were simple assaults, 200,000 were aggravated assaults, nearly 80,000
were robberies, and more than 13,000 were rapes.
2.49. The answer to this question is expected to be a moving target.

Students should seek the latest developments on the Internet. A
simple, but effective word search can be made on the term ―tobacco
settlement‖.
2.50. The answer to this question is another moving target. A good source is
the University of California, San Francisco. Some internet sites are
as follows:
AIDS & HIV web sites - Education and Prevention

An index of links to some of the top HIV sites.
http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/resources/interests/aids/edu.html
Extensive information and resources on HIV and AIDS.

http://www.infoweb.org/
Information on news, prevention, treatments, social issues, medical

topics, and others.
http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/
Massive collection of AIDS resource pointers.

http://www.smartlink.net/~martinjh/
1998 World AIDS Day

"Of the 30 million people alive today with HIV infection or AIDS, at
least a third are young people aged 10-24." Resources, links and
documents, some in PDF format.
http://gbgm-umc.org/programs/wad98/
3.1. Imminent danger, serious violations, nonserious violations, de minimus

violations
3.2. De minimus
3.3. Author's opinion: Case (a) -- Cat. 1 -- De Minimus

Case (b) -- Cat. 3 -- Nonserious
Case (c) -- Cat. 8 -- Serious
3.4. This is a good example of a hazard that would be better controlled by

training than by a hard and fast rule. Many people regularly break
this rule because they have done so without injury and because the
reason is not well understood by the general public. The practice can
dangerously damage the connections between the cord and plug. A
discontinuity in either the neutral or the grounding conductor can
cause electrocution without warning by a cord and plug which appear
outwardly to be safe.
3.5. This question is intended to generate a class discussion to reinforce

concepts of hazard avoidance. The discussion should bring to light
weaknesses in a strategy of using purely an enforcement approach alone.
3.6. Enforcement, psychological, engineering, analytical
3.7. This question may be used for class discussion.

3.8. Unsafe acts 88% Ratio = 88:10
Unsafe conditions 10%
Unsafe causes 2%
100%
3.9. (1) Engineering controls

(2) Administrative or work practice controls
(3) Personal protective equipment
3.10. crane hoists 5:1 scaffolds 4:1 scaffold ropes 6:1
3.11. (1) General fail-safe principle--release of drill trigger

(2) Fail-safe principle of redundancy-- use of both guards and worker
training
(3) Principle of worst case--defensive driving course
3.12. Murphy's Law is an observation of probability over a period of time.

Risks of accidents are typically low but over a long period of time
become significant.
3.13. FMEA (Failure Modes and Effects Analysis) is used to trace effects of
individual component failures on the overall or "catastrophic" failure
of equipment.
3.14. This exercise is for practice in developing fault tree diagrams. A

wide variety of diagrams can be expected from students, depending upon
their understanding of the fire hazards. The exercise should be
evaluated upon the criteria of logical construction, not fact.
3.15.
P[7] = P[1 and 6] + P[2 and 5] + P[3 and 4] + P[4 and 3]

+P[5 and 2] + P[6 and 1]
= (1/6 • 1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6)
+ (1/6 • 1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6) = 6(1/36)
P[7] = 1/6
3.16. Toxicology is the study of poisons and may include scientific studies
in which animals are deliberately exposed to the given toxic agent in
order to observe the effect. Epidemiology deals strictly with people
by analyzing the causes of epidemics of illnesses among populations.
3.17. The following diagram adds a branch to the tree that considers possible
faults to the double-insulation system. It also removes the branches that deal with
faults in the grounding system through the third prong of the plug, because the
worker would be protected by the insulated case of the tool.
3.18. Proximal causes are primary and are direct causes of accidents in the
conventional sense. Distal causes are secondary, more indirect causes,
but can be as important as proximal causes because the distal causes
create and shape the proximal causes. Management policy should be
considered a distal cause.
3.19. Personal injury is not a certainty, even though a loss incident is

unavoidable. Personnel may not be exposed, or the exposure may not be
injurious to personnel. Aggravating factors make the loss incident
outcome more severe, and mitigating factors make the outcome less
severe.
3.20. Zero. If the causes are mutually exclusive, the occurrence of Cause B
precludes the occurrence of either Cause A or Cause C.
3.21. (a)
(b) Probability =
P[11] = P[5]P[6] + P[6]P[5]

= 1/6 • 1/6 + 1/6 • 1/6
= 1/36 + 1/36 = 2/36
(c) Yes; you can roll a "5" on the first die and "6" on the second
or you can roll a "6" on the first die and "5" on the second but
you can't do both at the same time. One "cause" precludes the
occurrence of the other.
3.22. From a total plant safety perspective each of the four causes is
possible and does not preclude the possibility of occurrence of any of
the other three. Therefore they are not mutually exclusive.
From a single accident perspective, the four causes are also not
mutually exclusive, because several of the causes or factors could be
present as contributors to the cause of a single accident, such as a
fall.
3.23. Causes A and B are mutually exclusive because it is impossible for an

adequately sized guard to be placed both too high and too low at the
same time.
3.24. Tangible cost/incident 15,000

Intangible cost/incident 250,000
Total cost/incident 265,000
Expected cost/year = Cost per incident x annual incidence

frequency
Before installation:
Expected cost/year = $265,000 x .01 = $2650
After installation:
Expected cost/year = [$265,000 x .01]½ = $1325
Annual benefit = $1325
3.25. Costs Benefits

Amortization $15,000 Cleaning $1,200
Maintenance 600 Resp eqpmt savings 4,000
Utilities 1,800 Short Term Illnesses 3,600
Total Costs $17,400 Long Term Illnesses 6,000
Total Benefits $14,800
The conclusion of the Cost/Benefit analysis is to not install the

equipment.
Primary benefit of the equipment if installed would be the savings on
the cost of long term illnesses which would be prevented by the
equipment.
3.26. Answers vary dependent upon analysts' judgment and experience. The
following data are from a survey of 25 experienced managers.
lowest highest average sample size

(a) 6 10 7.36 22
(b) 7 10 8.24 25
(c) 2 9 6.43 25
(d) 1 8 4.50 24
(e) 2 8 5.88 24
(f) 1 7 2.20 25
(g) 7 10 8.43 23
(h) 2 9 4.78 23
3.27. The point of irreversibility is the boundary beyond which control is

lost and a loss incident will occur. Factors in the region of sphere
of control are:
1. Actions
2. Limitations
3. Conditions
3.28. When the events are not mutually exclusive; when both events can happen
there is a finite probability that both will happen. Therefore, the
probability that both will occur is non-zero and must be subtracted
from the sum of the probabilities that each event will occur.
3.29. P[C] = P[A] + P[B] - P[A]P[B]
3.30. P[C] = P[A] + P[B] - P[A]P[B] = 0.3 + 0.2 -(0.3)(0.2)

= 0.5 - 0.06
= 0.44
3.31. There are many examples. A few are as follows:

GENERAL FAILSAFE PRINCIPLE:
OSHA standard 1910.217(b)(2) regarding the design of friction
brakes that are "self-engaging," i.e., they require force or
power from an external source to disengage, rather than to
engage.
ALSO OSHA standard 1910.217(b)(13) ".....the control system shall be
constructed so that a failure within the system does not prevent
the normal stopping action from being applied to the press..."
AND OSHA standard 1910.179(g)(3)(viii) "Automatic cranes shall be so
designed that all motions shall fail-safe if any malfunction of
operation occurs."
AND OSHA standard 1910.217(b)(14)(i) "Be so constructed as to
automatically prevent the activation of a successive stroke if
the stopping time or braking distance deteriorates to a
point....."
AND OSHA standard 1910.217(b)(7)(xiv) "....Reactivation of the clutch
shall require restoration of normal supply and use of the
tripping mechanism(s).
PRINCIPLE OF REDUNDANCY:
OSHA standard 1910.111(d)(9)(i) "A minimum of two compressors
shall be provided either of which shall be of sufficient size to
handle the loads...."
ALSO OSHA standard 1910.134(d)(2)(ii) "The compressor for supplying
air shall be equipped with necessary safety and standby devices."
AND OSHA standard 1910.119, App C, Sect. 13: "It is important to have
a backup communication network in case of power failure or one
communication means fails."
AND OSHA standard 1910.217, App A, Certification/Validation
Requirements. Section A.2.a.(2): "Redundancy, and comparison
and/or diagnostic checking, exist for the critical items..."
PRINCIPLE OF WORST CASE:
OSHA standard 1910.1027(n)(2)(i) "...activity involving cadmium
cannot release dust or fumes in concentrations at or above the
action level even under the worst-case release conditions."
ALSO OSHA standard 1910.217(b)(4)(i) The pedal mechanism shall be
protected to prevent unintended operation from falling or moving
objects or by accidental stepping onto the pedal.
3.32. One concept would be safety factor. A proper safety factor would have
allowed for shock loads that would be anticipated if a large number of
people began to move or jump on the skywalk in unison. Another
engineering concept is the failsafe Principle of Worst Case. A
properly applied Worst Case Principle might have considered the
possibility that large groups might move in unison.
3.33. A ―deadman control‖ is a switching or control mechanism that causes

equipment to retreat to a safe or inactive mode in the absence of a
conscious action on the part of the operator. The typical control is a
spring-loaded pushbutton switch as in a hand-held electric drill.
Other examples of equipment, not mentioned in the book, would include
floor waxing/buffing machines, hand-held saws, motorcycle throttles,
and automobile accelerators.
3.34. There are many examples of the use of the concept of redundancy. One
example is the provision for emergency backup power generators in the
design of hospitals. Another example that applies to occupational
safety and health is the provision of independent, battery-powered
emergency lighting to provide illumination of means of egress from
buildings in the event of power failure.
3.35. The Principle of Worst Case.
3.36. The whole concept of preventive maintenance is to service and repair or

replace parts BEFORE they fail, not afterwards. FMEA can be used to
examine the failure modes and provide the basis for prediction of the
consequences of failure. Such analyses are valuable in justifying the
replacement of components or systems before they fail. Such analysis
and replacement can be of critical importance when failure of the
system can result in injury to personnel.
3.37. Whether a substance is ―poison‖ or not depends upon the degree of
exposure or concentration of exposure. The field of toxicology studies
the effects of poisons in various concentrations upon the body. An
example of a seemingly harmless poison is acetic acid, the principal
ingredient of ordinary vinegar. Ingested in small concentrations,
acetic acid is a popular food additive. However, as the concentration
increases, acetic acid becomes poison to humans. Irving Sax’s
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials states that acetic acid is
a moderate poison by inhalation, oral, and dermal routes. It is
described as ―caustic, irr(itant), can cause burns, lachrymation, and
conjunctivitis. It attacks the skin easily and can cause dermatitis
and ulcers. Inhalation causes irr(itation) of mu(cous) mem(branes).‖
3.38. Pharmacokinetics is the study of absorption, disposition, metabolism,

and elimination of chemicals in the body. It’s application to
occupational safety and health is in the study of the effects of
industrial chemicals upon the body, whether these chemicals are
inhaled, ingested, or contacted by the skin.
3.39. Epidemiology is useful to occupational safety and health in assisting
in understanding the link between observed occupational diseases and
their causes.
3.40. Toxicology and epidemiology studies are typically performed by

researchers whose studies may be used as the basis for the promulgation
of new standards. Safety and Health Managers usually do not perform
such studies themselves. They may however use the results of such
studies to substantiate the psychological approach or to justify an
engineering approach to solve a particular problem.
3.41. This question is intended to generate discussion or perhaps even

debate. Certainly more money has been spent on dealing with asbestos
hazards ($20 billion/year) as compared with expenditures in dealing
with radon ($0.1 billion/year). Estimates of asbestos related fatality
rates range from 0 to 8 deaths per year, and for radon, perhaps as many
as 20,000 cancer deaths per year, according to Jeremy Main (ref Main).
Of course, some uncertainly exists in estimating the causes of deaths
which have occurred.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
3.42. This exercise is intended to bring case histories to light from each
reader’s personal experience. Most people have personal knowledge of
at least one fatal accident that could have been prevented by better
engineering design.
3.43. This exercise is intended to stimulate investigation and subsequent

class discussion.
3.44. An Internet search with keywords should provide several references to

this historic disaster. Keyword hints: Kansas City | skywalk |
disaster | 1981 | Hyatt Regency | ―human error‖ | blueprints |
―structural failure‖
3.45. Proper training (the psychological approach) is an effective way to

prevent accidents of this type. The three young workers who died in
this accident probably had little training in the hazards of overhead
power lines. The study of this accident and others like it (the
analytical approach) is a useful way of preventing future accidents of
the same kind. OSHA standards (the enforcement approach) prohibit the
close approach to overhead power lines. However, it is unclear whether
the OSHA standard would apply to the special equipment used in this
case. Severe potential penalties to supervision for worker fatalities
should have prompted measures to prevent the accident. The engineering
approach might be to design a better "recloser" for the power
transmission circuit.
3.46. Using the keyword search capability in the NCM Database, a query was
constructed on the following character string: *train* (This base
string was used in the query, instead of "training", "trained",
"trains", etc. so as not to limit the search to certain stems of the
word.) Using *train* the total number of citations was reported as
28029. Doing a "new search" for the total number of serious citations,
using the same character string *train* the total number of serious
citations was reported as 13250. Using these two results the percentage
of serious citations is calculated as 13250/28029 = .47 or 47%.
3.47. Searching the NCM Database using the keyword *engineering* the
following result was reported for "total number of violations": 1114.
Then searching again, this time for "total number of serious
violations" the result was: 917. Yet another search on the same keyword
revealed the following result for "Dollar amount for proposed
penalties": $1,059,007. Several other interesting categories could also
be searched for the keyword "engineering."
3.48. Each student will compose an original list of five relevant words to be
searched on the NCM Database, so answers will vary. Following are some
typical, relevant words that could be searched: fail-safe, safety
factor, mode, backup, back-up, standby, redundant,
design, and engineer. Note that the spelling of "backup" or
"back-up" results in different findings in the database, depending upon
how the term was spelled in the various provisions of the OSHA
standards.
4.1. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) was
created by the OSHA law to carry on research and training. NIOSH
recommends new standards to OSHA.
4.2. A variance can be filed with OSHA to request more time to comply or as
an alternative to compliance, the alternative being more practical and
still protecting employees.
4.3. The OSHA law provides for the right for employers to appeal a citation
through the judiciary system. The appeal can be taken as far as the US
Supreme Court.
4.4. The right to "not" be (1) terminated, (2) demoted, (3) assigned to an
undesirable job or shift, (4) denied promotion, (5) threatened or
harassed, or (6) blacklisted as a result of the employee's exercising
his/her rights under OSHA.
4.5. Section 5(a)(1) of Public Law 91-596 which is a general requirement for
employers to control serious hazards and to cover a serious safety or
health hazard to an employee when no specific rule seems to apply.
4.6. A standard which was adopted by OSHA during OSHA's first two years of
existence. These standards bypassed the procedural safeguards to allow
"existing standards" already in use to be adopted. None have been
adopted since the Nixon administration because the authority to adopt
"national consensus standards" expired in 1973.
4.7. Performance standards:

(1) are somewhat vague,
(2) permit judgment to determine the best method to correct a
situation
Specification standards:
(1) provide a clear means of determining whether a given facility
or equipment meets a standard
(2) permit no latitude in choosing alternate ways to eliminate or
reduce the hazard
4.8. Horizontal standards are generalized by hazard sources without regard

to an industry.
Vertical standards are specific to an industry.
4.9. Supreme Court decision that now requires OSHA to obtain a search
warrant to conduct an inspection if the employer denies the inspector
permission to enter the premises.
4.10. Appeal--process of challenging an OSHA citation through the judiciary

system.
Variance--request by an employer for time to comply with standards, or
a proposal by an employer for an alternative to compliance which is
more practical and still protects employees.
4.11. The following is an example of many different possibilities.
Specification: Fire extinguishers in chemical laboratory facilities
shall provide 4 lbs. of CO2 per 100 cubic feet of room space.
Extinguishers must be located adjacent to all doorways, and individual
extinguishers shall not exceed a total weight of 20 lbs.
Performance: Chemical laboratory facilities shall be provided adequate

protection against fires. Fire extinguishing facilities shall be
readily available and of sufficient capacity to extinguish fires which
might arise from any experiments conducted in the laboratory.
4.12. Specification standards: (1) provide a clear means of determining

whether a given facility or equipment
meets standards or not.
(2) permit no latitude in choosing alternate
ways to eliminate or reduce the hazard.
Performance standards: (1) are somewhat vague.
(2) permit judgment to determine best method
to correct a violation.
The employer usually prefers the latitude provided by a performance
standard but may prefer a specification standard if the employer
believes that his or her facilities are in compliance and wants to be
sure of it. The enforcement agency finds the specification standard
more robust in court. However, if an accident has already occurred,
the inspector may be able to make a stronger case using a performance
standard.
4.13. (1) Imminent danger

(2) Fatalities and major accidents
(3) Employee complaints
(4) High-hazard industries
4.14. A "repeat violation" is another instance of a violation that had been

previously cited in the facility.
A "failure-to-correct violation" is a discovery that the firm has
failed to correct a violation within the allotted abatement period.
Such violations can result in penalties that are assessed for every day
a violation remains uncorrected.
4.15. (a) Level of detail, vagueness, redundancy, and irrelevance of the

standards
(b) Some standards seem to do more for industries manufacturing safety
equipment than they have done to protect the worker.
4.16. AIDS or having tested HIV positive.

4.17. Transvestitism, transsexualism, compulsive gambling, kleptomania, and
pyromania.
4.18. No; the law specifically excludes kleptomania from the definition of
"impairment" and thus excludes kleptomania from coverage under ADA.
4.19. Consider this logic: If a situation truly represents an ―imminent

danger,‖ it will be a temporary situation. If an imminent danger is
not corrected soon, a serious accident will result before very long.
After the accident occurs, an OSHA inspection will be conducted under a
different priority. Only if the OSHA inspector happens to notice the
imminent danger condition before an accident occurs or before the
condition is corrected will the inspection category be classified as
―imminent danger.‖ Therefore, imminent danger inspections are very
rare (not surprisingly).
4.20. A recent estimate (ref. Mukhergee) puts OSHA’s cost to business at $300
billion per year.
4.21. The first appearance of the predecessor agency was 1914 when the agency
was part of the Department of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation in
Pennsylvania. The agency went through several reorganizations before
safety was added to its mission with passage of the OSHA law in 1970.
4.22. When a pilot crew is necessary to correct the condition and to provide
for a safe and orderly shutdown. Also, OSHA permits a pilot crew to
remain to maintain the capacity of the process to resume normal
operations.
4.23. Reporting deadline: within 8 hours. OSHA policy dictates that

fatalities and major accidents be investigated within 24 hours of
notification.
4.24. Construction
4.25. For OSHA to be applicable to state agencies and political subdivisions

of the state would put the federal government in the position of
inspecting, issuing citations, and assessing penalties from state and
local governments. State ―sovereignty‖ is often interpreted as
protecting the state from such controls by the federal government.
Although it is not mentioned in the text, study of the U.S.
Constitution will provide evidence of protection of the sovereignty of
the states. To receive OSHA approval a state plan for standards and
enforcement must include coverage of state agencies and political
subdivisions of the state. Even in states that do not have OSHA-
approved state plans, in some states Workers Compensation authorities
are imposing ―extra-hazardous employer‖ classifications upon certain
industries and subjecting them to inspections and required
consultations.
4.26. When a state plan for standards and enforcement has been approved by
OSHA for the state to enforce its own occupational safety and health
standards. Also, some states are imposing standards enforcement
through implementation of ―extra-hazardous employer‖ programs
administered by the state Workers Compensation system.
4.27. The Hamlet, North Carolina, fire in the Imperial Foods poultry
processing plant. The fact that the tragedy occurred in North Carolina
was significant, because North Carolina was the first state to receive
federal OSHA approval for state standards development and enforcement.
The tragedy focused attention on state plan effectiveness in general.
4.28. The text does not explain this difficulty in detail. The following
explanation is offered: once a standard has been in effect and firms
have been fined for failure to comply, it is difficult for the federal
government to justify to the public a reversal and conclude that the
standard was not really needed in the first place. There will always
be two sides to the issue of revocation (or promulgation) for a given
standard. In light of such controversies it becomes difficult to
justify a revocation of an existing standard.
4.29. 43,000,000, according to government findings to justify the law itself

in 1990.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
4.30. Current literature should provide updated estimates of the number of

impaired Americans. The 1990 estimate of 43,000,000 should put a lower
bound on the estimate, as the number was expected to increase over
time. The Internet should be a resource for background data on this
question.
4.31. OSHA’s homepage on the Internet is a good source for researching

current statistics on enforcement on a standard-by-standard basis.
Also, the NCM Database contained in the CD that accompanies the book
can be searched for information relevant to the General Duty Clause.
The NCM Database should be searched by standard number as follows:
Section5A001 (no blanks).
4.32. For the employEE version of the General Duty Clause, do not expect to
find any OSHA citations. The NCM Database can be used to search for
Section 5(B) by entering the following standard number: 5B (no
blanks). The NCM Database will return a message that no violations were
found relevant to this query.
4.33. A keyword search on the Internet should reveal a wealth of resources.
Keyword hints: consultants | disabilities | ADA
4.34. This data was once available on the Internet but the website may have
been taken offline or the data removed from it. Possible places to
look: OSHA website or the Bureau of Labor Statistics
4.35. ―cdc‖ stands for the Centers for Disease Control.

4.36. Some large fines have been assessed. Check the Internet for the latest
statistics. Some sample text from the Internet:
―SAN ANTONIO (Apr 23, 1996 - 19:12 EST) -- Deaf basketball fans filed a
class-action lawsuit against the NBA and the San Antonio Spurs on
Tuesday, seeking video captioning on television monitors in all the
league's arenas.‖
REF:http://www.nando.net/newsroom/ap/bkb/1996/nba/san/feat/archive/042396/san10115.html
―Settlement Agreement Between the U.S. and the Board of Education of

the City of Chicago. Settlement agreement concerning Title I case
referred by EEOC to the DOJ for refusal to relocate classroom as an
accommodation for a teacher and forcing him to take sick leave and
ultimate retirement; $20,599 awarded as compensatory damages; November
30, 1995 (Settlement Agreement).‖ REF: http://www.pacdbtac.org/press.html
―……..United Artists will also pay monetary damages to the plaintiffs

who filed the private suit and will set up a $429,000 fund for
moviegoers with disabilities who can show they encountered physical
barriers at California theaters built after July 1982.‖
REF: http://www.pacdbtap.org/pr11.txt
4.37. Texas and Arkansas are example states, as of this writing. The
Internet is a source of current information.
4.38. The maximum penalty is $5000 for each day of noncompliance. (ref Title
28. Insurance, Part II. Texas Workers’ Compensation Commission, Chapter
165. Rejected Risk: Injury Prevention Services, paragraph 165.9 Report
of Follow-up Inspection) found on the Internet.
4.39. Yes. An example is Landis Plastics, Inc. of Solvay, NY. OSHA’s
Syracuse NY office cited Landis for each of 63 alleged egregious
willful violations of recordkeeping requirements ($630,000 total). (ref
OSHA News Release USDL:97-14)
4.40. The OSHA proposed penalty for Samsung Guam totaled $8,260,000. The
final settlement amount Samsung Guam agreed to pay was $1,850,000. (ref
OSHA News Release USDL:96-525)
STANDARDS RESEARCH QUESTIONS
4.41. The NCM Database can be searched by standard number entering * in the
query for the standard number. This will retrieve all records for any
standard number in the database. The search can be made for "total
violations", "repeat violations", and "willful violations", with the
following results:
Total: 128,582 violations
Repeat: 1,399 violations
Willful: 288 violations

Percentages can be calculated by dividing the number in each category
by the total number of violations.
% Repeat = 1399/128582 = .01 or 1%
% Willful = 288/128582 = .0022 or .22% (~ one-fifth of one percent)
Note that the NCM Database will not return total figures if * is used
in a "keyword search" because too many entries will be returned. The
Database will ask you to narrow your search.
4.42. Entering Section5A001 (no blanks) into the search by standards

number feature of the database, the following will be returned for
total violations: 1243. Searching again using the "total dollar value
of proposed penalties" feature, the following will be returned:
$3,496,904. Dividing the total dollar value by the total number of
General Duty Clause violations yields:
Average penalty level = $3496904/1243 = approx $2813.

4.43. Answers will vary, depending upon which standards the student picks for
his/her sample to study. The author picked popular standards 1910.212,
1910.36 and 1910.151, with the following results returned from the NCM
Database:
*212* Total violations: 5154 From employee complaints: 7
Total for this sample: 8073 Total for this sample: 16
Percentage = 16/8073 = .002 = .2% (or one-fifth of one percent)

5.1. Shift from total employer responsibility for hazards to responsibility

for passing information to employees who in turn evaluate risks and
take action accordingly.
5.2. Strengthening; knowledge of the hazard is a potent weapon in the hands

of employees.
5.3. Pipes
5.4. Articles: manufactured items

Material: not manufactured items
5.5. By withholding chemical identities of constituents and justifying their

positions according to specific criteria contained in the standard.
5.6. Yes, the hazardous ingredients must be listed by chemical and common
name.
5.7. Yes
5.8. 30 years; because of extremely long latency periods
5.9. Duration of employment plus 30 years
5.10. Check specific standards concerning hazardous substances used to

determine whether records are required to be transferred to NIOSH.
5.11. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986

recognized dual roles of OSHA and EPA regarding hazardous waste
and emergency response
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
of 1980
OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.120 covers hazardous substance response
operations
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.120 covers major corrective actions to
be taken in clean-up operations
5.12. Plug, patch, or otherwise temporarily control or stop leaks from

containers that hold hazardous substances or health hazards.
5.13. Employees exposed to health hazards at or above the established PELs

for 30 days or more a year, employees who wear a respirator 30 days or
more a year, and members of HAZMAT teams. Examinations are required
every 12 months or even more frequently if advised by the examining
physician.
5.14. State Commission and Local Emergency Response Committee
5.15. The branch of artificial intelligence that encompasses computer systems

that give advice based upon a knowledge base of logic rules provided by
a human expert.
5.16. Microrim, Inc. R:BASE® and Clout® (for natural language access)
5.17. Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
5.18. $850 billion
RESEARCH EXERCISES
5.19. As of this writing, Infoseek found 663 pages containing the word
HAZWOPER.
5.20. From the OSHA website:

OSHA standard 1910.120(e)
(3) Initial training. (i) General site workers (such as equipment
operators, general laborers and supervisory personnel) engaged in
hazardous substance removal or other activities which expose or
potentially expose workers to hazardous substances and health hazards
shall receive a minimum of 40 hours of instruction off the site, and a
minimum of three days actual field experience under the direct
supervision of a trained experienced supervisor.
1910.120(e)(3)(ii) (ii) Workers on site only occasionally for a
specific limited task (such as, but not limited to, ground water
monitoring, land surveying, or geophysical surveying) and who are
unlikely to be exposed over permissible exposure limits and published
exposure limits shall receive a minimum of 24 hours of instruction off
the site, and the minimum of one day actual field experience under the
direct supervision of a trained, experienced supervisor.
1910.120(e)(3)(iii) (iii) Workers regularly on site who work in areas
which have been monitored and fully characterized indicating that
exposures are under permissible exposure limits and published exposure
limits where respirators are not necessary, and the characterization
indicates that there are no health hazards or the possibility of an
emergency developing, shall receive a minimum of 24 hours of
instruction off the site, and the minimum of one day actual field
experience under the direct supervision of a trained, experienced
supervisor.
1910.120(e)(3) (iii) . . .
(4) Management and supervisor training. On-site management and

supervisors directly responsible for or who supervise employees engaged
in hazardous waste operations shall receive 40 hours initial and three
days of supervised field experience (the training may be reduced to 24
hours and one day if the only area of their responsibility is employees
covered by paragraphs (e)(3)(ii) and (e)(3)(iii) and at least eight
additional hours of specialized training at the time of job assignment
on such topics as, but no limited to, the employer's safety and health
program, personal protective equipment program, spill containment
program, and health hazard monitoring procedure and techniques.
1910.120(e)(5) . . .
1910.120(e)(6) . . .
1910.120(e)(7) . . .
1910.120(e)(8)
(8) Refresher training. Employees specified in paragraph (e)(1) of this
section, and managers and supervisors specified in paragraph (e)(4) of
this section, shall receive eight hours of refresher training annually
on the items specified in paragraph (e)(2) and/or (e)(4) of this
section, any critique of incidents that have occurred in the past year
that can serve as training examples of related work, and other relevant
topics. 1910.120(e)(9)
(9) Equivalent training. Employers who can show by documentation or
certification that an employee's work experience and/or training has
resulted in training equivalent to that training required in paragraphs
(e)(1) through (e)(4) of this section shall not be required to provide
the initial training requirements of those paragraphs to such employees
and shall provide a copy of the certification or documentation to the
employee upon request. However, certified employees or employees with
equivalent training new to a site shall receive appropriate, site
specific training before site entry and have appropriate supervised
field experience at the new site. Equivalent training includes any
academic training or the training that existing employees might have
already received from actual hazardous waste site experience.
5.21. As of this writing, the author found 100 hits using InfoSeek and the
keywords ―HAZWOPER | training‖
5.22. Some good Internet sites include the University of Utah’s:
http://www.chem.utah.edu/MSDS/HYDRAZINE_SULFATE
and Olin Chemical’s:
http://www.olinultrapure.com/home.asp
5.23. A search of the OSHA website reveals that the standard for Hazard
Communication is OSHA standard 29CFR1910.1200. Searching the NCM
Database by standard, with the query *1200* returns the following
totals:
Total citations: 15537

Number of serious citations: 5522
Computing the percentage: Percentage = 5522/15537 = .355 = 36%
5.24. First, using the OSHA website, determine that the appropriate OSHA
standard is 29CFR1910.1200. This can be determined through a search of
the entire OSHA website for the term MSDS. Then in the 1910.1200
standard, use the Edit – Find (in this document) feature to find the
appropriate provisions of 1910.1200 that contain the desired term.
First try ―MSDS‖, but this search turns up only a few references in the
―definitions‖ section of the standard. A more fruitful search results
from searching on the whole term written out as ―Material Safety Data
Sheet‖. One can accomplish as much with a search on ―Material Safety‖
because whenever ―Material Safety‖ appears in 1910.1200 almost surely
the entire term ―Material Safety Data Sheet‖ will appear. Upon using
―Edit – Find‖ for the term ―Material Safety‖ approximately 40 to 50
hits result. Ignoring the multiple hits within a single provision of
the standard, a total of 36 provisions were found to contain the term
―Material Safety‖. After writing out this series of provisions, the NCM
Database can be opened to perform searches for Total Violation
Citations for each of the respective provisions of 1910.1200. Such a
search of the 36 provisions revealed the following frequencies of
citation, which were manually entered into an Excel spreadsheet:
Citation
Standard Standard frequenc
provision Citation frequency provision y
1200(e)(1) 5134 (g)(6)(iv) 0

(e)(1)(i) 859 (g)(7)(i) 1
(e)(2)(i) 28 (g)(7)(ii) 0
(f)(2)(ii) 0 (g)(7)(iii) 0
(g) 0 (g)(7)(iv) 0
(g)(1) 1486 (g)(7)(v) 0
(g)(2) 2 (g)(7)(vi) 0
(g)(2)(vi) 4 (g)(7)(vii) 0
(g)(2)(viii) 0 (g)(8) 923
(g)(2)(ix) 1 (g)(9) 3
(g)(2)(xi) 0 (g)(10) 4
(g)(2)(xii) 1 (g)(11) 21
(g)(3) 1 (h)(1) 2121
(g)(4) 0 (h)(2)(iii) 62
(g)(5) 0 (h)(3)(iv) 51
(g)(6)(i) 0 (i)(1) 0
(g)(6)(ii) 0 (i)(1)(ii) 0
(g)(6)(iii) 0 (i)(1)(iii) 1
Total citations 7516

5.25. Using the NCM Database searches were performed on the following terms with the
total number of citation violations as shown in the following spreadsheet
manually entered from the NCM Database search results:
SEARCH TERM CITATIONS
183 citations (2 pages of

"medical surveillance" provisions)
"medical" provisions)
"examination" provisions)
"medical examination" 58 citations
"physical examination" 20 citations
"medical record" 320 citations
The total number of citations can not be added from the above table because
obviously there are duplications in the search hits. For instance, every search hit
in the search for ―medical surveillance‖ will also be found in the more general
search for the term ―medical.‖
6.1. Bhopal, India, release of methyl isocyanate; 2500 killed

Phillips, Petroleum explosion and fire; 24 killed
Some students might also mention the Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor accident
in Russia or the Institute, West Virginia, near catastrophe.
6.2. The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
6.3. Block Flow Diagram and the Process Flow Diagram

6.4. Materials of construction
Piping diagrams
Instrument diagrams
Relief system design
Ventilation system
Design codes and standards
Material and energy balances
Safety interlocks
Detection systems
Suppression systems
6.5. What-if analysis attempts to consider the consequences of various

events upon the process and its safety. An "event" might be some
failure within the system, a human failure, or even a natural disaster,
such as an earthquake or tornado.
6.6. Plant location analysis considers such factors as proximity to
population centers and location along geologic fault zones.
6.7. Human failure often is a factor in a catastrophe. The potential

consequences of human failure must be considered in process safety
analysis. Systems for mitigation of the consequences must be
considered. Allowance for the human element may affect design decisions
in the planning for a process.
6.8. Professional analysts have credentials that enhance the credibility of

the analysis and show good faith on the part of the employer. It costs
money to hire professional analysts, and this shows a measure of
commitment on the part of the employer to deal with the problem of
process safety analysis in a responsible way.
6.9. In-house operators and maintenance personnel have the advantage of

familiarity with the process and can have insights and contributions to
the analysis that goes beyond the contribution of professional
analysts.
6.10. Every five years.
6.11. For the life of the process.
6.12. Yes, in temporary or initial startup operations or in emergency

operations. In these cases the alternate means of dealing with the
known process hazards must be planned and documented.
6.13. Yes, but these emergency operation modes should be planned to take
effect in an emergency. No, OSHA does not prohibit emergency operation
modes.
6.14. Pre-set limits can be set up for the control system to automatically
trigger alarms or other process actions whenever process variables
exceed the planned limits for the process. The actions triggered are
thus planned in advance and are designed to deal with the effects of
these emergencies.
6.15. 1. Initial training

2. Refresher training
3. Verification or testing
4. Documentation
6.16. The employees may lose or fail to carry the cards on their person.
6.17. The process safety standard places responsibility upon the prime
contractor or employer to exert a measure of control over the contract
operations, including:
a. controlling access to facilities

b. checking prospective contractors' safety records
c. communicating hazard information to contractors
d. informing contractors about the prime employer's emergency
action plan
e. performing periodic evaluations of contractors safety

performance
f. maintain the OSHA 200 Log/Summary on contractor employees
The subcontractor still is responsible for the safety and health of his
own employees.
6.18. Employers who deal with highly hazardous chemicals subject to the OSHA
standard for Process Safety and who subcontract part of their process
operation or maintenance to a contractor are required to keep the OSHA
200 Log/Summary of Occupational Illnesses and Injuries on the
contractor personnel as well as on their own employees.
6.19. A popular strategy for dodging responsibility for OSHA compliance is to

contract away hazardous portions of the job. However, OSHA's Process
Safety Standard for Highly Hazardous Chemicals has placed certain
responsibilities for protection of contract employees upon the prime
contractor.
6.20. NAME OF CHEMICAL: Hydrochloric acid (HCl). Other names: Hydrogen

Chloride, Muriatic acid, and Chlorohydric acid
TOXICITY INFORMATION: Irritant to the mucous membranes, especially to

the eyes and the respiratory tract. Also highly toxic by
ingestion. Strong irritant to the skin.
Concentration of 35 ppm causes irritation of the throat after
short exposure. Concentrations of 50-100 ppm are tolerable for
one hour. Concentrations over 1000 ppm are dangerous, even for
brief exposures.
Lethal doses: (for 50% of population)
Rabbits (oral): 900 mg/kg
Rats (inhalation): 3124 ppm for one hour
Lowest published lethal concentration for humans:
1300 ppm for one-half hour
PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS: OSHA Ceiling concentration:

5 ppm or 7 mg/m3
PHYSICAL DATA: Colorless gas or colorless (sometimes slightly yellow),

fuming, pungent liquid, strongly corrosive.
Melting point: -115oCelsius
Boiling point: -85oCelsius
Molecular weight: 36.47
Density: 1.639 g/liter @ 0oCelsius (gas)
Vapor pressure 4.0 atmospheres @ 17.8oCelsius
Flashpoint: none
Noncombustible
REACTIVITY DATA: Violent reactions with the following common

chemicals: acetic anhydride, 2-amino ethanol, sodium, sodium
hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, vinyl acetate,
Ca3P2, oleum, chlorosulfonic acid, ethylene diamine, ethylene
imine, HClO4, propylene oxide, CaC2, Mg3B2, HgSO4
CORROSIVITY DATA: Highly corrosive

Shipping by rail: white label
Shipping by air: corrosive label
THERMAL AND CHEMICAL STABILITY: data unavailable

HAZARDOUS MIXING: Dangerous; will react with water or steam to produce
toxic and corrosive vapors.
6.21. The "roadmap approach" approach leaves required documents in their
respective departments of responsibility. In a central file,
convenient to the OSHA inspector, employee representatives, and other
interested parties, is a "roadmap" that identifies each documentation
requirement of the process safety standard and tells precisely where
within the entire plant to find the pertinent detailed information
required.
6.22. The poultry processing plant might use or store a dangerous chemical in
excess of a threshold amount and thus be covered by the Process Safety
standard. An example chemical would be chlorine or ammonia used for
refrigeration.
6.23. The wrench and tool manufacturer might use or store a dangerous
chemical in excess of a threshold amount and thus be covered by the
Process Safety standard. An example chemical would be various acids,
such as chromic acid used in plating operations.
6.24. The OSHA General Duty Clause applies to ―recognized hazards.‖ Once a
hazard is documented, there is documented evidence that the employer
―recognized‖ the hazard. OSHA can use this evidence against an employer
in citation of the General Duty Clause, especially in the event of an
accident. Therefore, if the employer documents a process hazard, it is
essential to complete the analysis by providing for alleviation of the
hazard so as not to leave the issue open-ended.
6.25. Especially with regard to equipment purchased prior to the process
safety standard it is advisable to use a Registered Professional
Engineer to make the ―good engineering practices‖ evaluation of process
equipment.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
6.26. Even though the Phillips disaster occurred a decade or so ago, there
are still many references to it on the Internet. Check out OSHA’s
website for the settlement agreement with Phillips and for the Preamble
to the Process Safety Management standard. OSHA has news releases in
its archives, but these may be too old to be currently carried on the
Internet.
6.27. As of this writing, the following keywords are listed with their
associated number of hits using InfoSeek:
―Chernobyl‖ : 8519 hits

―Bhopal‖: 1793 hits
―worst industrial accident‖: 30 hits
These sources ought to be satisfactory to provide data to answer this

question.
6.28. From the OSHA web site it can be determined that the Process Safety
standard is OSHA standard 29CFR1910.119. A search of the NCM database
reveals that the Process Safety standard was cited a total of 932 times
during the Fiscal Year reporting period. Of these, 769 were designated
as alleged serious violations. From these data it can be calculated
that in excess of 82.5 % of the alleged violations were designated as
in the ―serious‖ category.
6.29. From the OSHA web site it can be determined that the Process Safety
standard is OSHA standard 29CFR1910.119. A word search on "training" on
the NCM database reveals the portion of the Process Safety standard
that pertains to training, 1910.199(g). By performing another query on
the NCM database it can be determined that there were a total of 79
alleged violations of the provisions of 1910.119(g). To get a picture
of the total alleged violations of 1910.119 a new query can be made on
the NCM database for *119* Also, one can check each of the
subparagraphs of 1910.119 for frequency. Following is a tabulation of
those frequencies in which the subject matter of the subparagraph was
obtained from the OSHA web site and the frequencies of citation from
the NCM database:
119(a) "Application" 0 citations

119(b) "Definitions" 0 citations
119(c) "Employee participation" 46 citations
119(d) "Process Safety Information" 120 citations
119(e) "Hazard Analysis" 46 citations
119(f) "Operating Procedures" 183 citations
119(g) "Training" 79 citations
119(h) "Contractors" 39 citations
119(i) "Pre-startup Review" 15 citations
119(j) "Mechanical Integrity" 135 citations
119(k) "Hot Work Permits" 7 citations
119(l) "Management of Change" 70 citations
119(m) "Incident Investigation" 28 citations
119(n) "Emergency Planning and Response" 27 citations
119(o) "Compliance Audits" 37 citations
119(p) "Trade Secrets" 0 citations
Total 732 citations
Training as a percent of total: approx 11%
Note that the word "training" may appear in the Process Safety standard
in sections other than 119(g). However, if these other sections were
not cited in the Fiscal Year, they would not appear in the NCM database
search on the word "training."
6.30. A search of the OSHA web site reveals that the appropriate section for
"employee participation" in the Process Safety standard is
29CFR1910.119(c). A search of the NCM database on this provision
(*119C*) reveals that 46 citations were written for the Fiscal Year on
this subject. Another search on this provision (*119C*), using the
"serious violations" option of the NCM database, reveals that 37 of
these 46 citations were classified as alleged "serious violations." The
citations in the "serious" category represent over 80% of the citations
for "employee participation."
7.1. 42 inches is standard. 36 inches or higher is acceptable if the

railing does not present a hazard and is otherwise in compliance.
7.2. Standards: (1) Slant--4 vertical: 1 horizontal

(2) Ladder needs to be 3 ft. longer than where it
meets the rooftop.
Bottom distance from building
4/1 = 14/a
a = 14/4 = 3.5
Length to rooftop
b2 = (3.5)2 + (14)2 = 208.25
b = 14.43
Total length = 14.43 + 3 = 17.43 ft
7.3. (1) Aisles be kept clear of hazardous obstructions

(2) Aisles be appropriately marked
7.4. To reflect on all the locations in which people work. Floors,

mezzanines, balconies, catwalks, platforms, scaffolds, ramps, docks,
stairways, ladders, etc.
7.5. Many people do not think about the difference between jumping and
falling from a 4 ft. height.
7.6. The fall hazard should be controlled either by installing a standard

railing or by issuing and requiring workers to use fall protection
equipment (such as belts and lifelines).
7.7. To prevent the fall of materials
7.8. There should be catch platforms used unless:

(1) the roof has a parapet
(2) the slope of the roof is flatter than 4 inches in 12 inches
(3) the workers are protected by a safety belt attached to a lifeline
(4) the roof is lower than 16 feet from the ground to the eaves
7.9. When the floor or platform is 4 feet or more above adjacent floor or
ground level or when adjacent to an open pit, tank, vat, or ditch,
unless otherwise protected.
7.10. Whenever it is a hazard. Guarding could be by a removable railing or a

removable cover.
7.11. One example would be where accumulations of grain dust present an

explosion hazard.
7.12. Compare housekeeping goals with standards for the given industry. Keep
accurate records of accidents and take appropriate steps to remove
causes whether they be housekeeping or other causes.
7.13. If an aisle is designated as permanent and is appropriately marked, an

obligation is incurred to keep the aisle clear and free from any
obstruction which might be a hazard during an emergency. OSHA writes
many citations for violations of such obligations.
7.14. The purpose of a handrail is to provide a handhold. A railing is a

vertical barrier erected along the exposed sides of stairways and
platforms. Both are intended to prevent falls.
7.15. Stairway landings have the principal purpose of limiting fall distance.
Landings must be no less than the width of the stairway and a minimum
of 30 inches in length measured in the distance of travel. Long
flights of stairs are to be "avoided".
7.16. Electrical hazards for metal ladders.
Ladder condition, especially the rungs.
Ladder positioning and securing to prevent slipping.
Ladder height and angle of placement.
7.17. When a fixed ladder is more than 20 feet but less than 30 feet long.
Alternative devices may be used on tower, water tank, and chimney
ladders over 20 feet in unbroken length.
Advantages: inexpensive and effective in appropriate weather.
Disadvantages: responsibility for use is left to the worker, and icing
can cause problems.
7.18. "Means of egress" are (1) the way of exit access, (2) the exit itself,
(3) the way of exit discharge.
7.19. Locked exits, exits blocked by obstruction or impediments (inside and

outside), improper exit signs, and inadequate lighting for exit signs.
7.20. Examples are aerial baskets, aerial ladders, boom platforms, and
platform-elevating towers. Their chief hazard is contact with high-
voltage power lines. Fall hazards from failure to use safety belts are
also significant.
7.21. Having too few waste receptacles leads to overfilling.

Having too many waste receptacles leads to laxity about emptying
containers that receive little use.
7.22. This question refers to the tragedy that occurred in Hamlet, North
Carolina, the morning of September 3, 1991. In one of the worst
industrial accidents in U.S. history, twenty-five people were killed
and another fifty-six were injured in a fire that swept through the
Imperial Foods poultry processing plant (ref LaBar). The inferno was
put out in only thirty-five minutes, but it had already done its
damage. The 30,000 square foot building, a converted 1920s vintage ice
cream plant, was virtually windowless, and when the lights went out
soon after the outbreak of the blaze, the ninety workers present were
scrambling through a maze of production processing equipment in the
dark trying to find a viable way out. To prevent product theft and to
keep out flies, reportedly seven of the nine exit doors were routinely
locked or bolted from the outside. The tragedy closed the plant
permanently, and three members of top management were indicted for
twenty-five counts each of involuntary manslaughter. The three
indicted were the owner of the company, which is now bankrupt, the
owner's son, who was working in the plant as operations manager, and
the plant manager.
7.23. The Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990.
7.24. The responsibility for assuring that facilities are in compliance with
the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. Both OSHA and ADA
requirements can have an impact upon the design of a building. The
Safety and Health Manager is often expected to be knowledgeable
regarding both OSHA and ADA requirements and properly inform facilities
designers.
7.25. The 2002 Edition of Injury Facts, published by the National Safety
Council shows that there were 437 fatalities resulting from ―falls to a
lower level‖ in the 2001 reporting period. Adding to this figure
another 81 fatalities classified as ―falls on same level‖ makes the
total number of fatalities due to falls add up to 518. This places
falls in fifth place behind the following categories of fatalities
reported to the National Safety Council:
1. ―Transportation accidents‖: 1938

2. ―Struck by object‖: 1537
3. ―Caught in object, equipment, material‖: 904
4. ―Assault, violent act‖: 546
7.26. Building codes include safety features that are appropriate for any new
construction, or perhaps remodeling, but may not be practical for
retrofit on existing buildings. Federal standards that relate to
buildings and facilities sometimes address issues of relative
permanence and have been interpreted as applicable to existing as well
as new facilities. The result has been costly renovation to comply
with rules that many believe should apply only to new facilities.
7.27. "Tribology" is the study of the mechanisms and phenomena of friction

and applies to the study of trips and falls as well as to lubrication
and wear of contact surfaces.
7.28. The Life Safety Code specifies a minimum exit access aisle width (28
inches), whereas the OSHA standards specify no minimum except in
performance language (―sufficient safe clearances……). The OSHA
standard is worded more in performance language and the Life Safety
Code is worded more in specification language.
7.29. Formerly the OSHA standard for aisle marking specified black or white
color. This strict specification was revoked by OSHA, which now
permits any color provided the function is maintained (performance
standard).
7.30. The purpose of a ―footladder board‖ is to secure the foot of the ladder
to keep it from slipping during use on a hard, slick surface.
7.31. If the scaffold is Type T, failure of one of the supporting ropes will
cause the scaffold to tip dangerously, but not fall to the ground. If
the worker’s lifeline is attached to the scaffold, the worker will be
saved from falling, because the scaffold will not fall due to this
single failure of one of the supporting ropes.
7.32. State agencies regulate boiler and elevator safety. Although ordinary
hot water tanks are generally not thought of as ―boilers,‖ there are
hazards associated with their operation, and they should be installed
properly. Accordingly, hot water tank installations or reinstallations
must be done by a person licensed to do the work.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
7.33. As of this writing, 45 hits were found on INFOSEEK using the keywords
―Imperial Foods‖ and 78 hits were found using ―Hamlet, North Carolina‖.
7.34. As of this writing, using INFOSEEK the author found 105 hits using the
keywords ―Triangle Shirtwaist.‖ The Triangle Shirtwaist event was
historic and still is being described in current documents. A
particularly gripping and detailed account was found at the following
internet address:
http://www.tcr.org/triangle.html
Also check Yale University’s site:
http://www.yale.edu/yup/triangle_shirtwaist.html
and the U.S. Department of Labor’s archive at:
http://www.dol.gov/dol/esa/public/youth/sstour1.htm
Perhaps the most chilling similarity between Triangle Shirtwaist and

Imperial Foods is the repetition of locked exits to prevent product
theft by employees.
7.35. From the text of the frequently cited standard, as discussed in this
book, the OSHA web site can be used to identify which standard has the
same wording - that is OSHA standard 29CFR1910.23(c)(1) - Open-sided
floors, platforms, and runways. An appropriate query on the NCM
database, corresponding to this standard, is *23C01* This query reveals
a frequency of citation of 1606 (or 1623, if all sub-provisions of
23(c)(1) are included. The General Duty Clause, by comparison, shows a
total of 1243 citations for the Fiscal Year.
7.36. It takes some digging in the OSHA web site but by searching on the word
"Aisle" (be sure to capitalize the word "Aisle" in this case), one can
find that OSHA standard 1910.22(b) pertains to "Aisles and
Passageways". The appropriate provision for the maintenance of aisles
is 1910.22(b)(1). A query on the NCM database (*22B01*) reveals that
this provision was cited 221 times in the Fiscal Year. Also relevant to
the maintenance of aisles is the appropriate marking of aisles
(1910.22(b)(2). The NCM database shows 55 citations for a query of
*22B2*.
7.37. A search of the OSHA web site reveals that General Industry OSHA
standard 1910.36(b)states that ―An exit door must be unlocked.‖ This
provision contains three subparagraphs b(1), b(2) and b(3) that explain
further. Turning to the NCM database it can be found that two of these
subparagraphs have been cited. 36(b)(1) was cited 129 times in the
fiscal year reporting period, and 36(b)(2) was cited 139 times.
Searching the NCM database again, this time by ―total number of
contested citations,‖ it can be found that citations for 36(b)(1) and
36(b)(2) were contested four times each in the fiscal year.
8.1. Ergonomics is a broad field and draws upon many different sciences. The
relevant facets of the field as described in Chapter 8 of the text include the
following:
a. Ergonomic vehicle design for human performance

b. Designing safety features into workplace machines
c. Controlling the work environment, including:
1. Manual lifting
2. Accommodating individual worker characteristics
d. Workplace Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs)
8.2. Workplace Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs)
8.3. The development has proceeded from the following approximate sequence of
terminology:
1. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS)

2. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
3. Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)
4. Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)
5. Workplace Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)
8.4. Section 5(A)(1) of the OSHA Act (the General Duty Clause)
8.5. Both the ANSI and the OSHA standards for ergonomics were developed at the same
time (the decade of the 1990s). The OSHA standard was intended to be mandatory
and would be enforced with inspections and penalties. The ANSI standard was
developed using the traditional standards development framework used for all
ANSI voluntary standards. The two standards were very similar in content. Both
had provisions for ―management plans‖ for ergonomics. However, the components
in the management plan in the provisions of the ANSI standard went beyond the
management plan requirements specified in the OSHA standard. The ANSI standard
specified ―job analysis‖ and ―job design and intervention,‖ emphasizing the
analysis and prevention of future hazards before the occurrence of the WMSD
cases.
8.6. Industry was afraid of the cost speculated to be incurred in complying with
the standard. Also, there was concern over the vagueness in the definition of
the term WMSD. There was concern about the variation of worker perceptions of
"discomfort." What might be a genuine WMSD to some might just be normal
adjustment to the job to others. Another concern was the definition of the
term "injury" or "illness". Even if an injury or illness is established, there
is always the question of whether it was caused by personal, off-the-job
exposures or by the job itself. Finally, there was the question of remedies.
How can the work environment be adequately "fixed"? And how can an injured
worker be "cured"? Basically, employers and their legislative representatives
feared a standard that is subject to interpretation or the judgment of the
inspector.
8.7. No one questions the fact that taken on average the average male can lift a
heavier load than the average female. Despite this obvious fact, it is
incorrect to discriminate against females for jobs requiring manual lifting
based upon their gender. Some females can lift more than the average male can,
and some males can not lift as much as the average female can, so employers
should use care to test and qualify workers based upon their capabilities, not
upon their gender.
8.8. NIOSH has conducted intensive studies of the effectiveness of back belts. The
studies showed no statistically significant improvements in decreased
frequency of worker compensation claims rates for employers who require the
use of back belts versus employers who do not. Studies also compared workers
who voluntarily use back belts every day versus those who do not use them or
use them only occasionally. There was no statistically significant difference
in workers compensation claim frequency. Besides studying workers compensation
claim frequency, NIOSH also studied "self-reported back pain" and again the
results showed no statistically significant difference between back belt users
and those who do not wear back belts.
8.9. The design of automobile and other vehicle driver compartments, especially
aircraft cockpits, is important to the safe and effective operation of the
vehicle. The driver must be able to assess problems and take appropriate
action in a timely manner. The role of ergonomics in this process is to study
human reaction to various stimuli and develop principles to guide in the
design of the appropriate interface between driver and vehicle to achieve the
best possible result. The principles are concerned with the placement of
instruments or dials, priorities for the attention of the operator, and rules
to avoid inadvertent actuation of critical controls due to their proximity to
other frequently-used controls. Formerly, the design engineer, using common-
sense and traditional conventions, was responsible for the design of the
driver cockpit without reliance upon ergonomic principles. The result was
unsafe operation of the vehicle, a problem that has been addressed by
ergonomics.
8.10. Examples of ergonomics principles found in the OSHA standards include design
specifications for punch press footswitches, provision for "dead-man controls"
for crane pendants, the specification of two-hand operator controls for
machines, and anti-tie down design features for such controls.
8.11. One problem is that it is not clear that the rule prevents back injuries.
Manual lifting is one of the most studied subjects in ergonomics, but to date
the studies are still inconclusive. Injuries continue to be prevalent, even in
the industries that emphasize "proper" lifting techniques. Even NIOSH, the
federal agency charged with the mission of studying hazards and recommending
standards, has little respect for the benefits of training in proper lifting.
This is another reflection of the general distrust of the often-heard rule,
―Lift with your legs, not with your back.‖
8.12. This is a difficult question because it is not clear whether there has
actually been an increase in WMSD incidence or whether there has been a
perception of increased incidence due to the increased attention being given
to the subject. An unexpected finding in the study of computer terminal
operators was that, instead of eyestrain, the bigger problem was with
increased incidence of repetitive strain injuries such as tenosynovitis,
tendonitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome. This is just one example of the
findings in this area. It appears likely that more and more WMSDs will be
reported as the public becomes increasingly aware of the hazard.
8.13. The term MSDS is the abbreviation for Material Safety Data Sheet. The term MSD
is the abbreviation for Musculoskeletal Disorder. The term MSDs (note the use
of lower-case s) refers to the plural of Musculoskeletal Disorder(s).
Therefore, MSDS and MSDs, though similar in appearance, represent quite
different terms in the field of occupational safety and health.
8.14. After a decade-long promulgation process an OSHA standard for Ergonomics was
issued in the waning days of the Presidential administration of Bill Clinton
at the end of the year 2000. However, the politically-controversial standard
was immediately overturned by the new Congress when it reconvened in 2001
after the elections. The agency is prohibited by Congress from reintroducing a
slightly different version of the standard.
8.15. Back belts are very controversial, and there is little evidence that they
prevent back injuries. NIOSH has studied back belts to test the hypothesis
that they reduce workers compensation claim incidence and that they reduce
self-reported back pain. The study showed no significant difference between
the groups who used back belts, versus the groups who did not use them. The
studies were very comprehensive and collected data on 9,377 workers in 160
stores nationwide.
8.16. The chapter does not address this question directly. Certainly research
studies have cast doubt upon the utility of back belts in preventing injury or
in reducing back pain. Training and education of the worker is an important
part of any hazard prevention program, and certainly this is an important
aspect of a program for ergonomics and the prevention of WMSDs. It is
recognized that workers may simply like to wear back belts, and, accordingly,
it appears that they should be permitted this privilege. Recognizing
principles studied in earlier chapters of the text, the employer should
endeavor to adequately train employees so that they do not become misled by a
false sense of security arising from the use of back belts.
8.17. Punch presses often have covers over the foot pedal to prevent inadvertent
actuation of the pedal which would trigger an unwanted stroke of the press
ram. To use the pedal, the operator must deliberately extend the toe of
his/her shoe into the cavity under the cover and then depress the pedal.
Another feature of punch presses is two hand tripping or control mechanisms.
By requiring the concurrent actuation of the two pushbuttons, both of the
operator’s hands are protected from entry
8.18. Despite the emphasis that has been placed upon "proper lifting techniques"
there has been little evidence that such training prevents injuries. Employers
are reluctant to discontinue such training for fear of injuries and subsequent
claims of employer negligence for failure to provide adequate training. Even
NIOSH has shown little respect for the benefits of training in proper lifting
by referring to training of workers in safe methods of manual material
handling as a practice that "is likely to continue despite the lack of
evidence to support it."
8.19. Both the OSHA standard (that was rescinded) and the draft ANSI standard
contained requirements for a WMSD program. The ANSI wording was similar to the
OSHA wording but went a little further to specify job analysis and job design
and intervention, even if WMSDs had not yet been manifested in the workplace.
Program components required in the draft ANSI standard are as follows:
 Management responsibilities
 Training
 Employee involvement
 Surveillance
 Evaluation and management of MSD cases
 Job analysis
 Job design and intervention
8.20. Once a WMSD problem has been identified, the responsibility is upon the
employer to do something about it. Once reported, the hazard becomes
recognized and steps must be taken to eliminate it. Personal protective
equipment is not generally accepted as appropriate. Engineering or work
practice controls must be instituted. Engineering controls are best because
they eliminate the hazard. The policy of ―ramp-in‖ for new employees in new
jobs is considered an administrative or work practice control. Another
administrative control is job rotation.
8.21. Food manufacturing and processing; meat-packing, especially poultry; the

nursing home industry (especially nurses and healthcare providers). Another
concern is computer terminal operation, a job function that touches virtually
all industries.
8.22. Beverly Enterprises, Ft Smith, Arkansas, a provider of healthcare services
(especially nursing homes), and Pepperidge Farms, Downingtown, Pennsylvania, a
maker of biscuits.
8.23. ―Ramp-in‖ gives new employees or existing employees on new jobs the
opportunity to practice and become accustomed to the requirements of the new
job. Ramp-in is considered an effective method of reducing unnecessary
discomfort for new employees who perform repetitive tasks. An added advantage
of ramp-in is that it permits the setting of high performance (productivity)
standards for the job. Even though the new worker to the job can not meet the
high standard, the standard is considered a norm for the new worker to work up
to after the ramp-in period is complete.
8.24. Since ramp-in involves a change in procedure or the pace of the job, it should
be considered an administrative, not engineering, control.
8.25. The classical ―three lines of defense‖ are (1) Engineering controls, (2)
Administrative or work practice controls, and (3) Personal protective
equipment. The third line of defense is widely used in protecting workers from
noise and respiratory hazards, but, for WMSDs, the effectiveness of personal
protective equipment is not widely recognized. Engineering controls are
definitely preferred as a means of eliminating, not just mitigating, the
hazard of WMSDs.
8.26. The answer to this question is a moving target. As of this writing the ANSI
standard had still not been finalized. A search of the Internet yielded
thousands of hits for the search term ―ergonomics standard,‖ but most of the
articles were several months old and referred primarily to the OSHA standard
that is now defunct. Future searches on this question may result in quite
different results.
8.27. Following are some distributors found on the Internet, along with quotations
of claims for their back belts:
Northern Tool and Equipment: ―Four flexible 7 1/2in. stays give you extra
lower back support. Tapered front panels make it easy for you to bend.
Breathable and machine washable.‖
Comfort House: ―orthopedically designed for maximum support…‖ ―…unique
overlapping side-pulls provide added support and compression to your
abdomen and lower back.‖ ―Encourages proper lifting technique…‖
―limits excessive lumbar movement during physical exertion.‖
TorsoS’port: ―Real back support‖ ―precisely molded to fit both the lower back
and abdominal muscles providing unprecedented comfort‖ ―product that
will stand the test of time‖ This source also used the following
language that did not amount to an actual product claim, but implies
one: ―There has been a dramatic increase in the number of individuals
who rely on back supports or weightlifting belts to help prevent
injuries during their daily exercise and leisure routines.‖
8.28. The following general comment was found on the Internet:
Ergonomics in the Automotive Industry
Virtually all automobile and component manufacturers already recognise ergonomics as

an important part of vehicle design. For example, the first phase of the design
process is to make sure that the driver can reach all of the controls, see and
understand the dashboard displays, and feel comfortable in the seat. Failure to
address ergonomics in vehicle design leads to poor driving performance—whether it is
Nigel Mansell not fitting into his Formula One driver's cab or your own sore back
after a long motorway journey. Customers value ergonomic design and they will pay
for it.
http://www.system-concepts.com/case/autohs.html
In this article the point was made that the auto industry pays close attention
to the ergonomics features of the products they sell to the public, but they
give less attention to the ergonomics principles in the design of work
stations for their own employees. Despite the claim that auto manufacturers
use ergonomics in the design of their products, use of the word ―ergonomics‖
is not commonly found in sales literature. This author did not find the word
in general use when searched within specific manufacturer’s websites for
marketing their products.
8.29. At the time of this writing, the OSHA website contained a link to ―ergonomics‖
as a category within the ―Safety/Health Topics‖ listing in the contents
section. This linked revealed that though the general Ergonomics standard was
dead, OSHA remains active in the field of ergonomics. There were public
announcements of new ergonomics guidelines proposals in at least three
industries: poultry, retail grocery, and nursing homes. In addition, OSHA
announced a ―four-pronged comprehensive approach‖ to dealing with ergonomics,
in particular with workplace musculoskeletal disorders. These four approaches
were listed as: Guidelines, Enforcement, Outreach/Assistance, and Research. In
the enforcement arena, OSHA made reference to the General Duty Clause and
stated that the elimination of recognized serious hazards includes ergonomics
hazards. This implies that OSHA’s enforcement strategy for ergonomics makes
use of the General Duty Clause. At the same time, OSHA said that it will not
focus its enforcement efforts on employers who have implemented effective
ergonomic programs or who are making good-faith efforts to reduce ergonomic
hazards.
9.1. To protect the firm from liability for pre-employment health conditions
or pre-existing injuries or damage to tissues, such as lungs.
9.2. The term "toxic substances" generally refers to agents that cause harm
to the body. Examples would be irritants, systemic poisons,
depressants, asphyxiants, carcinogens, teratogens, and mutagens.
"Hazardous materials" are more likely to be associated with safety
hazards, such as fire and explosion hazards. Admittedly, toxic
substances are also hazardous, but the terminology used by OSHA and
practicing professionals is to make the above-described distinction
between the two terms.
9.3. Irritants, systemic poisons, depressants, asphyxiants, carcinogens,

teratogens, and mutagens.
9.4. Ethyl alcohol or "ethanol." Its principal hazard is as a depressant.
9.5. Inhalation, (skin) absorption, and ingestion.

9.6. Dentistry
9.7. For most toxic substances, OSHA has taken a general approach and has
published "national consensus" PELs, based upon existing TLVs published
by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). However, for some substances OSHA has gone much further and
written "completed" standards, each addressing a particular substance.
Prominent examples of such substances are asbestos and lead. Other
prominent examples include benzene, vinyl chloride, cadmium, and
arsenic. (See Table 9.1 of the text).
9.8. Odorless gases include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, and
nitrogen. Carbon monoxide is more dangerous than the others, but the
others can be dangers as simple asphyxiants, crowding out life-giving
oxygen. Methane is listed here as odorless, but usually, for safety
reasons, the gas utility company adds a stanching agent, such as ethyl
mercaptan, to make the methane have the characteristic "natural gas"
odor.
9.9. Hydrogen sulfide, commonly known as "rotten-egg gas." The term
"olfactory" refers to the sense of smell.
9.10. AL represents the "Action Level," and PEL represents the "Permissible
Exposure Level." The AL is usually 1/2 of the level of the PEL and is
intended to be a warning level so that controls can be instigated
before employee exposures exceed the legal limit prescribed by the PEL.
9.11. "Solid" particles that are generally too fine to be called dusts.
Fumes are typically formed by the resolidification of vapors from very
hot processes such as welding.
9.12. 0.033% is equivalent to 0.00033 x 106 = 330
The PELs (TWAs) are found in Appendix A.1:
PELs (ppm)
Carbon Carbon
Monoxide Dioxide
50 5,000
Ci 330 x
Em =  -- = ------- + ---- < 1
Li 5000 50
x 330
< 1 -
50 5000
x 9670
<
50 5000
9670(50)
x <
5000
x < 96.7 ppm carbon monoxide

9.13. Concentration Length of Time C x Ti
.00001 4 hr .00004
.00015 4 hr .00060
Total 8 hr .00064
 CiTi .00064
E = --------- = ------- = .00008
8 8
TWA
.00008 = ----
106
TWA = 80 ppm
The PEL for methyl styrene (from Appendix A.1) is 100 ppm and is
preceded by the letter C, which identifies it as a "ceiling"
concentration, not a TWA. The AL, at one-half the PEL, would be 50
ppm, also a "ceiling" concentration. Since the afternoon
concentration, at .00015 = 150 ppm, exceeds both PEL and AL ceilings,
both PEL and AL are exceeded, even though the TWA at 80 ppm is lower
than the PEL.
9.14. NOTE: This problem has been complicated by a change in nomenclature as

used in the OSHA standards. The organic chemical names
"trifluoromonobromomethane" and "trifluorobromomethane" are synonyms.
OSHA PEL tables have dropped the "mono" from the name and Appendix A.1
lists the PEL for "trifluorobromomethane." Students should be advised
to use this entry in solving this problem.
(a) Concentration Duration

trifluorobromomethane .001 3 hrs
propane .0005 8 hrs
phosgene 1 x 10-6 1/4 hr
TWA = .001 x 3
(106) = 375 ppm (trifluorobromomethane)
8
TWA = .0005(8)
(106) = 500 ppm (propane)
8
TWA = 1/10-6 x 1/4

(106) = .03125 ppm (phosgene)
8
Ci = 375 + 500 + .03125

Em = 
LI 1000 1000 .1
= .375 + .5 + .3125
Em = 1.1875
Since Em > 1, the mixture exceeds the OSHA PEL (and the AL, too).
(b) The given exposure levels of the trifluorobromomethane and

propane (without any phosgene exposure) already exceed the AL
(.375 + .5 = .875 > .5). To determine the allowable exposure to
phosgene to keep the total mixture below the PEL, we subtract the
other exposures from "1" to find the allowable time of
concentration permissible for phosgene:
1 - [.375 + .5] = .125 allowed for phosgene
Time of exposure x concentration

< .125
8 hrs x PEL (phosgene)
Time x 1/106
< .125
8 x .1/106
Time < .125 x 8 hrs x .1

< .1 hr = 6 min
Therefore, to meet the OSHA PEL a total of 6 minutes exposure of

phosgene (at one part per million) is permissible given the other
contaminants. This represents a decrease in exposure of 9 minutes (15
min. - 6 min. = 9 min.).
9.15. Tube A provides greater precision. Note that Tube A measures a more
precise range (0.5 to 10 ppm) using the same number of pump strokes (5)
that for Tube B will measure a much broader range (5 to 100 ppm). Tube
B would be better for gross concentrations, but for a precise
measurement within its range Tube A is better.
The PEL for nitrogen dioxide can be found in Appendix A.1 to be 5 ppm.
Tube A provides better precision and has the capability of measuring
concentrations both below and above 5 ppm. Tube B would be better for
much higher concentrations.
The AL for nitrogen dioxide is 2.5 ppm (1/2 PEL). Tube A again would
be better for checking concentrations at close to the AL because it is
more precise and its sensing range encompasses 2.5 ppm. Tube B is
barely able to detect concentrations at 2.5 ppm because its lower
detection limit is 2 ppm, using 10 pump strokes.
9.16. CO Iron Oxide Manganese

Conc. Length C x L Conc. Length C x L Conc. Length C x L
10 2 20 1 2 2 1 2 2
20 2 40 4 2 8 1 2 2
25 1 25 2 1 2 0 1 0
30 3 90 3 3 9 1 3 3
Total 175 Total 21 Total 7
TWA CO = 175/8 = 21.875 ppm
TWA CO2 = 1000 ppm
TWA Iron Oxide = 21/8 = 2.625 mg/m3
TWA Manganese = 7/8 = .875 mg/m3
Substance PELs from Appen A.1

CO 50 ppm
CO2 5000 ppm
Iron Oxide 10 mg/m3
Manganese (C)5 mg/m3
Since the PEL for manganese is shown as a C (Ceiling) concentration,

the ceiling observed during the shift must be used in the Em equivalent
mixture calculation. Thus, for the manganese term in the summation,
the ratio is 1/5 for the ceiling concentration, not the TWA ratio of
.875/5.
Ci TWA
Em =  = 
Li PEL
= 21.875 + 1000 + 2.625 + 1

50 5000 10 5
= .4375 + .2 + .2625 + .2
Em = 1.050
Since Em = 1.050 > 1, the mixture exceeds the PEL.
9.17. Most dangerous: asbestosis, silicosis

Others: siderosis, stannosis, byssinosis, aluminosis
9.18. Fibrosis is a more serious condition which includes the development of

scar tissue in the lungs.
9.19. Simple asphyxiants: methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide

Chemical asphyxiants: carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide
9.20. (a) mutagens--substances that are harmful to chromosomes (species)

(b) carcinogens--substances that are know to cause or are suspected to
cause cancer
(c) teratogens--substances that are harmful to the fetus
9.21. At home, ingestion, skin contact, then inhalation are the order of most
frequent occurrences of poisoning. At work, the order is reversed.
9.22. Vapors are gases that come from substances that are normally in a
liquid or solid state. Fumes are solid particles which are too fine to
be considered as dust. Fumes are usually formed by the
resolidification of vapors from very hot processes such as welding.
9.23. (a) zinc oxide fumes .01 to 0.3 micrometers

(b) tobacco smoke .01 to 0.4 micrometers
(c) diameter of human hair 500 to 700 micrometers
(d) bacteria .2 to 20 micrometers
9.24. (a) TLV--"threshold limit value": that level of concentration to which
the worker could be exposed during the entire workday without
significant harm.
(b) PEL--"permissible exposure level": prescribed by OSHA or other
enforcement agency. Many PELs are numerically the same as the
corresponding TLV.
(c) TWA--"time-weighted average": exposure level averaged over an 8
hour time period.
(d) MAC--"maximum acceptable ceiling": PEL should never be exceeded.
TWA is not applicable when a MAC is set. Substances for which a MAC
applies are identified by "C" (ceiling) in the OSHA PEL tables.
(e) STEL--"short-term exposure limit": STEL states a maximum
concentration permitted for a specified duration.
(f) AL--"action level": usually set at 1/2 of the PEL.
9.25. (1) Smell--convenient but unreliable.
(2) Examining technical literature to determine what industries might
release what substances--good way to find some agents to check for.
(3) Analyzing the processes in the plant to determine potential leaks
to the atmosphere; this can be very effective if it is done thoroughly;
a chemical engineer may need to be consulted.
9.26. (1) Direct-reading instruments

(2) Sampling and subsequent laboratory analysis
(3) Dosimeters
9.27. Methanol is a synonym for methyl alcohol.

Nitric Sulfur Total
Period Methanol Oxide Dioxide (Mixture)
Time Ti Ci CiTi Ci C iT i Ci CiTi
8:00-10:00 2 hrs 50 100 5 10 0 0
10:00-11:00 1 hr 150 150 10 10 1 1
11:00- 1:00 2 hrs 100 200 5 10 1 2
1:00- 4:00 3 hrs 200 600 10 30 1 3
Total 8 hrs 1050 60 6
TWA 1050/8 = 131.25 60/8 = 7.5 6/8 = .75

PEL 200 25 5
Ratio TWA/PEL 131.25/200 = .65625

7.5/25 = .3
.75/5 = .15
1.10625 > 1.0; mixture exceeds the PEL.
(Also exceeds the AL, of course)
9.28. PEL for ethanol (ethyl alcohol) = 1000 ppm

Since the PEL for ethanol (1000 ppm) is 5 times the PEL for methanol
(200 ppm), and the new concentration (of ethyl alcohol) would be only
double the old concentration (of methyl alcohol), the process change
would help to reduce the health hazard. The new concentration would
have a smaller ratio to its PEL and would thus improve matters. The
advantage of this improvement could be shown numerically by
recalculating the total equivalent mixture ratio sum. (The result is a
reduction from 1.10625 to 0.7125, which is less than 1 and thus within
the PEL for mixtures.)
9.29. OSHA recognizes both solvents as hazards. Chlorobenzene is listed in
Table A.1 as having a PEL (TWA) of 75 ppm. Benzene is much worse,
being recognized as a depressant on the central nervous system, an
irritant, a systemic poison, and a carcinogen (in its role as a cause
of leukemia). In addition, benzene is a dangerous fire and explosion
hazard. So hazardous is benzene that OSHA has issued a separate
standard for it (29 CFR 1910.1029) as a part of the "standards
completion project." In addition it is listed in Table A.2 as having a
PEL (TWA) of 10 ppm. If there are only two choices, and other factors
are equal, chlorobenzene should be selected.
9.30. Volume of room = 600 ft2 x 8 ft = 4800 ft3
5 ft3
Concentration (initial) = ------- = .001042 = 1042 ppm
4800 ft3
Assuming a steady dilution due to the open window, the average
concentration for the 8-hour all-night period is:
1042 + 500 1542

--------------- = ------ = 771 ppm
2 2
PEL for ethyl alcohol = 1000 ppm

Since 771 ppm < 1000 ppm. PEL is not exceeded. (The AL is exceeded.)
9.31. With the hot oven adding an additional 25 ft3 of alcohol vapor to the
room, the total would be 5 ft3 + 25 ft3 = 30 ft3. Under these new
conditions, six times as much vapor has been introduced into the
apartment's air. If it is assumed that the initial and average
concentrations are also six times as great as in Exercise 9.30, then:
Concentration initial = 6 x 1042 ppm = 6252 ppm

Average concentration  6 x 771 ppm = 4626 ppm
Since 4626 ppm > 1000 ppm, PEL is exceeded.
9.32. Range
Tube 5H Tube 5M
Lower Upper Lower Upper
Percent .05% 8.0% .002% .36%
PPM 500 80000 20 3600
Tube 5M is more sensitive.

9.33. Ceiling (MAC) concentration for hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is 20 ppm (from
Appendix A.2 of the text).
Four tubes in the table encompass the 20 ppm MAC. They are 4H, 4M, 4L,
and 4LL. Tube 4LL covers the narrowest range (.25 ppm - 60 ppm).
9.34. From Table A.1 of the text, the PEL (TWA) for isopropyl acetate is 250
ppm. The AL = 1/2 PEL = 125 ppm
Detector tube range: 0.05% to 0.75%
converted to ppm:
Detector tube range: 500 ppm to 7500 ppm
The detector tube is of insufficient sensitivity to be useful as a

detector of concentrations near the PEL or AL.
9.35. 1 micrometer = 10-6 meters; 1 cm = 10-2 meters; 1 cm = 10-4 micrometers

Diameter in centimeters = 17 x 10-4 = 0.0017 cm
Diameter in inches = .0017cm/2.54 cm/in = .00067 in.
The particle would be classified as dust.
9.36. Contaminant Conc PEL AL
Isopropyl ether 200 500 250

Ethyl benzene 40 100 50
Chlorobenzene 25 75 37.5
Chlorobromomethane 50 200 100
Taken separately none of the contaminants exceed either their

respective PEL's or AL's. When considered together, however, the
following formula is used for mixtures:
Em = (200/500) + (40/100) + (25/75) + (50/200)

= .4 + .4 + .33 + .25 = 1.38
Since 1.38 > 1 and 1.38 > 0.5, the concentrations exceed both the PEL
and the AL, respectively.
9.37. On the surface it appears that the new solvent will help matters by
reducing the solvent vapor release by 20%. However, 20% is only a
modest improvement, and a more knowledgeable assessment would include a
comparison of the PELs for the two solvents under consideration. The
old solvent, Stoddard solvent, is listed in the OSHA list for air
contaminant PELs as a TWA of 500 ppm (see Appendix A.1). The new
solvent, perchloroethylene is listed in Appendix A.1 with a reference
to Appendix A.2. Earlier editions of the Appendix have recognized
"perchloroehtylene" and "tetrachloroethylene" as synonyms.
Tetrachloroethylene is found in Appendix A.2 to have a TWA PEL of 100
ppm and a MAC of 200 ppm. Therefore perchloroethylene is much more
tightly controlled as a more hazardous substance than Stoddard solvent.
The advantage of the modest reduction in solvent vapors is more than
offset by the fact that the new solvent is much more dangerous, five
times as dangerous as indicated by the ratio of PELs. It would be more
difficult to control the new solvent to levels within the PEL and AL.
The consultant should point this out to the process engineer and
caution against making the process change.
9.38. Morning Afternoon Ci Li

Exposure Exposure 8-hr OSHA Ci/Li
Substance (4 hrs) (4 hrs) TWA PEL*
Acetic anhydride .5 ppm 1 ppm .75 ppm 5 ppm .15
Sodium hydroxide .2 mg/m3 .3 mg/m3 .25 mg/m3 2 mg/m3 .125
Ammonium sulfide 3 ppm 4 ppm 3.5 ppm none 0
Calcium bisulfide 5 ppm 8 ppm 6.5 ppm none 0
Carbon disulfide 4 ppm 6 ppm 5 ppm 20 ppm .25
Sodium sulfide .7 mg/m3 .8 mg/m3 .75 mg/m3 none 0
Sodium sulfite .5 mg/m3 .5 mg/m3 .5 mg/m3 none 0
.525
n Ci
Total Em =  ----- = .525 < 1 so PEL is not exceeded.
i=1 Li > .5 so AL is exceeded.
9.39. Morning Afternoon Ci Li

Exposure Exposure 8-hr OSHA Ci/Li
Substance (4 hrs) (4 hrs) TWA PEL*
Mixture from Ex. 9.38 .525
Formaldehyde 1 ppm 1 ppm 1 ppm 3 ppm .333*
.858
*Appendix A.2
n Ci
Total Em =  ----- = .858
i=1 Li
The addition of 1 ppm formaldehyde to the other contaminants pushes up

the Em dangerously close to unity, at which point the PEL would be
exceeded. An error of only 1 ppm in the expected concentration would
push the Em over 1.0. Recommendations to the design engineers should
include cautions against the use of formaldehyde unless releases to the
atmosphere are closely controlled. Formaldehyde is so hazardous that
OSHA has promulgated a separate standard (29 CFR 1910.1048) for its
control under the "standards completion project." The tight PEL limits
and other contaminants already present in the plant atmosphere warrant
serious consideration and "back to the drawing board" process changes.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
9.40. The accident occurred on January 30, 1995. The Arkhangelsk Pulp and
Paper Combine of Novodvinsk, Russia emitted up to 16 tons of mercury
compounds into the Svernaya Dvina River. The emission of toxic mercury
compounds into the river were, and still are, a health threat to the
people of the area, and are a threat to the ecological health of the
river itself. The contamination of the Svernaya Dvina River at this
point was as high as 740 and 640 critical contamination concentrations
(cac), on each side of the river. In laymen’s terms, this represents a
contamination 20 times greater than the acceptable level for the
Svernaya Dvina River at this geographical point. There is danger that
the accidental release and the continued release of mercury compounds
into the river will result in the death of the river. The Svernaya
Dvina River empties into the White Sea and ultimately into the Arctic
Ocean. While the much larger body of water represented by the Arctic
Ocean will disperse the concentration rather quickly, the Arctic Ocean,
because of the low water temperatures is a much more fragile
environment than the waters of more temperate oceans. The Arctic
Region is much more sensitive to this type of pollution due to the lack
of microscopic organisms that help to neutralize this type of
contamination in more temperate regions. Source: Internet
http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/TED.MERCURY.HTM
9.41. (a) 1910.1052
(b) April 10, 1997
(c) The rate of implementation of the start-up phase depends upon the
size of the company and upon the section of the standard, as
follows:
COMPANY SIZE: <20 employees 20<employees<99 >99 employees
Initial monitoring 300 days 210 days 120 days
Engineering controls 3 years 2 years 1 year
All other requirements 1 year 270 days 180 days
The longest implementation phase in the above table is 3 years.

Therefore the date of the end of the implementation phase is April 10,
2000.
(d) 25 ppm
(e) 125 ppm over a period of 15 minutes
(f) 30 years
9.42. By searching the OSHA website for the keyword "methylene chloride" the
Internet surfer can be directed to the preamble to the standard that
appeared in the Federal Register when the methylene chloride standard
was promulgated (January 10, 1997). The summary to the preamble claimed
that the standard would result in a savings of 31 cancer deaths per
year plus 3 deaths per year from central nervous system disorders and
carboxyhemoglobinemic effects (carbon monoxide poisoning
complications). The cost of compliance was estimated to be $101
million/year. Searching the archived News Releases on the OSHA
website, OSHA News Release 97-06, dated January 9, 1997, can be found.
In this release, then OSHA Director Joseph Dear stated that a total of
34 lives per year would be saved, 31 from long-term effects and 3 from
short-term effects. The news release also reported an estimated
237,500 workers are exposed to methylene chloride.
9.43. On the OSHA website, going to the archived news releases, search for
the term "butadiene." This will display OSHA News Release 96-147, dated
October 24, 1996. According to the News Release, the PEL was reduced
from 1,000 ppm to 1 ppm. (This represents a thousand-fold reduction.)
The estimated cost of compliance with the standard was $2.9 million per
year. The more stringent standard is expected to prevent at least 79
cancer deaths over a 45-year working lifetime.
9.44. The top on the list of frequently cited standards among the ―standards
completion project‖ substances was Lead, which accounted for
approximately one-third of all citations for ―standards completion
project‖ substances. Following is a listing of the top three, with
frequency of citation for each:
29CFR1910.1025 – Lead: 1137 citations

29CFR1910.1052 – Methylene Chloride: 769 citations
29CFR1910.1048 – Formaldehyde: 308 citations
Source: NCM database
9.45. From the OSHA website it can be determined that the general OSHA
standard for air contaminants is 29CFR1910.1000. The specific
provisions that require air contaminants to be held within their
respective PELs are presented with their respective enforcement
statistics, as determined from the NCM database:
Citation Total Average

Frequenc
Standard Provision Coverage y $ Penalty $ Penalty
1000(a) Table Z.1 150 $168,000 $1,123
1000(b) Table Z.2 21 $79,425 $3,782
1000(c) Table Z.3 97 $145,950 $1,505
All of the above 268 $393,375 $1,468
Source NCM database
9.46. From the OSHA website, the appropriate standard is OSHA standard
29CFR1910.1000(d)(2)(i). The formula is the same as shown in the text.
10.1 Batch process hazards: Open handling is reduced, reducing the exposure
of materials to the air; batches of material sometimes must sit
idle, awaiting processing.
Continuous process hazard: Mechanical handling equipment may increase
contamination levels.
10.2. An ordinary household ventilation fan is useful for diluting the

concentration of air contaminants at a particular workstation. Dilution
ventilation is a recognized method of reducing concentrations to a
safer level. However, such dilution disperses the contaminant
throughout the plant and increases the background level of
contamination. If other processes also add to the contamination, it may
ultimately be necessary to remove the contaminant from the air. It will
be more difficult to remove later, after it has dispersed throughout
the plant. Dilution ventilation is somewhat similar to ―sweeping dirt
under the rug.‖
10.3 An ordinary vacuum cleaner has the advantage of focusing the

ventilation on the source and removing the contaminant before it has an
opportunity to disperse into the ambient air in the plant. However,
ordinary vacuum cleaners do not have the filtering capability to remove
most dangerous contaminants, so they will simply return the
contaminated air into the plant from the exhaust side of the vacuum
cleaner. Another disadvantage to the focused vacuum-cleaner approach is
that the concentrated force of the air stream may blow papers or
interfere with the process.
10.4. Pull systems produce a negative pressure within the contaminated air
discharge duct. Thus, leaks in the duct, if any, will result in plant
air being drawn INTO the duct. Push systems produce a positive pressure
within the contaminated air discharge duct. Any leaks in such a duct
will introduce contaminated air back into the ambient air in the plant.
10.5. A manometer is an instrument used to detect differences in pressure.

Manometers are useful in ventilation systems to detect differences in
pressure across a filter. An increase in pressure differential across a
filter in a ventilation system is a direct indication that the filter
has clogged or built up a resistance due to the collection of dust,
dirt, or process contaminants. An alarm can be set to trigger upon a
threshold pressure differential detected by the manometer.
10.6. Solution method 1: Design and install systems to filter and purify the
contaminated air so that it can be recycled back into the plant
atmosphere.
Solution method 2: Introduce the makeup air for the exhaust system
adjacent to the point of origin for the contaminant. The makeup air
introduced at the point of operation may not need any heating or
cooling, as it will be immediately removed by the exhaust ventilation
system.
Solution method 3: Use a heat exchanger to warm (or cool) makeup air by
passing it through the heat exchanger in close proximity to the heated
(or cooled) exhaust air.
10.7. Centrifugal devices (sometimes called cyclones)

Electrostatic precipitators
Wet scrubbers
Filters (fabric or bag-type)
10.8. Pitch and pressure intensity of the sound wave. Of the two, pressure
intensity is the more dangerous characteristic of sound. Even though
the peaks of pressure intensity can be dangerous, the human ear can
withstand, without damage, sound pressures 10,000,000 times as great as
the faintest sound it can hear.
10.9. Ionizing and nonionizing radiation, with ionizing radiation being the
more dangerous of the two. X rays are an example of ionizing radiation
that can occur in the workplace.
10.10. Some workers are concerned with radiation (nonionizing) from computer
terminals, but the principal hazard with computer terminals is
musculoskeletal disorders, not radiation.
10.11. In this problem we are given the SLM readings and must work backwards
to infer the sound output of either of the two identical generators.
(a) One generator on: SLM reading = 83.6 dBA

No generators on (background noise):SLM reading = 81 dBA
Difference = 2.6 dB
This difference is used in Table 10.1, right-hand column, to infer that

the decibel difference in sound output between the background noise and
one generator is 1 dB (left hand column). The louder of the two
sources is the background noise at 81 dBA, since this was the value to
which 2.6 dB was added to result in 83.6 dBA. Therefore the noise
output of each generator is 81 - 1 = 80 dBA. When the second generator
is turned on, it will add another 80 dBA to the 83.6 dBA.
83.6
80
Difference = 3.6
Table 10.1 (left hand column) does not show an entry for a difference
of 3.6 dB, but linear interpolation can be used as an approximation:
3.6 - 3 = x - 1.8
4 - 3 1.4 - 1.8
x = 1.56
Therefore 83.6 + 1.56 = 85.16 dBA with both machines on
(b) PEL = 90 dBA

Since 85.16 < 90, PEL is not exceeded.
AL = 85 dBA
Since 85.16 > 85, AL is (barely) exceeded.
(c) From Table 10.2 and using linear interpolation (as in part [a]):
dBA Hrs. Ref. Duration
83.6 4 19.48
85.16 4 15.664
Cn 4 + 4
D =  = 100
Tn 19.48 15.664
D = 46.07% < 100% PEL not exceeded
D = 46.07% < 50% AL not exceeded
(d) For 1 generator: the dBA would be 80 dBA

(from solution in Part [a])
For 2 generators: 80 + 3 (from Table 10.1) = 83 dBA
10.12. (a) machine 1 86 dB

machine 2 -80 dB
6 dB  dB = 1.0
86 93
+ 1.0 + 1.0
87.0 dB 94.0 dB
machine 3 93.0 machine 4 70.0 dB
6 dB  dB = 1.0 24.0 dB  dB = negl.
Therefore, combined noise level is 94 dBA.
(b) First we determine the combined noise level of machines 1, 2, and

4. machines 1 and 2: 87 dBA (from part [a] above)machine 4 at 70
dBA is of negligible consequence since the difference (87 - 70 = 17
dB) does not appear in Table 10.1.
OSHA 8-hr PEL = 90 dBA
So machine 3 can add only 90 - 87 = 3 dB to the exposure. From Table

10.1 (or by the Rule of Thumb) we know that 3 dB are added when the
sound outputs of two sources are equal (0 dB difference). Therefore
machine 3 noise must be reduced to 87 dBA, equivalent to the combined
outputs of machines 1, 2, and 4. This constitutes a reduction of 93 -
87 = 6 dB from the current noise output of machine 3.
6 dB = 2 x 3 dB so the absolute noise output of machine 3 must be

halved twice, or reduced by a factor of 4.
Thus the original distance of 5 feet from machine 3 to the worker must
be increased to reduce the sound by a factor of 4. The sound intensity
is reduced as the square of the distance, so
52/d2 = 1/4
d2 = 52 x 4 = 25 x 4 = 100
d = 10 feet
Note that we have doubled the distance from 5 feet to 10 feet and the
resultant sound is thus reduced by a factor of 4.
10.13. (1) Change the process that produces the contaminant

(2) Change the materials used in the process
10.14. "Makeup air" is air to replace the exhausted air in a ventilation

system.
10.15. Since the difference between 99dB and 65dB is so great, the background
noise can be considered as negligible. So we have
99 dB for 10 machines
-3
96 dB for 5 machines
-3
93 dB for 2.5 machines
-3
90 dB for 1.25 machines
Therefore, 9 machines would have to be shut down to meet the 90 dB

standard.
10.16. The 55 dB ambient noise level is a negligible contribution to the total

noise level when the machine is on. Therefore the noise level would
decrease according to the square of the distance of the machine:
Abs. sound level at 3 ft 122 144

Ratio = ----------------------------- = ---- = ---- = 16
2
Abs. sound level at 12 ft 3 9
So the absolute sound level will decrease by a factor of 16. Since 16

= 24, the sound level will be cut in half 4 times. Every time the
absolute noise level is halved, the sound level decreases by 3 dB.
Therefore, after the machine is moved to a distance of 12 feet, the SLM
will read 90 dB - (4x3 dB) = 78 dB.
10.17. 20% x 90 tons x 2000 lbs
= 36000 lbs. (liquid)
ton
36000 lbs
Vapor released = x 450 = 157,282 ft3
103 lbs/ft3
PEL (chlorine) = 1 ppm (Appendix A.1)
Vapor released
< PEL of 1 ppm
Room volume
157,282 ft3/vol < 10-6
157,282 ft3
Vol >
10-6
Vol > 157,282 x 106 ft3

Vol > 1.57 x 1011 ft3
Volume x [ 1 mile]2
Floor Space (in square miles) =
Ceiling Height [5280 ft]2
= 1.57 x 1011
30 x 52802
= .523 x 1010 = 188 square miles

5.282 x 106
10.18. (a) dB hrs
86 1
84 2
81 1
101 1
75 3
8
Using Table 10.2:

n Cn 1 2 1 1
D = 100  ----- = 100 ----- + ----- + ----- + ---- = 80.47%
i=1 Tn 13.9 18.4 27.9 1.7
Since 80.47% < 100, PEL is not exceeded.
(b) yes (since 80.47% > 50%)
(c) yes
(d) no (unless the employee has experienced a permanent threshold
shift)
(e) Afternoon; the 101 dBA contributes more than all other exposures
combined. Comparison is as follows:
Cut sound in morning: 86 -- 83; 84 -- 81; 81 -- 78
n Cn 1 2 1
D = 100  --- = 100 ---- + ---- + ---- = 70.73%
i=1 Tn 21.1 27.9 1.7
Cut sound in afternoon:
n Cn 1 2 1 1
D = 100  --- = 100 ---- + ---- + ---- + ---- = 60.11%
i=1 Tn 13.9 18.4 27.9 2.6
10.19. 2 Enclose the noise source with a barrier that reduces the noise
level by 50%.
1 Position the operator at a distance twice as far from the source

of the noise.
3 Rotate personnel so that each worker is exposed to the noise

source for only one-half shift.
4 Provide ear protection that cuts the noise level by one half.
Moving the operator away (twice as far) from the noise is best because
this change will reduce the noise exposure by a factor of 4 (6 db),
whereas the other three alternatives only reduce the noise exposure by
a factor of 2 (3 db reduction reduces the absolute sound pressure by a
factor of 2). Second in priority is the barrier because it would be
considered an engineering control. Third in priority would be rotating
personnel, an administrative or "work practice" control. Last in
priority would be ear protectors, which would represent personal
protective equipment.
10.20. PEL liberated 5

---- = --------- = ---
106 exhaust E
5(106) 5(106)
E = -------- = ------- = 5,000 ft3/hr
PEL 1000
10.21. Instead of silica (for blasting), use steel shot.

Instead of lead-based paint, use iron oxide pigments.
Instead of freon (as a propellant), use propane.
Instead of acetylene (for welding), use natural gas, if flame
temperature is hot enough.
10.22. Often operating personnel ignore such alarms as red lights. Even when
the alarm is an audible type, operators and/or maintenance personnel
may ignore the signals or even deliberately disconnect the wiring to
the alarms as an expediency.
10.23. The purpose is to save energy costs by allowing the transfer of energy
between exhaust air and makeup air, that is, from exhaust air to makeup
air in the winter months and from makeup air to exhaust air in the
summer months. The method is especially effective in cold climates in
which much energy is lost via exhaust air. The drawback to the
approach is that it places contaminated air in close proximity to clean
makeup air. If there are leaks in the heat exchanger, cross-
contamination can result.
10.24. Exhaust ventilation is being used with insufficient sources of makeup
air, probably due to the need to open some windows or doors.
10.25. X-rays
10.26. (a) For the design of a ventilation system to protect against safety
hazards the appropriate physical characteristic is LEL, "lower
explosive limit," which, for ethylene glycol, is 3.2%. The ventilation
system must introduce sufficient makeup air to maintain a dilution of
the ethylene glycol to less than 3.2%. Although a large room size
might accommodate the contamination for a short period, in the long run
the ventilation system must keep up with the rate of contamination
produced by the process, regardless of the dimensions of the air volume
within the plant. Therefore,
2.4 ft3 = 3.2%

vent
vent = 240/3.2 = 75 ft3/hr
(b) To deal with the health hazard the ventilation system must keep the
concentration of ethylene glycol at least below the PEL and should be
designed to keep it below the action level. The PEL for ethylene
glycol is shown in the problem statement to be 50 ppm (ceiling)1, so the
AL at 50% of the PEL is 25 ppm. Therefore,
2.4 ft3 = 25 ppm = 0.000025

vent
vent = 2400000/25 = 96000 ft3/hr
(c) Although the room volume of the plant would not affect the design
of the general dilution ventilation system to deal with the ethylene
glycol hazard, it would determine how many room changes per hour the
ventilation system would effect, as follows:
Room changes/hr = vent per hr/ Room air volume
= 96000 ft3/hr = 0.5

12000 ft2 x 16 ft
10.27. Plan A: Doubling the distance reduces the absolute sound pressure by a
factor of 4. The dB level is thus reduced by half twice (2 x 3 = 6
dB). New dB reading = 96 - 6 = 90 dB.
Plan B: Reducing the absolute sound pressure by 75% would result in a

new absolute sound pressure of 25% (or one-fourth) of the old absolute
sound pressure. Therefore Plan B, like Plan A, is also a reduction by
a factor of 4 or a 6 dB reduction. New dB reading = 96 - 6 = 90 dB
The two plans are equally effective in that each reduces the noise
level to 90 dB. If both plans were employed at the same time, each
plan would reduce the absolute sound pressure by a factor of 4,
resulting in a 16-fold overall reduction. Note that a 16-fold
reduction is a halving of the sound pressure four times (24 = 16). Each
time absolute sound pressure is halved, sound level is reduced by 3 dB.
The sound level is thus reduced by 12 dB (4x3dB = 12dB). New dB
reading = 96-12 = 84 dBA.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
10.28. A professional recommendation to this employer should first establish

whether the general asbestos standard, 29 CFR 1910.1001, applies.
Subparagraphs (a)(2) and (a)(3) of this standard exclude construction
and ship repairing, shipbuilding, and shipbreaking and if the employer
is in these industries, other applicable standards should be consulted.
It is assumed in this problem that since none of these special
industry categories were mentioned, the general standard applies. In
1
Note to Instructor: Although the PEL for ethylene glycol is listed in the problem statement for Exercise
10.26 to be 50 ppm, OSHA lists the substance as 2-Methoxyethyl acetate and currently lists its PEL as 25 ppm (TWA)
as shown in Appendix A.1 of the text. For purposes of this exercise the solution assumes a ceiling PEL of 50 ppm
for this substance, as stated in the problem statement.
subparagraph (f) - Methods of Compliance, the standard for the most
part permits either engineering controls or work practice controls to
be used to reduce the exposure of employees to acceptable levels.
However, the employer’s attention should be directed to several
provisions of subparagraph (f)(1) of the standard that specify certain
engineering controls and production procedures WHETHER OR NOT
ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS ARE USED ALSO. Certain asbestos operations
REQUIRE local exhaust ventilation, in accordance with
1910.1001(f)(1)(iv) and (v). Specifically, local exhaust ventilation
is required for the use of ―hand-operated and power-operated tools
which would produce or release fibers of asbestos, such as, but not
limited to, saws, scorers, abrasive wheels, and drills.‖ Such local
exhaust ventilation is required to be ―designed, constructed,
installed, and maintained in accordance with good practices such as
those found in the American National Standard Fundamentals Governing
the Design and Operation of Local Exhaust Systems, ANSI Z9.2-1979.‖
Another engineering control specified by the standard
(1910.1001(f)(1)(vi)) is wet methods ―insofar as practicable‖ whenever
asbestos is ―handled, mixed, applied, removed, cut, scored, or
otherwise worked‖ in order to prevent the emission of airborne fibers
so as to expose employees to levels in excess of the TWA and/or
excursion limit specified by the standard. Particular products and
operations require one or more ENGINEERING controls as specified by
1910.1001(f)(1)(viii). Specifically, the removing of asbestos ―from
bags, cartons, or other containers in which they are shipped‖ requires
wetting, enclosure, or ventilation ―so as to prevent effectively the
release of airborne fibers.‖ Special engineering control precautions
are specified for the use of compressed air for removal of asbestos or
materials containing asbestos (1910.1001(f)(1)(ix)). Basically,
compressed air is prohibited for this purpose, unless a ventilation
system is properly engineered to effectively capture the dust cloud
created by the compressed air. Sanding asbestos-containing floor
material is prohibited by 1910.1001(f)(1)(x). Another method must be
engineered to replace the sanding operations. There are detailed
requirements for brake and clutch repair operations; these requirements
are specified in Appendix F of the standard. Often the employer uses
employee rotation as a work practice control to reduce employee
exposure to maximum acceptable time-weighted average exposure levels,
but for asbestos operations, employee rotation to achieve compliance is
not an option. OSHA standard 1910.1001(f)(2)(iv) specifies that ―the
employer shall not use employee rotation as a means of compliance with
the TWA and/or excursion limit.‖ These are significant drawbacks to
the administrative (work-practice) control strategies, and management
should be made aware of these drawbacks.
10.29. OSHA standard 1910.1001(h)(3)(ii) expressly prohibits ―the removal of
asbestos from protective clothing and equipment by blowing or shaking.‖
10.30. The Lead Industries Association was joined by the Battery Council
International along with the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration in a voluntary initiative to protect the health of lead
workers. This initiative was announced on October 30, 1996 (USDL News
Release 96-457): ―Representatives of 33 companies, the vast majority
of members in the two associations, have agreed to the program. The
companies have 20,000 workers in such industries as battery
manufacturing, lead smelting, lead chemicals, fabrication using lead,
and solder manufacturing.‖
Two targets were identified, as follows:
OSHA Industries’
Spec Target Initiative
Trigger blood level for relocation of 50 micrograms 40

micrograms
workers to an area in which lead
exposure is less than the 30 micrograms
per cubic meter action level
(per 100 grams of whole blood)
Blood level target for return to work 40 micrograms 35

micrograms
(per 100 grams of whole blood)
Both of the above targets were scheduled for a 5-year phase-in with the
relocation target to decrease at the rate of 2 micrograms per year and
the return-to-work target to decrease at the rate of 1 microgram per
year until the 5-year targets are reached.
10.31. From the OSHA website, the general industry industrial noise standard
is found to be OSHA standard 1910.95. This standard contains provisions
for exposure to excessive noise plus provisions for monitoring, hearing
conservation programs, and personal protective equipment. The NCM
database shows that OSHA standard 29CFR1910.95 was cited 2265 times for
the fiscal year, and that 1283 of these citations were designated as in
the ―serious‖ category. Thus, the percentage of serious violations is
1283/2265 = approximately 57%. The total dollar amount of the penalties
proposed for the alleged violations was $1,548,498, for an average
penalty per citation of approximately $684.
10.32. Using the keyword search capability of the NCM database, searching on
the term *exhaust hood* returns a tabulation of 122 citations of
various standards. Of these 122 citations, 116 were classified as
―serious.‖ Thus, the serious citations represented 116/122 =
approximately 95% of the total.
10.33. Using the OSHA website, the relevant provisions of the OSHA noise
standard are listed along with the total number of citations and the
number of serious citations for Fiscal Year 2002, as determined from
the NCM database:
Serious
Total citations citations
Audiometric testing
1910.95(g) 502 294
1910.95(h) 2 0
1910.95(m)(2) 53 15
1910.95(m)(3)(ii) 1 1
1910.95(n)(1) 1 0
Hearing conservation
programs
1910.95c 5 3
1910.95c1 500 303
Totals 1064 616
General ventilation standard

1910.94 201 159
The action level trigger for audiometric testing and hearing

conservation programs is 85 decibels.
Computing the percentage of citations that are classified as serious,
using the total figures alone:
Audiometric testing and hearing conservation:
616/1064 = approximately 58 percent

General ventilation standard:
159/201 = approximately 79 percent

OSHA cites the noise standard more frequently, but the ventilation
standard generates a higher percentage of ―serious‖ citations.
11.1. A floating roof is used on many petroleum tanks. The roof rises and
falls with the level of the liquid, so that the tank does not require
venting. This saves vapor losses and also enhances safety.
11.2. Yes, if the quantity of explosives does not exceed 50 pounds. A Class
II magazine can store any type of explosive. It is restricted by only
the amount of explosive stored in it. Fifty pounds or less may be
stored in a Class II magazine.
11.3. An acronym which stands for boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion.
11.4. The terms ―light‖ and ―heavy‖ refer to ―volatility‖ or how readily a
liquid will evaporate. Volatility is closely related to boiling point.
―Light‖ indicates high volatility, so light oils will evaporate more
readily than heavy oils.
11.5. Gasoline Ethyl Alcohol

Flammable range: 1.4 to 7.6% vapors  4 to 20% vapors
A drum of alcohol would have a much greater hazard potential than one
containing gasoline because a much wider range of alcohol
concentrations in air are burnable.
11.6. Acetone flammability lower limit  3% vapor concentration.

2 gal. of liq. x 41 ft3 vapor = 82 ft3 vapor
hr. gal. of liq. hr.
Let x = amount of air needed to maintain less than 3% acetone vapor.

82/x < 3/100
x > 82(100)/3
x > 2733 ft3/hr
Volume of room = 9 x 12 x 10 = 1080 ft3
2733 ft3/hr = 2.53 times/hr

1080 ft3
11.7. There will be spray paint residues accumulated throughout the area in
large quantities.
11.8. Automatic sprinkler systems are required for fixed electrostatic paint
spraying systems where this protection is available.
11.9. Dip tank covers are required to be "kept closed when tanks are not in
use." Automatic closure is not required.
11.10. The transportation and storage of LPG in its liquid state in tanks
introduce hazards not present for natural gas. The tanks are subject
to BLEVE in fires. LPG is heavier than air, causing it to collect in
low areas instead of quickly dispersing as does natural gas (methane),
which is lighter than air. The liquid state of LPG also can cause skin
and flesh burns from the extreme cold when the LPG is released from its
tank or connections.
11.11. Fire extinguishers can be useful for extinguishing small fires before
they cause ignition of LPG tanks. Once the LPG ignites, however, fire
extinguishers are useless for fighting the fire. Professional fire-
fighters use large quantities of water to fight LPG fires.
11.12. Using the paint spray area as a drying area can raise the temperature
level of the paint residues and also the level of flammable vapors in
the air, increasing the fire hazard. The standards prohibit the use of
a paint spray area as a drying area unless the arrangement does not
"cause a material increase in the surface temperature of the spray
booth, room, or enclosure.
11.13. The key to the solution of this problem is to recognize that the
objective with general exhaust ventilation is to maintain adequate
ventilation levels to introduce sufficient makeup air to keep the
contaminant release within limits. Room size (volume) makes a
difference at first but does not affect the long-run solution to
maintaining contaminant levels below limits.
(a) For dealing with safety hazards the objective is to keep carbon
disulfide levels below the lower flammable limit, which was stated in
the problem statement to be 1.3%
Let x = the required ventilation level:
3 ft3/hr = 0.013
x
x = 3/0.013 = 231 ft3/hr

(b) For dealing with health hazards the objective is to keep carbon
disulfide levels below the 8-hr TWA PEL: 20 ppm
Let y = the required ventilation level:
3 ft3/hr = 0.000020
y
y = 3/0.000020 = 150,000 ft3/hr

(c) The flashpoint of carbon disulfide is shown in the problem
statement to be -22 oF, and the boiling point is 46.5oC. The flashpoint
identifies the liquid as Class I. The boiling point is converted to
Fahrenheit as follows:
o o o
B.P. (Fahrenheit) = 46.5 C x 9/5 + 32 = 115.7 F
o
Since the boiling point is greater than 100 F, carbon disulfide is
classified as a Class IA liquid. (See Figure 11.1)
11.14. No difference. Another name for Class I liquids is ―flammable
liquids.‖
11.15. The danger of the ―empty‖ gasoline drum is that the vapors have thinned
to the point that they may be within the burnable range, i.e., less
than the UEL but still greater than the LEL. In a full tank of
gasoline the vapors are virtually certain to be in greater
concentration than the UEL. For carbon disulfide, however, the range
of burnable concentrations is much greater. The LEL for carbon
disulfide is 1.3% and the UEL is 50%, a range of 48.7%. For gasoline
the range is much narrower at 6.2% (7.6% UEL - 1.4% LEL = 6.2%).
11.16. The hazard is that the vapor density of gasoline is greater than that
of air. The heavier gasoline vapors will tend to displace the air and
collect in the basements of service stations, creating dangerous
concentrations.
11.17. Kerosene is combustible and therefore has a higher flashpoint than

gasoline. At the same temperatures, gasoline is much more dangerous
and ignitable. However, if the kerosene is heated, it can become even
more dangerous and ignitable than gasoline.
11.18. Ethyl mercaptan is a stenching agent added to propane to facilitate

leak awareness and detection.
11.19. It’s OK to refuel forklift trucks with the engine still running, if the
forklift is LPG-powered. This is despite the fact that federal
standards prohibit refueling of forklift trucks while the engine is
still running if the fueling operation involves venting to the
atmosphere. LPG refueling does not require venting to the atmosphere.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
11.20. Pyrogen. Ref Internet website: http://www.pyrogen.com/
FE-241 is a liquefied compressed gas similar to Halon. It is classified

as "clean agent", meaning it leaves no residue as a result of the agent
itself. Its chemical name is Chlorotetrafluoroethane. Like Halon, it
chemically inteferes with the combustion process for fire
extinguishment. Ref Internet website:
http://www.fireboy-xintex.com
Halotron™ I: Halotron, Inc. manufactures environmentally acceptable
clean (leaving no residue) fire extinguishing agents, including
Halotron™ I, which are replacements for the halons. In developed
countries, production of Halons 1211 and 1301 was stopped on January 1,
1994.
Ref Internet website:
http:halotron-inc.com
Microblaze Out: Microbial firefighting agent. Ref: Internet website:
http://www.micro-blaze.com
11.21. The Shepardsville, Kentucky train derailment involved an 89-car freight
train carrying hazardous materials and explosives. The trained
derailed and hurtled into the Salt River in this small town
approximately 20 miles south of Louisville. The town of more than
1,000 population was evacuated to a Red Cross shelter at a nearby
county fairgrounds. Several train cars were set on fire. One car that
was not burning, but was close to another burning car, contained
Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate. This chemical is not only flammable;
it is extremely poisonous and is chemically similar to the Diisocyanate
that was released in Bhopal, India with disastrous results. Fire and
disaster officials were fearful that the firefighters would be
endangered and declined to send them into the immediate area of the
fire. Another concern was BLEVE. A BLEVE of a material that is both
poisonous and flammable could be a disastrous event, but there is the
possibility that the burning that takes place in a BLEVE could serve to
consume the material in question or neutralize its toxic effects. The
problem is that some of the material might not be completely consumed
by the BLEVE, and the potentially deadly, partially destroyed, by-
products of the combustion would be released and even further dispersed
into the air. Reference source: The above facts were gathered from the
Internet in 1998 at ―EMERGENCYNET NEWS‖ 11-19-91 2300 CST. At the time
of publication of this Solutions Manual the Internet URL containing the
particulars on this accident was no longer available on the Internet.
The difficulty for students who are assigned this research exercise is
substantially increased due to the unavailability of this URL on the
Internet. Instructors should take this into consideration in making
assignments to students.
11.22. The tank arrangement is poorly designed. Tank #1 is splash loaded, but
a more serious design problem actually caused this accident. The tank
interconnection at the bottom is quickly immersed in liquid as soon as
filling begins. This forces tank #2 to fill before tank #1. Because
there is no separate vent for tank #1, a bubble of air in tank #1
prevents its filling, and when tank #2 is full, it starts to overflow
from the vent pipe when only 250 gallons have been delivered. The
large, unexpected spill through the vent pipe was the principal cause
of the explosion.
The flashpoint of tetrahydrofuran is 6 degrees Fahrenheit. (ref.
Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents, Alliance of American Insurers,
1981)
11.23. The six frequently violated conditions are described by several
provisions of the OSHA standard. From the OSHA website the various
provisions of OSHA standard 29CFR1910.107 – Spray finishing relevant to
the six areas are listed below, with citation counts shown for each.
The source of the citation counts is the NCM database.
Electrical wiring for hazardous locations:
1910.107(c)(4) – 12 citations
1910.107(c)(5) – 55 citations
1910.107(c)(6) – 165 citations
for a total of 232 citations
Exhaust air filter deficiencies:
1910.107(b)(5)(i) – 268 citations

1910.107(b)(5)(ii) – 9 citations
1910.107(b)(5)(iv) – 119 citations
1910.107(b)(5)(vi) – 1 citations
Cleaning and residue disposal:

1910.107(g)(2) – 199 citations
1910.107(g)(3) – 64 citations
also,
1910.107(b)(9) (accessibility for cleaning) – 148 citations
Quantities of material in storage:

1910.107(e)(2) – 146 citations
Grounding of containers:
1910.107(e)(9) – 94 citations
also,
1910.107(i)(6) (general grounding, incl containers) – 4 citations
NO SMOKING signs:
1910.107(g)(7) – 93 citations
1910.107(m)(2) – 3 citations
The total number of citations of alleged violations of the relevant

provisions:
232 + 397 + 411 + 146 + 98 + 96 = 1380 citations
The total number of citations of alleged violations for the entire
spray finishing standard (OSHA standard 1910.107) = 2058
Therefore, the citations for the ―top six‖ frequently cited conditions
represents 1380/2058 = approximately 2/3 of the total citations for the
spray finishing standard.
11.24. OSHA has recently changed the organization of standards pertaining to
dip tanks. Formerly the principal standard was OSHA standard
29CFR1910.108 – Dip Tanks containing flammable and combustible liquids.
As of this writing, this standard was still listed on the OSHA website
in the Table of Contents for the OSHA General Industry 1910 standards.
However, the text of this standard has been removed and placed in other
standards, leaving 1910.108 with only the word ―reserved‖ in the text
content. Currently, there are four principal standards for dip tanks:
1910.123 – Dipping and coating operations – Coverage and definitions
1910.124 – General requirements for dipping and coating operations
1910.125 – Additional requirements for dipping and coating operations
that use flammable and combustible liquids.
1910.126 – Additional requirements for special dipping and coating
operations
OSHA citation activity for dip tanks in general is not very significant
in recent years, as can be seen from the NCM database. Also, the focus
has shifted somewhat from the former emphasis on such items as covers
and automatic extinguishing systems. The three most frequently cited
items in all of the ―dipping and coating operations‖ standards are the
following:
1910.124(g)(2) – Emergency shower and eyewash facilities

1910.124(h)(4) – Exposure to chromic acid, exposed body parts,
especially nostrils (Note: see discussion of ―chrome holes‖ in
Chapter 12 of the text in the discussion of personal protective
equipment around open-surface tanks)
125(e)(5) – No smoking in vapor area near dip tanks
11.25. The OSHA website shows that the principal standard for LPG is OSHA
standard 29CFR1910.110 – Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum
gases. The NCM database shows that for the fiscal year 1910.110 was
cited 558 times, of which 292 citations were listed as ―serious.‖ Of
these 558 citations, the most frequently cited provisions were:
1910.110(f)(2)(i) 128 citations

(location of LPG containers in storage)
1910.110(d)(10) 69 citations
(precautions to prevent damage from vehicular traffic)
1910.110(f)(2)(ii) 63 citations
(inside storage of LPG near exits)
1910.110(e)(4)(iii) 58 citations
(secure mounting of tanks, but no field welding on the tanks
themselves; field welding only on the original lugs)
The above four provisions accounted for more than half of all citations
issued for LPG alleged violations for the fiscal year.
12.1. The employer of the employees who will be potentially exposed.

12.2. Selection of appropriate PPE equipment, fit testing, and PPE training
for affected employees. The training must be documented with a
certificate that identifies the names of employees trained, the dates,
and the subject for which the employee was certified.
12.3. Retraining is needed if either the workplace is changed or if the PPE

is changed.
12.4. Simply attaching a lifeline to a worker’s belt may not be adequate. The
belt may not withstand the shock load of an accidental fall. Further,
the practice might engender a false sense of security on the part of
the worker, who might think that he/she is protected, but in truth the
protection might not be adequate for the hazard.
12.5. The non-mandatory appendices to the OSHA standards can provide some
guidance. NIOSH publishes some data to assist employers in this
decision and also publishes the list of NIOSH certified equipment. The
preambles to the OSHA standards can also be helpful in this regard.
Table 12.1 of the text provides some guidance for eye and face
protection. Expert consultants can also be beneficial, but the hazard
usually dictates the choice of equipment or at least greatly narrows
the choice.
12.6. Whenever it is determined that the personal protective equipment is

needed.
12.7. The employee needs to learn that PPE is limited to a finite useful life
even under proper care and maintenance.
12.8. By documentation with a certificate showing names, dates, and subject

for which the employee is certified. Employees should be knowledgeable
of the subject for which they are trained. If the workplace or the
equipment changes, the employee should be retrained.
12.9. Ordinary cotton balls, without impregnation with a wax, are virtually
worthless for noise attenuation.
12.10. Helmets. Helmets can also be designed to serve the function of a
hardhat.
12.11. The organic substances present in expandable foam do not have adequate
warning properties, so the user will not know when the canister is
saturated.
12.12. A chemical oxygen-generating unit employs a superoxide of potassium in

which oxygen is liberated by contact with water. Used in "closed
circuit" breathing apparatus, the moisture is supplied by the user's
breath. A water flooding of the potassium superoxide is almost sure to
cause an explosion.
12.13. "Closed-circuit" respirators would be best for circumstances when use

of a self-contained breathing apparatus is required for extended
periods of time because "closed-circuit" respirators can be smaller and
lighter per minute of maximum permissible use than "open-circuit"
respirators.
12.14. Pressure demand. If the facepiece becomes leaky, the "demand flow"
type would allow the contaminant to enter the mask.
12.15. Training of employees to beware of and test for hazardous atmospheres

in tanks, and training in emergency situations (including first aid).
Management should have procedures requiring testing of possible
hazardous areas, and the wearing of personal protective equipment for
employees working in areas where hazards do exist.
12.16. Street safety lenses and industrial safety lenses.

Industrial safety lenses are more durable.
12.17. Requiring workers to wear protective equipment in areas where the
protective equipment is not needed may result in workers not respecting
the rules, leading to injuries to workers.
12.18. Operators of grinding machines, drill presses, and lathes. Also any
other machining operations that produce chips or sparks.
12.19. Federal regulations require a respirator to be labeled as "organic
vapor respirator" because it has passed a certain prescribed test, even
though the respirator may be useless for certain organic vapors. There
are so many organic vapors that it would be impossible to label a
respirator for all organic vapors against which it is effective.
Manufacturers' recommendations (tables) should be consulted.
12.20. Hardhats are personal protective equipment and do not "prevent

accidents;" they only minimize the adverse effects of accidents.
Engineering controls to remove the hazard is a preferable approach, but
since elimination of all risk is impractical, there is a need for
personal protective equipment such as hardhats.
12.21. The need for personal protective equipment implies that the hazard has
not been eliminated or controlled.
12.22. The employee may have inadequate equipment, yet the employer still is
responsible to provide adequate protection to its workers. Also,
employee-owned inadequate equipment can create a dangerous, false sense
of security.
12.23. The undersized manholes prevent entry of personnel wearing self-
contained breathing apparatus.
12.24. In an actual fall the shock load applied to the fall protection system
would be much greater than the static load of the wearer’s body weight.
12.25. Use wire baskets for handling the parts in the solvent. Substitute
soap and water for the trichloroethylene in some cases. Change the
process to eliminate the need for washing parts.
12.26. In the heat of the emergency there is a strong tendency to try to save
the first victim. There is a tendency for the rescuer to think that
what happened to the first victim will not happen to him, because he is
already aware of the danger and thinks that he can be especially alert
to his own symptoms and get out quickly if he gets into trouble.
12.27. 1. Oxygen deficiency (primary hazard)

2. Mechanical entrapment
3. Engulfment (from granular solid material)
4. Oxygen-rich atmosphere (fire hazard, especially to welders)
5. Highly toxic atmospheres
6. Escape impairment from mildly toxic, but temporarily paralyzing
atmospheres.
12.28. Engulfment is entrapment in a fluid-like granular solid, such as grain

or sand, which causes the victim to sink deeper with every movement.
Death comes from suffocation due to the breathing passages becoming
blocked or due to the source of air being cut off by the engulfing
material. In addition, death can come due the crushing weight of the
material closing in around the victim.
12.29. This hazard is called ―entrapment.‖ Most mechanical entrapments occur
in a space that is ever-tightening and restricting as it descends. As
the victim moves to attempt to free him/herself he slides deeper into
the more restricted space, further impairing his freedom to move and
free himself. Eventually, the restriction firmly traps the victim, and
no escape is possible without rescue. Death can come relatively
quickly from suffocation in the small dimensions of the breathing space
near the victim. If adequate oxygen supply is available to the victim,
an even worse death can come agonizingly slowly.
12.30. Inerting is intended to reduce oxygen content to reduce the hazards of

fire, especially around welding operations. However, oxygen deficiency
becomes a suffocation hazard to any workers in the oxygen deficient
space.
12.31. Oxygen enrichment causes fires to ignite easily and burn furiously. In
situations that most workers would expect to be harmless, oxygen-
enriched atmospheres can cause surprising ignitions.
12.32. IDLH means "immediately dangerous to life or health" and usually refers
only to the toxicity of the particular air contaminant present.
However, in a confined space, an air contaminant that might only be a
mild depressant under normal circumstances could become lethal by
paralyzing the victim and preventing his or her escape from the danger
zone.
12.33. Close all valves that govern piping that might lead dangerous liquids,
gases, or even solids into the confined space. Use a double-block-and-
bleed procedure that closes two valves in series in a pipe leading into
the space, and in addition opens a small bleed valve in the pipe in the
space between the two major valves. The bleed valve allows the escape
of any fluids that might accumulate due to high pressure differential
on the primary major valve. The secondary major valve thus has little
or no pressure differential across it and can achieve a positive
closure. Another procedure for positive isolation is ―blanking‖ or
―blinding,‖ in which a solid plate is installed in the line completely
covering the cross-sectional area of the pipe and absolutely blocking
flow. Another procedure is to physically sever the line and detach and
separate the two remaining lengths of pipe.
12.34. Oxygen deficient atmosphere. A gas mask is an air purifying device and
thus removes air contaminants but does not add the crucial ingredient -
-- oxygen.
12.35. Hydrogen fluoride and cadmium vapors are insidious in that their
immediate effects are transitory. Thus, even if these transient
effects are severe, they may pass without medical attention. However,
they are often followed by delayed reactions such as sudden, possibly
fatal collapse 12 to 72 hours after exposure.
12.36. A superficial respirator program might lull employees into a false

sense of security. Later, if a real respiratory problem develops, the
partial program will be inadequate to deal with the problem, and
workers will not be protected. Bad habits such as negligent
maintenance, inadequate fit testing, or improper equipment usage could
be present without consequence, if the program is not really needed to
begin with. A feeling of complacency toward the use of respirators can
be engendered by the use of such equipment when it is not really
needed.
12.37. ―Double-block-and-bleed‖ refers to a procedure for isolation of a

confined space which closes two valves in series in a pipe leading into
the space, and in addition opens a small bleed valve in the pipe in the
space between the two major valves. The bleed valve allows the escape
of any fluids that might accumulate due to high pressure differential
on the primary major valve. The secondary major valve thus has little
or no pressure differential across it and can achieve a positive
closure.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
12.38. At least one accident has been reported in the area of working in the
confined space of a service pit for a display waterfall (fountain) in a
shopping mall. An employee lost consciousness when he descended seven
feet to the bottom of a service pit to adjust valves for the fountain.
A companion worker entered the pit to rescue the first worker and also
lost consciousness. A security guard and a passerby tried to assist
but became dizzy. The fire department was summoned to the scene and
both employees were revived and were treated and released. OSHA
investigated four such service pits in this shopping mall and found
three of the four had oxygen concentrations of less than the minimum
acceptable 19.5 percent. In addition, carbon dioxide readings were
more than double the OSHA PEL. Similar problems have been studied by
NIOSH.
References: This story was first found on the Internet at the Uni-
Hoist Newsletter. Uni-Hoist is a manufacturer of confined space entry
equipment. The URL used to find this data on the Internet was:
http://www.cdnsafety.com/unihoist.html This
URL may no longer be available. Other articles describing confined
space hazards may be found at http://www.cdnsafety.com/articles.htm
Data on this accident may also be available on the OSHA website. OSHA
changes the organization of the website from time to time. At the time
of this printing in 2003, a description of this accident was found in a
Hazard Information Bulletin, dated June 13, 1996, by doing a search on
the term ―waterfall‖ in the OSHA website search facility entitled ―Find
it! In DOL‖
12.39. ―Air-off‖ conditions represent a real hazard, especially when workers
are in a dangerous atmosphere. When sudden air-off occurs, workers are
afraid to remove the suit top or helmet in a contaminated atmosphere
environment, so they try to quickly escape to a safe area before
removing the headgear. Unfortunately, oxygen-deficiency becomes a more
serious hazard than the contaminated atmosphere, in many cases. Tests
have shown that oxygen levels can be depleted inside the suit to a
dangerous 16 percent in only 40 seconds! The situation can deteriorate
into a life-threatening situation very quickly. Besides escape
situations, simple donning and doffing of air-supplied suits during
training exercises without turning on the supplied air can result in
dangerous oxygen-deficiency. Especially because of the escape hazard,
the Department of Energy (DoE) has issued directives that workers
should be trained to give precedence to preventing oxygen-deficient
atmosphere inside the suit at the expense of sacrificing contamination
control.
Original reference for this information: ―Potential Oxygen Deficiency

While Wearing Air-Supplied Suits,‖ DOE/EH-0414, Issue No. 96-1, April,
1996.
12.40. The problem is at least as prevalent in grain bins as in sand bins.

Many fatalities have been reported. Suffocation in flowing grain is the
most common cause of death associated with grain storage structures in
the United States (Ref 2,3, below). During 1985-1989, suffocation
accounted for 49 grain- and silage-handling-associated fatalities (Ref
4, below). Research has shown that victim can become trapped as
quickly as five seconds after the unloading auger starts at the bottom
of the bin. Complete immersion can occur in approximately 22 seconds
(Ref 1, below). Another source (Ref 2,3 below) states that ―a person
can become completely submerged in the flowing grain in 8 seconds.‖ A
1-foot deep pile of corn, lying on a typical man, 6 feet tall and lying
down, weighs approximately 300 pounds.
References:
1. Loewer, Otto J., and David H. Loewer, ―Suffocation Hazards in Grain
Bins,‖ Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin. Lexington,
Kentucky: University of Kentucky, 1975; publication no. AEN-39.
2. Baker DE. Safe storage and handling of grain. Columbia, Missouri:
University of Missouri, Columbia Extension Service, October 1983.
3. Aherin RA, Schultz L. Safe storage and handling of grain. In:
Minnesota Extension Service Bulletin. St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota
Extension Service, 1981; publication no. AG-FO 568.
4. Snyder KA, Bobick TG, Hanz JL, Myers JR. Grain-handling fatalities
in production agriculture, 1985-1989. Presented at the 1992
International Winter Meeting, Division of Safety Research, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. St. Joseph, Michigan:
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1992; paper no. 92-5509.
5. ―Suffocations in Grain Bins -- Minnesota, 1992-1995,‖ Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report
October 4, 1996/Vol. 45/No. 39
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
12.41. A good comparison of various hazards for methane can be found in the
Preamble to the ―Permit-Required Confined Space Entry‖ standard, found
in the Federal Register and the OSHA website. The following is quoted
from that preamble:
―Some chemical substances present multiple atmospheric hazards,
depending on their concentration. Methane, for example, is an odorless
substance that is nontoxic and is harmless at some concentrations.
Methane, however, can displace all or part of the atmosphere in a
confined space(1); and the hazards presented by such displacement can
vary greatly, depending on the degree of displacement. With only 10
percent displacement, methane produces an atmosphere which, while
adequate for respiration, can explode violently. By contrast, with 90
percent displacement, methane will not burn or explode, but it will
asphyxiate an unprotected worker within about 5 minutes.
__________
Footnote(1) Methane is lighter than air when both are at the same
temperature (the normal case), and the configuration of some confined
spaces can trap accumulating methane at "ceiling"level. On the other
hand, in the unlikely event that liquified methane is released into the
atmosphere of a confined space, the methane released would be heavier
than air and would displace the air from the "ground" level up.
12.42. The best source for finding the requested background information on any
promulgated standard is in the preamble to the standard published in
the Federal Register by OSHA at the time of promulgation. The
following is quoted from the Preamble to the ―Permit-Required Confined
Space Entry‖ standard, found in the Federal Register and the OSHA
website:
a. NIOSH definition of ―confined space‖: ―a space which by design has
limited openings for entry and exit, unfavorable natural ventilation
which could contain or produce dangerous air contaminants, and which is
not intended for continuous employee occupancy.‖
b. Three classes of confined spaces, as prescribed by NIOSH:
1. Class A – immediately dangerous to life or health
2. Class B – dangerous
3. Class C – confined spaces in which the potential hazard would not
require any special modification of the work procedure.
c. Three employer ―problems‖ associated with confined spaces were
published in an ―Alert‖ titled ―Request for Assistance in Preventing
Occupational Fatalities in Confined Spaces‖ (NIOSH, January, 1986), as
follows:
1. recognizing confined spaces
2. testing, evaluating, and monitoring confined space
3. developing and implementing rescue procedures.
d. In January 1986, NIOSH published an "Alert" titled "Request for
Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in Confined Spaces"
(Ex. 13-16). The Alert described the circumstances under which 16
workers died (14 of them due to atmospheric hazards) in confined space
incidents. NIOSH focused on problems employers have in three areas: (1)
recognizing confined spaces; (2) testing, evaluating, and monitoring
confined space atmospheres; and (3) developing and implementing rescue
procedures. It was noted, for example, that "[m]ore than 60% of
confined space fatalities occur among would-be rescuers." The Alert
recommended that employers protect employees who enter confined spaces
by implementing measures similar to those presented in the 1979
Criteria Document.
e. According to the January 1986, NIOSH-published "Alert" titled
"Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces": "[more than 60% of confined space fatalities occur
among would-be rescuers." (found in the Preamble to the ―Permit-
Required Confined Space Entry‖ standard, published in the Federal
Register and the OSHA website)
12.43. From the OSHA website it can be determined that the general standard
for confined space entry is OSHA standard 29CFR1910.146 – ―Permit-
Required Confined Space Entry.‖ Section a. (Scope and application)
specifically excludes agriculture, construction, and shipyard
employment from coverage under the standard. The preamble to the
standard explains that these areas are covered under other standards.
The preamble also contains discussion and arguments over the scope of
the standard. The telecommunications industry argued that it should be
excluded, but an exclusion for the telecommunications industry does not
appear in the Section a. Scope and application paragraph of the
standard.
12.44. Specific information on the telecommunications industry was included in

the Preamble to the ―Permit-Required Confined Space Entry‖ standard
published in the Federal Register and the OSHA website, as follows:
Estimate of the number of telecommunications manholes in the United

States: 1,000,000
It has been argued that telecommunications manholes should be excluded
from coverage as ―confined spaces‖ in the general OSHA standard.
Quoting testimony from the telecommunications industry in the preamble:
―there are huge differences in confined spaces in chemical and
manufacturing plants in telecommunication manholes. First and foremost,
the inherent hazard of telecommunications manholes is significantly
less. Telecommunication manholes are not designed to contain any kind
of chemical or hazardous substance. They do not contain a residual
hazardous atmosphere. Telecommunication manholes exist to provide
access to underground telephone cables and conduits during splicing,
testing, maintenance and air pressurization operations. In most cases,
the atmosphere in telecommunication manholes is the same as that
outside the manhole.
Secondly, telecommunications manholes are located in and around public

roads and rights-of-way all over the United States………. While there is
no question as to the need for special procedures to protect employees
who enter telecommunications manholes, to be effective in saving lives,
these procedures must reflect the difficulties inherent in having such
a large, widely-scattered workforce. Telecommunications manhole entries
are routine, performed on a daily basis and, based on data in OSHA's
current record, done safely.
The third major difference is that entry into telecommunications

manholes is already regulated by OSHA.‖
According to the preamble: ―GTE has about 8,700 employees who will
enter telecommunications manholes approximately 320,000 times a year.‖
(This is interpreted to be a total figure. Dividing 320,000 by 8,700
yields an average per employee of approximately 36 or 37 times per
year.
According to the preamble: ―Entry into telecommunications manholes and

unvented cable vaults is currently regulated by Section
1910.268(o)(2).‖
12.45. The NCM database can be used to perform a keyword search on the term
*respiratory protection*. Such a search returns a long list of
citations, the vast majority of which are in the general respiratory
protection standard, OSHA standard 29CFR1910.134. Some other
respiratory provisions of specialized standards are also included in
the list, especially in the standards included in the ―standards
completion project‖ (refer to Table 9.1 in the text, page 187). The
total number of citations listed in the NCM database for the term
―respiratory protection‖ is 9101. The corresponding search using the
―serious violations‖ search capability reveals a total of 4206
citations, or 4206/9101 = 46 % of the total. A search of the database
can be focused on general personal protective equipment by using the
keyword search term *personal protective equipment*. Such a search,
using the NCM database, shows a total of 4927 citations. Doing a
similar search by ―serious violations‖ a total of 3285 is shown, or
3285/4927 = 67 % of the total. So, comparing the terms ―respiratory
protection‖ and ―personal protective equipment‖ as they appear in
standards cited by OSHA during the fiscal year reported in the NCM
database, standards containing the term ―respiratory protection‖ have
resulted more citations, but a greater percentage of the standards
containing the term ―personal protective equipment‖ have been in the
―serious violation‖ category. Both terms are involved in frequent
citation activity, and a large percentage of citations for both of
these terms are designated as ―serious.‖
12.46. Using the NCM database keyword searching capability, a search for the
term *medical services and first aid* results in a printout of several
standards containing this word group. The most heavily cited standard
is OSHA standard 29CFR1910.151(c). The OSHA website reveals that this
standard is the general requirement for medical services and first aid.
If all provisions containing the word group ―medical services and first
aid‖ are included, the NCM database shows a total of 1887 citations for
the fiscal year. Another search for the same word group, using the
―serious violations‖ option of the NCM database keyword search
capability, a total of 1283 citations is shown. Thus the percentage of
total alleged violations that are in the ―serious‖ category is
1283/1887 = approximately 68 %. Apparently, OSHA takes the subject of
―medical services and first aid‖ quite seriously.
13.1. This question is intended to generate class discussion. The argument

for fire extinguishers is that they stop fires immediately before the
fires become dangerous. The argument against fire extinguishers is
that they may endanger workers more than would a policy of immediate
escape. The principal purpose of fire extinguishers is to protect
property.
13.2. (1) fire prevention
(2) fire suppression
(3) personal protection (escape)
13.3. Fire extinguishers are primarily for property protection, and employees
may be safer by simply evacuating the area in case of a fire.
13.4. Workplace violence

13.5. One of the world's worst
13.6. Residential
13.7. Reported statistics are usually a year or two after-the-fact. The text
reports ―approximately 3 percent.‖ The National Safety Council
publication Injury Facts, 2002 edition, reporting for the nine-year
period from 1992-2000 (using Bureau of Labor Statistics data) reports
1760 fatalities from the general category ―fire and explosions.‖ Total
number of fatalities reported for the period is 55,919. By these
statistics, the percentage can be calculated to be 1760/55919 = 3.15 %.
13.8. (a) anticipation of fire hazards

(b) assignment of responsibility for controlling hazards
(c) documentation of decision
(d) preventive maintenance
(e) housekeeping procedures
13.9. Overheated bearings or hot machinery and processes are a principal

cause of industrial fires. Preventive maintenance could reduce the
chance of fire caused by these circumstances. Also important would be
clogged ventilation filters which need changing or dirty ventilation
ducts. Preventive maintenance is the solution for these problems.
13.10. Audible alarms are obviously ineffective for deaf employees. But even
worse is the complacency which is sometimes created by a wide variety
of audible alarms or signals for conditions of various degrees of
urgency.
13.11. No
13.12. The employee may not want to alarm other workers, thinking that the
fire is being taken care of.
13.13. No. However, OSHA prescribes requirements for the organization,

training, and personal protective equipment of fire brigades whenever
they are established by an employer.
13.14. Quarterly, for firefighters of interior fires;

annually, for other fire brigade members
13.15. Heart disease, epilepsy, emphysema, ruptured eardrums, wearing a beard

13.16. Referring to Table 13.1:
Class Description Example extinguisher media

A Paper, wood, cloth, etc Foam, loaded stream, dry chemical, water
Flamm/combust liquids, gases,
B etc. Bromotriflouromethane, carbon dioxide, dry chemical, foam, loaded stream
C Energized electrical equipment Bromotriflouromethane, carbon dioxide, dry chemical
D Combustible metals Special powders, sand
13.17. Powerful water spray systems
13.18. By referring to Table 13.1, it can be seen that only one extinguisher
medium meets specifications for fire Classes A, B, and C, all three.
That medium is dry chemical.
13.19. Dry chemical extinguishers may be approved for more than one class of
fire; however, the chemical may foul or ruin expensive equipment
(computers, for example); and they may be more expensive than foam and
water extinguishers. Also, dry chemical powders may be subject to
caking, which would make them ineffective when deployed.
13.20. 1. monthly, by visual inspection
2. annual maintenance and a hydrostatic test, depending on type of
extinguisher
13.21. No, the employer may select any convenient mounting scheme, provided
that the extinguishers are readily accessible without subjecting
employees to possible injury.
13.22. Training is required upon initial entry to a job and at least annually
thereafter.
13.23. (1) Shut-off-type nozzles

(2) Lining for hose
(3) Dynamic pressure minimums at the nozzle
(4) Hydrostatic testing upon installation
13.24. Direct city water supplies usually cannot meet the flow requirement of
100 gpm for 30 minutes (insufficient dynamic pressure).
13.25. No, not in general; however, certain electrostatic spray painting areas
are required to have automatic extinguishing systems.
13.26. The paper bag will prevent the sprinkler head from becoming fouled by
paint spray residues. The bag will be burned away or washed away by
the water spray when the sprinkler is activated.
13.27. There must be an 18 inch minimum vertical clearance between the

sprinkler head and the stacked material.
13.28. By weight
13.29. Carbon dioxide, Halon 1211, Halon 1301
13.30. Ruptured eardrums would prevent effective use of respiratory protective

equipment, i.e. the worker would inhale through the ears.
13.31. Audible siren, public address, direct voice
13.32. Preventive maintenance and housekeeping

13.33. Imperial Foods poultry processing plant in Hamlet, North Carolina; 25
fatalities; the fire did its damage in only 35 minutes; a principal
factor in the tragedy was locked exits.
13.34. Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York, 1911; 145 fatalities.
13.35. No; OSHA standards require the standpipe system to maintain a flow of
100 gallons per minute for 30 minutes as a minimum. This amounts to 30
x 100 = 3000 gallons total delivered in the minimum 30 minute period
required. The system as described does have 3000 gallons capacity.
However, if the pressure that causes the flow is "gravity head," as is
stated in the problem, then as the flow nears exhaustion, there would
no longer be sufficient head to drive the flow. This system design is
inadequate to meet flow standards.
13.36. Static pressure is measured while the system is standing at rest with
no flow. Dynamic pressure is the pressure maintained on the liquid
while it is flowing. Two different standpipe and hose systems might
have identical static pressures when they are not in use, but once flow
starts, one system might be designed to maintain its pressure while
flowing, but the other might lose pressure immediately upon
commencement of the flow.
13.37. Not anymore; tags were once required and OSHA heavily cited this
standard throughout industry; now alternative procedures are permitted
such as maintaining the inspection status in a filing system. However,
many companies still use the tags so that the record of the inspection
status is readily available right on the fire extinguisher, instead of
tucked away in a file that might be difficult to find during an
inspection.
13.38. Up to one year after the last entry or the life of the shell, whichever
is less.
13.39. The hydrostatic test is an integrity check of the fire extinguisher

shell itself to assure that it is still capable of containing the
pressures to which it will be subjected in a fully charged state. Fire
extinguisher shells do not last forever; they can corrode or be damaged
mechanically. The hydrostatic test reveals any inadequacy in the
condition (strength) of the shell.
13.40. Hydrostatic tests are controlled by technical specifications and must

be done by a trained person using suitable equipment and facilities.
Few companies would have such specialized equipment on site.
13.41. 1. Corrosion
2. Mechanical damage
13.42. One of the positive-pressure types: either pressure demand or

continuous flow. If the third type, demand flow, is essential in order
to permit longer duration exposure for a given charge, then
quantitative fit testing is required for each firefighter.
13.43. A consultant should advise that fire extinguishers are not appropriate
for extinguishing LPG fires. Technically speaking, an LPG fire is
Class B, but Class B fire extinguishers are not appropriate for this
type of flammable liquid or gas. What is needed for LPG is a
professional firefighter using powerful, high-pressure water-spray
systems. Ordinary Class A type extinguishers may be of value in
extinguishing ordinary wood or paper fires in areas where they could
threaten LPG storage and thus result in a much more dangerous LPG fire.
(See also Chapter 11 for additional discussion of this subject.)
RESEARCH EXERCISES
13.44. Answers to this exercise will vary somewhat from year to year. The
data shown below were taken from the 2002 edition of the National
Safety Council’s Injury Facts. The data reflect overall totals and
averages for industries of all types nationwide for the nine year
period 1992-2000:
Number of
Fatality cause fatalities Percent
Total, all causes 55919 100.0%

Falls 5880 10.5
Electrocutions not listed N/A
Oxygen deficiency not listed N/A
Exposure to harmful substance 5123 9.2
Transportation accidents 23372 41.8
Assault, violent act 10287 18.4
Fires, explosions 1760 3.1
(not included in the above categories) 9497 17%
Although the reported statistical classifications and numbers of

fatalities vary somewhat from year to year, it is clear that motor
vehicle accidents is the consistent leader, and workplace violence is
second among causes of workplace fatalities. By comparison, fire is a
much more benign cause of workplace fatalities, at about 3 percent of
the total.
13.45. The appropriate OSHA General Industry standard for Portable Fire
Extinguishers is 29CFR1910.157, as can be determined from the OSHA web
site. According to the Scope and Application section of this standard
(1910.157(a)), OSHA specifies requirements for portable fire
extinguishers to ―apply to the placement, use, maintenance, and testing
of portable fire extinguishers provided for the use of employees.‖ Note
that the foregoing statement does not state that all general industry
facilities are required to have portable fire extinguishers. The
statement specifies what rules apply only when such extinguishers are
―provided for the use of employees.‖ Alternative strategies for dealing
with fire hazards are recognized by OSHA. See OSHA standard 29CFR
1910.156 for rules pertaining to the strategy of maintaining fire
brigades for fighting fires ―whenever they are established by an
employer.‖ For non-portable fire extinguishers (fixed extinguishing
systems), OSHA has specific requirements to protect employees from the
hazards of using such systems. The requirement for using such systems
may appear in standards specific to a particular fire hazard.
13.46. OSHA’s principal concern with fire brigades is the protection of the
workers who are designated to serve in such capacity. Fire suppression
has a principal objective of protecting property loss, and OSHA’s
concern is that efforts to prevent property loss do not endanger the
safety of workers designated to fight the fires. Specific OSHA concerns
for fire brigades are listed as follows along with associated annual
citation activity as gathered from the NCM database:
Organization and personnel fitness for firefighting:

OSHA standard 29CFR1910.156(b)(2): 2 citations
Firefighter training:
OSHA standard 29CFR1910.156(c): 27 citations
Maintenance and inspection of firefighting equipment,
including respirators:
OSHA standard 29CFR1910.156(d): 4 citations
Protective clothing for firefighters:
OSHA standard 29CFR1910.156(e): 7 citations
Respiratory protection for firefighters:
OSHA standard 29CFR1910.156(f): 2 citations
13.47. The appropriate OSHA standard for fire alarm systems, as determined
from the OSHA website, is:
OSHA standard 29CFR1910.165 – Employee Alarm Systems:
Number of citations for the fiscal year: 69 citations

14.1. Three legs of the four may be supporting the full weight at any given
time, with the fourth leg being slack.
14.2. Put all u-bolt clips on ropes with the saddle assembly on the live
portion of the rope, instead of vice versa.
14.3. The crane is unable to pick up an overload because the crane is

equipped with a hoist motor that cannot develop sufficient torque to
overload the crane.
14.4. Warehouse space
14.5. (b); the angle of the sling legs are closer to vertical. Orientation
(a) would place more stress on the sling legs because the sling legs
would be more horizontal to reach around the horizontal orientation of
the load.
14.6. LPS to a type DY: safer and therefore OK

DY to LPS: LPS would not be authorized for Class III, Division I
hazardous areas
14.7. The normal status (neutral) of the spring-pushbuttons would maintain

the position of the crane in event of a power failure and return of
power.
14.8. Mechanical advantage = 4

Rated load = number of parts of rope x (20%) x nominal breaking
strength
RL = 4 x 20% x 5000
RL = 4000 lbs
4000 - 200 = 3800 lbs (allowing for load block)
14.9. A projection in front of the wheels on overhead bridge cranes that

clears the rails of obstructions. It is needed to prevent the bridge
truck (crane) from being derailed.
14.10. (1) isolate or eliminate the in-running nip point

(2) install guards
(3) install emergency tripping devices
14.11. So that the ladder will not be moved to another location while the
crane is in use, thereby removing the operator's means of dismounting.
14.12. Tampering with the design or altering the truck may invalidate the
approval classification of the truck.
14.13. Refer to the OSHA website to check OSHA standards under the general
heading ―Material Handling and Storage.‖ Following are two example
performance standards:
1910.176(a)
Use of mechanical equipment. Where mechanical handling equipment is used, sufficient safe
clearances shall be allowed for aisles, at loading docks, through doorways and wherever turns or
passage must be made. Aisles and passageways shall be kept clear and in good repair, with no
obstruction across or in aisles that could create a hazard. Permanent aisles and passageways shall
be appropriately marked.
Note that the above wording does not specify exactly how wide an aisle
should be to achieve ―sufficient safe clearances.‖ Also note that the
standard calls for aisles to be ―appropriately‖ marked. The standard
does not specify what constitutes ―appropriately marked.‖
1910.176(b)
Secure storage. Storage of material shall not create a hazard. Bags, containers, bundles, etc.,
stored in tiers shall be stacked, blocked, interlocked and limited in height so that they are stable
and secure against sliding or collapse.
Note that the above wording does not specify a maximum height for
stacking materials. The decision is left to the employer to keep height
limited to the degree necessary to prevent the hazards of sliding or
collapse.
14.14. Bridge--overhead cross-girder supporting the trolley

Trolley--carries the hoist mechanism
Pendant--hanging cord control
Pulpit--fixed remote station for control
Gantry--cranes which have legs which support the bridge above the
railway
Cantilever gantry--gantry cranes having extensions on one or both ends
of the bridge
14.15. (1) shorter wheelbase (which reduces stability)

(2) small diameter wheels
(3) poor visibility when loaded
(4) ambient plant noise may prevent pedestrians from hearing an
approaching lift truck
14.16. (1) large mass--much larger masses than the human body
(2) motion--the frequent movement of the large masses compounds the
likelihood of injury
(3) automatic or remote control nature--this contributes to the hazards
by lack of local control of wide-ranging equipment such as conveyor
belts and materials pumps
(4) fire--hazards due to storage of materials
14.17. Gross load = payload + load block
= 2000 + 100 = 2100 lbs

Gross load 2100
Wire rope load = = = 700 lbs.
Mech. adv. 3
Number of parts of rope = 3

14.18.
nominal breaking strength
 5 Eqn. 14.5
wire rope load
nominal breaking strength  5 · (wire rope load)

 5 · 700
 3500 lbs
14.19. Gross load = payload + load block

= 3000 lbs + 150 lbs
= 3150 lbs
The problem states that the wire rope is "rated" at 2,000 lbs. The
term "rated" implies that the safety factor of 5 has been applied and
that
Nominal breaking strength = 5 x "rating"

= 5 x 2000 = 10,000 lbs
Applying Eqn. 14.1:
rated load
 20% x (nominal breaking strength)
nbr. of parts of rope
3150/4 = 775  20% x 10000 lbs.
Therefore the assembly as described meets standards.
14.20. First, calculate the nominal breaking strength of the wire rope:
Nominal breaking strength = 5 x "rating"

= 5 x 2000 = 10,000 lbs
Applying Eqn. 14.l:

rated load
 20% x (nominal breaking strength)
nbr. of parts of rope
rated load  (parts of rope) x 20% x (nom. brk. strength)

 4 x 20% x 10000 lbs.
 8000 lbs
Maximum payload = rated (gross) load - load block
8000 lbs - 150 lbs = 7850 lbs
14.21. Vertical component of force = 1/3 x 1000 lb

on each of three legs
= 333 lb.
When a sling leg is 30 from horizontal, the tensile stress in the sling
leg is twice the vertical component of force.
Therefore, stress on each leg = 2 x 333 lb = 667 lb
14.22. Let W represent the maximum total load the sling is rated to pick up.
The problem is to find W.
Weight borne by each sling leg = W/3

(This is the vertical component of force on each sling leg.)
The tensile stress on each leg in the sling is limited to the rated
load of the chain used in the sling, which was given in the problem as
equal to 6 tons. Then:
W/3 = sin 60o x 6 tons
W = 3(.866 x 6 tons) = 15.6 tons
If the student does not have a background in trigonometry, the correct

ratio (for sin 60) can be inferred from Figure 14.12(a), in which the
sling leg angle is identical (60).
14.23. If the trolley rides on top of the rail, the device is a crane and the
safety standard for overhead and gantry cranes applies. If the trolley
hangs from the lower flange, the device is an underhung crane or
monorail, and the standard for monorails applies.
14.24. Plugging is the use of the hoist motor in reverse as a braking

mechanism. The OSHA standards do not prohibit plugging, but the crane
operator should not use plugging to substitute for an inoperative
brake.
14.25. The hoist is the part of the lifting mechanism that lifts the sling and
the payload. The sling is the flexible chain, wire rope, and other
attachment that is used to wrap around or attach to the load so that
the hoist can lift it.
14.26. The more severe (acute) the leg angle is from the horizontal, the
greater will be the stress on each leg of the sling. In quantitative
terms, using trigonometry,
Ts = V s / sin L
Where,
Ts = tensile force on a leg of a sling
Vs = vertical (lifting) force exerted on the load by this

leg of the sling
L = leg angle for this leg of the sling
As L approaches 90, the sin L approaches unity and Ts = Vs.

As L approaches 0, the sin L approaches zero and Ts approaches
infinity. Before Ts reaches infinity, of course, the sling will break.
14.27. A sling that is too short will necessitate a very acute leg angle and
thus will cause a severe stress upon the legs of the sling.
14.28. Binding straps on a load are necessarily tight to maintain the security
of the load. If the load is picked up by the binding straps, a very
severe (acute) angle will be formed by the tight binding straps that
will be nearly horizontal at the attachment point. The severe angle
will cause an unusually high force on the straps, usually much greater
than the entire weight of the load. The straps are likely to break,
dropping the load.
14.29. 1. The in-running nip-point must be hidden (submerged) in order for
the conveyor to operate.
2. An operator often must stand or work close to the (hidden) intake
of the screw conveyor in order to shovel or otherwise distribute
material into the intake.
14.30. Design a box or other enclosure around the conveyor intake. The box or
enclosure must have openings in order for the conveyor to operate, but
the openings can usually be made large enough for the conveyor to
function, but small enough that a worker's hand, foot, or other body
part will not intrude into the danger zone.
14.31. If an overhead crane is positioned to pick up a load situated in a pit
in the floor the crane line will be reeled out a greater distance than
it would be for a lift from floor level. If the crane is designed to
pick up loads no lower than the floor, then to reel out further to pick
up a lower load would possibly reduce the number of wraps on the drum
to a dangerous point. For safety, the allowable minimum for the number
of wraps on the wire rope drum is two.
14.32 Lifting is very complex and injuries from lifting are caused by a
variety of factors that are difficult to control. Examples are the
geometry of the object to be lifted, the physical condition of the
lifter, and the posture of the lifter. A rigid standard could hardly
consider all of the factors and would be very difficult to enforce.
14.33 The greater the horizontal distance of the load from the lifter's body,
the more difficult it will be for the lifter to manage the lift.
Therefore, the maximum load the lifter can pick up is reduced (greatly)
by this horizontal distance. The geometry of the load can greatly
affect this distance.
14.34 When lifters lift with their legs, they are lifting not only the load
but their entire body as well. In addition, it can be very awkward or
difficult to position the load to lift it with the lifter's legs.
14.35 The hoist must be rated at 10 tons = 20, 000 lbs. In the design of the
system we must consider the weight of the load block, which for this
solution we will assume a weight of 150 lbs. Therefore, the total rated
load including the load block will be 20,150 lbs. Applying this amount
to Eqn 14.1,
20,15 0
 20% x nominal breaking strength of the rope
n
where n = the number of parts of rope
20,150
 20% x 30,000 lbs = 6,000 lbs
n
Try n = 2: 20,150/2 = 10, 075 (This is not  6000 lbs)

Try n = 3: 20,150/3 = 6, 717 (This is not  6000 lbs)
Try n = 4: 20,150/4 = 5,037.5 (This is  6000 lbs)
A mechanical advantage of 4 parts of rope will be required, which will

necessitate two sheaves on the upper block and two on the lower block,
as shown in the sketch.
14.36. The design solution for this exercise takes a conservative approach by
assuming that the walls, ceiling, and other surfaces along the aisles
of the warehouse are black and do not reflect light. Thus the point
source lamps provide the only illumination to the surface. The most
poorly illuminated points along the aisles would be the floor points
most distant from any lamp, i.e., those points halfway between adjacent
lamps. The illumination of those points would primarily emanate from
the two bulbs equidistant from two adjacent lamps. Although some light
would also be provided by other lamps more distant from the point than
the two adjacent lamps, this additional light will be ignored in this
analysis to take a conservative approach to be sure that adequate light
is provided. The illumination of point x from a given lamp in lumens
per square foot is found by dividing the lumen output of the bulb by
the area on the surface of a sphere of radius equal to the distance
from the lamp to point x. The area of a sphere is 4r2.
There will be a tradeoff between the lamp intensity and the spacing of
the lamps. Selecting lamps capable of producing 8000 lumens each and
assuming that illumination of the most distant point from two lamps
would be equally illuminated by each of the two lamps, each lamp would
be required to illuminate the point by 1 lumen per square foot (1/2 of
2 lumens per square foot). Therefore the area of the sphere of
illumination would be 1700 square feet. Then
8000 = 4r2
and
r = 25.23 feet
This radial distance would represent the hypotenuse of a right triangle

in which one leg would be the ceiling height (20 ft) and the other leg
would represent horizontal distance x (earlier defined) and half the
horizontal distance to the nearest adjacent lamp. Thus,
x2 + 202 = 25.232
and
x = 15.38
The horizontal spacing between the lamps would then be 2 x 15.38 =

31.76 feet. A spacing of any amount less than 31 feet should be
adequate. To be conservative, a spacing of 25 feet should provide some
margin for error.
14.37. The proposal to place a toggle switch control box on the wall raises
some safety considerations that should be communicated to the design
team. One concern would be the toggle switches. Crane controls should
be of the ―deadman‖ type, which, if released, will stop crane movement.
Another consideration is the placement of the control in a fixed
position on the wall. An overhead bridge crane will travel some
distance away from the control box on the wall. A better design would
be a pendant control on a flexible cord that will travel with the
bridge and trolley, placing the crane operator in closer proximity to
the hoist. Another consideration would be the capability to lock out
the control for maintenance. No mention was made of lock-out
capability in the proposed toggle switch box to be mounted on the wall.
The hazards from failure to lock out a crane during maintenance are
aggravated by the distances which a crane can travel away from a fixed,
wall-mounted control.
14.38. The answer to this question will vary depending upon the level of
current research in this area at the time of search on the Internet. As
of this writing (mid-2003) 16 hits were returned for a search of the
following keyword phrase: NIOSH lifting limits simulation virtual
reality
15.1. That part of the machine where the tool engages the work.
15.2. (1) Point of operation, (2) Power transmission, (3) In-running nip
points, (4) Rotating or reciprocating machine parts, (5) Flying chips,
sparks, or parts.
The point of operation is the most important from a safety standpoint.
15.3. (1) Where belts contact pulleys, (2) Where gears mesh, (3) Where mating
rollers make contact
15.4. (1) Guarding "by location" is positioning the machine or operation so
as to position the dangerous parts where no one will be exposed to the
danger, (2) Guarding is "by distance" when the size of the material or
the nature of the operation does not require the operator to get close
to the danger.
15.5. A lockout is the use of a lock on an on-off switch or control box to

prevent use of a machine while the machine is down for repair or
maintenance.
An interlock is an electrical circuit which prevents operation of a
machine under certain circumstances, such as "enclosure not in place"
or "gate open."
15.6. The nylon is more susceptible than metal to the buildup of oil and lint
which decreases the efficiency of the fan.
Any fan guard (including nylon mesh) will decrease fan efficiency.
15.7. S.D. = .333 sec x 63 in/sec = 21 in

15.8. S.D. = 60/90[1/2 + 1/14] x 63 = 24 in
15.9. The holes are for the purpose of anchoring a machine (1) for ease of
shipping, (2) for security purposes, or (3) because the machine is
designed for use in a "fixed location."
15.10. (1) Gates, (2) Presence-sensing devices, (3) Pull-outs or pullbacks,

(4) Hold-outs or restraints, (5) Two-hand controls, (6) Two-hand trips.
15.11. An interlocked barrier guard has an interlock which disables the
machine's actuating mechanism whenever the guard is opened. It is not
intended for manual feeding.
A gate opens and closes with each machine cycle and is a permissible
safeguarding method for manually-fed power presses.
15.12. Two-hand controls will stop the machine if they are released
prematurely. Two-hand trips cause the machine to complete one cycle
regardless of release time.
15.13. Type A gates close before the press stroke is initiated and remain
closed until all motion of the ram has ceased. Type B gates close
before the press stroke is initiated but open after completion of the
downward stroke, allowing the operator to reach in before motion has
ceased.
The Type A gate is the safer of the two.
15.14. Allen-head screws make the removal of the machine guard more
troublesome. The machine operator is less likely to remove it than if
the machine guard is secured by wing nuts.
15.15. Yes (from Table 15.1)
15.16. An "awareness barrier" is a device to remind the operator that his/her

hand or some body part is in danger.
A "jig guard" has the function of both protecting the operator and
facilitating the operation to increase productivity. The jig guard
usually is designed to hold the workpiece in the correct position for
operations to be performed upon it.
15.17. A full-revolution press clutch will cause the crankshaft and flywheel
to make one complete revolution together. A part-revolution press
clutch typically has a friction clutch which can be engaged or
disengaged at any point in crankshaft cycle, permitting the ram to be
stopped at any point. "Part revolution" type is safer.
15.18. "Muting" is the process of bypassing a presence-sensing device. Muting
is permitted on the less-dangerous upward portion of the press stroke
and thus can be used to make the operation more efficient by permitting
the feeding of the dies during the upward stroke. A muted presence-
sensing device is analogous to a Type B gate, whereas an unmuted
presence-sensing device is like a Type A gate.
15.19. Galvanized wire mesh is more durable because the junctures of the wire
crossing each other are held together by the fused galvanizing metal.
Thus, personnel are less likely to penetrate or distort the guard mesh
and encounter the danger zone.
15.20. The need for proper adjustment due to variations in operator's body
part sizes or variations in press setup--especially variations in die
sizes.
15.21. "Pullbacks" pull the operator's hands out of the danger area as the ram
makes its downward stroke.
"Restraints" do not allow the operator's hands to enter the danger zone
at any time.
15.22. Safety distance = 0.37 seconds x 63 inches/second
= 23.31 inches
15.23. At a minimum distance equal to the answer of Question 15.22.
15.24. Safety distance = 60/rpm(1/2 + 1/N) x 63

= 60/60(1/2 +1/4) x 63
= 47.25 inches
15.25. No, the machine has a full revolution clutch and the ram cannot be
stopped by the two-hand control.
Presence-sensing devices are illegal for full-revolution presses.
15.26. (1) Failure to keep the workrest in close adjustment (within 1/8 inch)
to the wheel on offhand grinding machines.
(2) Failure to keep the tongue guard adjusted to within 1/4 inch.
(3) Failure to guard the wheel (including bolt end and flange)
sufficiently.
All three of these rules are aimed at protecting the worker in the
event of a breakup of the wheel or preventing the breakup of the wheel.
Grinding wheel breakup can result in worker fatality.
15.27. If the die opening is less than ¼ inch, then the die itself meets the
guard opening dimensions specified in the OSHA standard (see Table
15.1). By this same reasoning, the OSHA standard explicitly exempts all
mechanical power presses having less than ¼ inch maximum die opening
from the point-of-operation safeguarding requirements.
15.28. Kickback is more likely and is a greater hazard for ripsaws than for
crosscut saws.
15.29. The "ring" test is to determine if a grinding wheel is cracked. The

wheel is tapped with a non-metallic object. A good wheel will ring
whereas a cracked wheel will sound dull.
15.30. Compressed air hoses can cause hazardous flying chips. Also,
compressed air at ordinary shop air pressures can even cause fatalities
if introduced into the body through horseplay, experimentation, or
carelessness. Workers should be taught to exercise care not to hold
the compressed air nozzle against their skin or any part of their
bodies.
Compressed air is permitted for cleaning at pressures of 30 psi or
less and then only with chip guarding or personal protective equipment.
Even air pressures of 30 psi can be dangerous to the body.
15.31. Shaft couplings need no guards when bolts, nuts, and setscrews are
countersunk so that no hazardous projections are present. It is
further desired that such fasteners be used parallel to the shafting.
15.32. 1 1/2 inches (from Table 15.1)
15.33. Most of the citations have been procedural:

1. Failure to establish a program for lockout/tagout.
2. Failure to train employees for lockout/tagout.
3. Failure to document procedures for lockout/tagout.
15.34. A disconnect switch or circuit breaker can be placed in series with the
pushbutton on/off switches to disable the machine and nullify the
effect of a normal pushbutton start switch.
15.35. Guarding "by location" is positioning the machine or operation so as to

position the dangerous parts where no one will be exposed to the
danger. Guarding is "by distance" when the size of the material or the
nature of the operation does not require the operator to get close to
the danger. The two methods of guarding pertain to entirely different
situations.
15.36. Even when turned off, a machine can retain dangerous quantities of
kinetic or potential energy. It is even possible for a machine to
operate somewhat when it is turned off, running on the residual energy
in a rotating flywheel, for instance. A procedure to place a machine
in "zero mechanical state" not only turns off the power sources, but
also removes all residual forms of energy so that the machine is
incapable of actuating any of its parts even if there is some failure
or inadvertent actuation of part of the machine.
15.37. An "energy isolation device" is more than a switch; it is a switch that
must be capable of being locked off.
15.38. Flying chips, sparks, or parts.
15.39. The General Fail-Safe Principle
15.40. The best color is usually black. The point of operation is where the
machine does the work, and an operator often must be able to see into
the machine at this point. If the guard is painted orange or some
other bright color, it inhibits the operator's ability to see into the
point of operation.
15.41. Hand-feeding tools or tongs facilitate the process and enhance safety
by removing the need for operators to place their fingers or hands into
the danger zone for the purpose of feeding the machine. However, the
hazardous area is still exposed, and if for any reason operators choose
to reach into the danger zone without the hand-feeding tools, they are
exposed to the hazard. Even with the hand-feeding tools, it is
possible for operators to place hands or fingers inside the danger
zone. For these reasons, hand-feeding tools or tongs do not qualify as
methods of "safeguarding the point of operation."
15.42. Fixed barrier guard
Adjustable barrier guard
Die enclosure guard
Interlocked barrier guard
15.43. Die enclosure guards have the advantage of being small and close to the
operation of the machine, making them efficient and convenient. They
can be specially designed to fit the particular die's operation. Fixed
barrier guards must accommodate all die configurations that might be
mounted on the machine at various times or for various setups. They
are necessarily large and, for some operations, awkward. The advantage
of the fixed barrier guard, however, is that one guard is suitable for
all operations and setups.
15.44. The following possibilities are listed in the order of their

seriousness:
1. The part will be damaged or ruined.
2. The die itself (much more expensive) will be ruined.
3. The operator will be injured by flying broken pieces of the product
part or the die.
15.45. Holdouts or restraints
15.46. Type B gates are legal on full-revolution presses, but they are
somewhat more hazardous than a Type A gate or other more positive
methods of keeping the operator's hand out of the danger zone. The
extra hazard introduced by the Type B gate is that it allows the
operator to reach in during the upward (less hazardous) part of the
stroke. But during the upward stroke the ram of a full revolution
press is still engaged mechanically to the flywheel. If there is a
failure of the engagement mechanism to disengage, the ram can, and
sometimes does, execute a repeat stroke.
15.47. The primary advantage of the friction clutch is that it enables the
press ram to be disengaged from the flywheel at any point in the
stroke, in the event of an emergency or a reach into the danger zone
midstroke. Another advantage is that the friction clutch can speed up
production in to ways: (1) it can permit the operator controls to be
safely located closer to the point of operation, and (2) it can engage
the flywheel immediately for a quicker initiation of the downward
stroke.
15.48. Type A gates on part revolution presses: (Unless the press

safeguarding system is inspected weekly). The type A gates close
before initiation of the downward stroke of the ram and stay closed
until the motion of the ram has ceased (after completion of the upward
stroke).
Type B gates on part revolution presses: (Unless the press
safeguarding system is inspected weekly). They close before initiation
of the downward stroke, but they reopen again during the upward stroke.
For the Type B gate setup, the brake monitor and control system must
detect top-stop overrun beyond limits.
Presence sensing devices on part revolution presses: They interrupt
the actuation of the ram mid-stroke if the operator or anything else
intrudes upon the protective screen.
Two-hand controls on part revolution presses: They require both hands
of the operator to be safely outside the danger zone to concurrently
hold the buttons or other controls to actuate the ram during the entire
stroke.
Two-hand trips on part revolution presses: They require both hands of
the operator to be safely outside the danger zone to concurrently press
the buttons or other tripping mechanisms to initiate action of the ram
stroke. It should be recognized that a two-hand trip setup is unusual
for a part-revolution press. The two-hand trip mechanism does not take
advantage of the press's capability of being stopped mid-stroke.
Although not expressly illegal in the OSHA standards, a two-hand trip
on a part revolution press would necessitate using the Safety Distance
formula for two-hand trips with an infinite number of engagement
points. Although such a set-up would be a slight improvement over a
full revolution press with a finite number of engagement points, it
would be both safer and more efficient to employ two-hand controls that
could take advantage of the clutch and brake to stop the ram mid-
stroke.
Such an arrangement would permit the use of the safety distance formula
for two-hand controls and would result in a closer and more efficient
placement of the control station.
15.49. Type A gates: They close before initiation of the downward stroke of
the ram and stay closed until the motion of the ram has ceased (after
completion of the upward stroke).
Presence sensing devices (only on part-revolution presses): They
interrupt the actuation of the ram mid-stroke if the operator or
anything else intrudes upon the protective screen. They do not qualify
for full revolution presses, because the actuation of the ram on full
revolution presses can not be interrupted.
Pullbacks: They pull the operators hands and fingers out of the danger
zone as the ram stroke is initiated in the event that the operator has
not already removed them.
Restraints: They are not legal for handfeeding without tongs or
handfeeding tools because they are designed to keep the hands and
fingers out of the danger zone all of the time.
Two-hand controls: They require both hands of the operator to be
safely outside the danger zone to concurrently hold the buttons or
other controls to actuate the ram during the entire stroke.
Two-hand trips: They require both hands of the operator to be safely
outside the danger zone to concurrently press the buttons or other
tripping mechanisms to initiate action of the ram stroke.
15.50. This design case study uses the principle of the safety distance
formula to set design parameters for the design of the engagement
mechanism for the flywheel.
Using Eqn 15.2, let D represent safety distance:
D = 60/rpm [1/2 = 1/N] x 63
[ Dx rpm]
[1/2 + 1/N] =
[60 x 63]
[D x rpm] 1
1/N = -
[60 x 63] 2
For rpm = 100 and D = 20 inches:
 20 x 100  1
1/N =  60 x 63  -
  2
= .529 - .500
= .029
N = 34 engagement points
15.51. Muting. Muting disables the presence-sensing system during the upward
portion of the ram stroke. Likewise, for gates, the difference between
Type A and Type B is that for Type B the gate system is disabled on the
upward portion of the ram stroke.
15.52. A brake monitor is installed on a press permanently to monitor the

slippage and wear of the brake by checking stopping time or flywheel
overtravel on every stroke of the press. A brake stop-time measurement
device is a portable instrument taken from press to press to check
stopping time for the purpose of setting safety distances for two-hand
controls and presence sensing devices.
15.53. First, infrared light sensors are not subject to inadvertent tripping
by ambient light in the visible spectrum. Second, infrared light is
invisible and this feature has some advantage in not revealing to the
operator the means of operation of the sensor.
15.54. Tripping of the top-stop overtravel limit switch means that the brake
has deteriorated beyond limits. Therefore, the brake monitor provides
an indication to that effect. In addition, the brake monitor signals
the control system to disable the press such that it will cease to
operate. However, the control system will not disable the brake system
of the press.
15.55. The advantage of adjusting the overtravel limit switch high is that it
gives the machine greater tolerance to brake wear. As the brake
deteriorates, the machine will continue to operate instead of becoming
disabled by the brake monitoring and control system. The advantage of
adjusting the overtravel limit low is that a lower overtravel limit
controls the press to a shorter stopping time, which means that the
press control can be placed at a shorter (closer) safety distance,
which means increased efficiency.
15.56. On a handheld saw, the blade is very dangerous if the saw is set down
or dropped either before or after the cut. Before the cut, the blade is
brought up to rotational speed, and after the cut, the blade will
continue to rotate for a time after the trigger is released. Without
the retractable guard, the handheld saw would be very hazardous at
these times. Particularly AFTER the cut the operator would be tempted
to set the saw down somewhere before waiting for friction to slow the
blade to a complete stop.
15.57. Required features: spreaders and nonkickback fingers (or ―dogs‖).

The spreaders keep the saw kerf open or spread apart in the completed
portion of the cut so that the material will not contact the blade. The
nonkickback fingers are designed to arrest the kickback motion should
it start to occur.
15.58. Fixed barrier guards encompass the entire die area and accommodate
various size dies. Therefore, they are more distant from the point of
operation and permit larger openings through the guard, provided that
OSHA requirements are met with regard to the distance to the danger
zone and the maximum opening size of the guard mesh.
15.59. A power hacksaw and a bandsaw are used for similar purposes. Both have
a thin, narrow (band-type) blade. However, the hacksaw uses a
reciprocating motion, and the bandsaw uses a continuous motion with a
blade that is a continuous loop. The hacksaw is more difficult to guard
because the guard must continually adjust back and forth to the work
during every stroke of the blade.
15.60. The footswitch may be convenient for quick actuation of the press to
permit higher production rates. The presence-sensing device acts as the
safeguarding mechanism in case an operator places his or her hands
within the danger zone.
15.61. The disadvantage of awareness barriers is that they do not really

prevent the operator from reaching into the danger zone. They seem to
act as a guard but may lure the operator into a false sense of
security. Also, some awareness barriers contribute to the problem by
obscuring vision of the real danger zone.
15.62. Type A gates keep the gate closed until all motion of the ram ceases.
Type B gates permit the gate to open during the less hazardous upward
portion of the stroke, which speeds up the operation and improves
efficiency. ―Muting‖ is a design feature of presence-sensing devices
that permits the sensing device to be ignored during the less hazardous
upward portion stroke with production advantages identical to those of
the Type B gate.
15.63. (Author’s note: Exercise 15.63 is the same as Exercise 15.53.) One
advantage is that the infrared light sensors will not incorrectly sense
stray ambient light around the workstation. Another advantage is that
the infrared light is invisible to the operator; this can be an
advantage as the operator will not be aware of the mechanism by which
sensor is operating, and thus it will be more difficult for the
operator to defeat the protective system.
15.64. The safety of control pedestals for punch presses is dependent upon
their positioning at an adequate safety distance from the point of
operation, depending upon the design of the press and the stopping time
of the ram. OSHA standards require the pedestals to be bolted to the
floor, once they are adjusted to the prescribed safe distance.
Otherwise, workers may be tempted to move the pedestals closer to the
machine to facilitate feeding and operation of the press and thus speed
up production.
15.65. The speed of the ram of a punch press is directly related to its
momentum or inertia. A part revolution press has a clutch and brake,
and this system must overcome the inertia of a high-speed ram and bring
the ram to a stop if safety requires it. Therefore, if the press is of
part revolution design, fast rams are more dangerous than slow ones.
However, if the press is of full-revolution design, it is recognized
that the ram can not be stopped mid-cycle. Safety for the full-
revolution design is dependent upon the ram finishing its cycle before
the operator can reach into the danger zone. For such designs safety
is enhanced by speeding up the press so that the ram can close more
quickly. This greater level of safety is recognized in the OSHA
standard formula for the computation of safety distance from the point
of operation for the placement of controls and safeguarding devices.
15.66. This design case study requires the application of the principle of the
safety distance formula to design the system to accommodate safe ranges
of operation of the flywheel to facilitate the safe operation of the
safeguarding system. From Eqn 15.2, let D represent safety distance:
D = 60/rpm [1/2 + 1/N] x 63

D = 60/rpm [1/2 + 1/2] x 63
D = 60/rpm x 63
rpm = [60 x 63] /D
For a safety distance of 16 inches:
rpm = [60 x 63] /16
= 236 rpm (as a minimum)
A slower flywheel speed would lengthen the time required for the dies
to achieve complete closure, giving the operator more time to reach in
and be endangered by the closing of the dies.
15.67. Alternative design #1: (Least expensive) The Type A gate could be
replaced with a Type B gate. The Type B gate would speed up the
operation by permitting the gate to open during the less hazardous
upward portion of the stroke. By opening the gate sooner after the
downward stroke, the operator could have access to the danger zone for
unloading the point of operation and reloading it for the next cycle.
However, because of the possibility of a malfunction resulting in an
accidental repeat stroke, the Type B gate increases the hazard somewhat
and should be avoided if possible.
Alternative design #2: Convert the press to a part-revolution design

by equipping it with a clutch and brake. Although more expensive than
alternative #1, the clutch and brake would promote safety and permit
the use of two-hand control systems that are safely positioned closer
to the point of operation. The close placement would facilitate
feeding and speed up production while safety is preserved by the
superior control of the ram stroke afforded by the clutch and brake.
Alternative design #3: (Most expensive) Same as alternative #2 above,

only replace the two-hand control with a presence-sensing device for
safety and use a footswitch tripping mechanism. The presence sensing
device could be muted on the upward stroke for maximum efficiency.
Alternative #3 would maintain safety using the clutch and brake system
to stop the press in the event the danger zone is violated. Maximum
safe access to the danger zone for feeding, made possible by the
footswitch freeing the hands from the responsibility for tripping,
would make this arrangement the most efficient.
15.68. If there are only 14 available engagement points on the machine (some
actual press models have exactly 14 engagement points), something would
have to be changed to make the press safe. The control station could
be moved slightly further away according to the safety distance formula
(Eqn 13.2, page 316) as follows:
D = [60/100] x [1/2 + 1/4] x 63

= 21.6 inches
Another solution would be to slightly increase the speed of the

flywheel. Solving Eqn 15.2 for rpm:
D x (rpm) = 60 x [1/2 + 1/N] x 63

rpm = 60 x 63 x [1/2 + 1/N] / D
For this situation:
rpm = 60 x 63 x [1/2 + 1/14] / 20
rpm = 108
Another solution (the best solution) to the problem from the safety
perspective would be to retrofit the press by equipping it with a
clutch and brake so that it would operate as a part revolution press.
Fully equipped with a brake monitoring and control system the remodeled
part revolution setup would permit an entirely different formula for
safety distance that would be based upon the stopping time of the
press.
15.69. The general machine guarding standard, which includes point of

operation guarding, is very frequently cited. A more specific standard
for point of operation guarding is 29CFR1910.212(a)(3)(iii). OSHA
cites either standard for failure to guard the point of operation.
There are other OSHA standards pertaining to point of operation
safeguarding for specific machines, for example mechanical power
presses. (See Exercise 15.70). Following are frequency of citation
fiscal year statistics for the general point of operation standards
(source: NCM database):
212(a)(1): 2675
212(a)(3)(iii): 21
Total for these 3 standards 2883

According to the OSHA website, OSHA standard 1910.212(a)(1) was the

seventh most frequently cited standard for Fiscal Year 2001-2002, all
OSHA standards considered (general industry, construction, etc.). This
fact was found by searching the OSHA website with the term ―frequently
cited standards.‖ The statistics may change from year to year, but
point of operation guarding for machines has remained a consistently
frequently cited standard over the years.
15.70. For power presses the point of operation guarding standard is

29CFR1910.217(c)(1)(i). This standard is frequently cited among the
provisions of the power press standard, but because the scope of the
power press standard is limited, 217(c)(1)(i) is not as frequently
cited as the point of operation provisions of the general machine
guarding standards. Following are frequency of citation fiscal year
statistics for the power press point of operation guarding standard:
217(c)(1)(i): 187 citations
15.71. The OSHA website identifies the general abrasive wheel standard as
29CFR1910.215. Searching the NCM database by standard number, entering
the search field 215* the following provisions for the standard were
found to be the top three most frequently cited standards in the
abrasive wheel standard. Citation frequencies were found for Fiscal
Year 2001-2002: (the text for the standards is summarized from the full
text found on the OSHA website):
215(b)(9) – Exposure adjustment (of the ―tongue‖ guard within
¼ inch of the wheel).
citation frequency: 1980 citations
215(a)(4) – Work rest (adjustment of the work rest within
1/8 inch of the wheel)
215(a)(2) – Guard design (guard shall cover the spindle end,
nut and flange)

16.1. 1) Gas welding, (2) Electric-arc welding, (3) Resistance welding.

Resistance welding is the cleanest and most healthful.
16.2. Welding occurs when the material that melts is either the material to
be joined or a like material.
Brazing and soldering are done by melting some other material with a
lower melting temperature than would be required for melting the metals
to be joined.
16.3. When the melting material has a melting point above 800F, the process
is brazing; below 800F, the process is soldering.
16.4. Stick electrode welding (common name)

shielded metal arc welding (SMAW); this is the designation used by the
American Welding Society.
16.5. GTAW--gas tungsten arc welding

GMAW--gas metal arc welding
SAW--submerged arc welding
RSEW--resistance seam welding
RSW--resistance spot welding
16.6. To prevent liquid acetone from entering the valve passages. The
acetone could be ignited accidentally and is quite dangerous.
16.7. Oxygen is almost completely inert if it is kept away from fuel sources.
Acetylene is very unstable and must be stored at low pressures to
prevent spontaneous explosion.
16.8. Workers often hold their hands over the valve opening when first
opening the valve to test the cylinder. If a greasy glove is on that
hand, the presence of pure oxygen causes the grease to become
explosively combustible.
16.9. Production costs can be cut in some applications by using an alternate
gas to replace the more dangerous and expensive acetylene fuel gas.
This can be done only if material to be welded has a low enough melting
point for the alternate gas to accommodate.
16.10. Valve protection caps protect the valve from damage. The slots in the
cap allow escaping gas to escape in a manner which will prevent the
cylinder from becoming a missile. The slots are misused by workers who
insert pry bars into the slots for extra leverage in handling the
cylinders.
16.11. Flashback is a phenomenon in which the welding flame travels back up

the mixture stream, burning inside the torch.
16.12. Tape may hide defects in the hose.
16.13. Copper, because acetylene reacts with copper to produce copper

acetylide, a dangerous explosive.
16.14. Many of the small arc welding machines weld at higher voltage than do
the industrial type welding machines. These smaller machines achieve
power by making up in voltage what they lack in current flow. These
larger voltages can overcome electrical resistance to produce dangerous
electrical shock when careless use causes exposure to the welder.
16.15. The welding cable carries so much current that it overheats easily.
Coiling the cable increases its resistance, causing higher temperatures
than uncoiled cables.
16.16. If the metal tank contains compressed gas, the high amperage of the
welding circuit could cause the heat buildup in the tank, possibly
causing the pressure limit of the tank to be exceeded.
16.17. The submerged arc welding process (SAW) is gaining in popularity

because the arc is hidden from view by the puddle of molten welding
materials, making arc radiation protection unnecessary. The welding
flux used in SAW is a granular type (like sand) which is continually
added to the weld. This makes welding overhead impossible or extremely
awkward--a big disadvantage.
16.18. The point of contact where the spot weld is made is analogous to a
power press.
16.19. (1) Short duration of the hazard, (2) People do not realize the
ignition potential of welding. (The ignition potential is unfamiliar
to most because they are not accustomed to watching welding operations
because of the eye hazards.)
16.20. Fires and explosions
16.21. SMAW (shielded metal arc welding), commonly called ―stick electrode
welding,‖ needs the most eye protection. The principal eye hazard to
welders is exposure to the high energy of the bright light rays
produced by the arc. SMAW without eye protection causes severe exposure
to the bright light of the arc. Do not be confused by the term
―shielded‖ that forms part of the name of this process. ―Shielded‖
refers to oxidation protection afforded by the sheath of flux that
surrounds the metal weld material in the welding ―rod.‖ The other two
processes, SAW and RSEW protect the welder from such exposures to
welding rays in quite different ways. In the case of SAW (submerged are
welding) the arc is hidden beneath a puddle of welding flux that starts
as a granular solid and melts during the process to submerge the arc.
The arc thus submerged is protected from oxygen exposure, which
protects the weld; at the same time the welder’s eyes are protected
from exposure to the dangerous rays. In the case of RSEW (resistance
seam welding) the welding heat is produced by electrical resistance and
pressure between the two sheet metal surfaces to be joined by a seam.
This welding heat does not produce a visible arc, so welding rays from
the arc present no dangerous exposure to the welder. This is not to say
that no eye protection at all is needed for SAW or RSEW welders. There
are hazards to the eyes other than the radiation from the welding arc.
16.22. Leather
16.23. "Siderosis"--It is not a severe hazard by itself.
16.24. There are so many variables to measure. The welding fume contains tiny,
transitory concentrations of trace compounds that are difficult to
capture and analyze, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
16.25. Welding "fume" is the re-condensed particulate from extremely hot metal
vaporization. Toxic gases are true gases released from chemical
reactions among the weld flux, the air, the welding fuel, the weld
metal, surface coatings or other materials present at the weld.
16.26. The coating or condition of the surfaces to be joined or the solvent

used to clean the surfaces may result in the release of toxic gases
during the welding process. Inadequate ventilation could increase the
hazards.
16.27. HAZARD 1: Acetylene cylinders should be stored valve end up. The
liquid acetone inside the tank could be passed through the valve if the
cylinder is lying on the floor.
HAZARD 2: Oxygen and acetylene cylinders should not be stored

together. Fire hazard.
HAZARD 3: Manifold pressure for acetylene is too high. Acetylene is

unstable at pressures greater than 30 psig.
HAZARD 4: The nail-polish remover odor is obviously due to leaking

acetone, a very flammable and hazardous substance.
HAZARD 5: The greasy gloves are an explosion hazard in the vicinity

of oxygen, especially when the oxygen valve is opened by the welder
wearing the greasy gloves.
HAZARD 6: The welder should not use his torch tip to chip slag from
the finished weld. The tip could be damaged, resulting in flashback.
HAZARD 7: The welding hose should not be completely wrapped with

tape, possibly concealing breaks or defects in the flexible hose.
16.28. The term "gas welding" implies that the source of heat is from burning
a gaseous fuel. Nitrogen is not a fuel gas and has a different
function in the welding process in that it acts as an inerting agent.
16.29. Normal atmosphere is approximately 78% nitrogen (ref p. 175 of the

text). Converted to parts per million:
PPM = percent x 10,000
= 78% x 10000
= 780,000 ppm
Obviously, nitrogen is not a toxic substance, but if it is present in

the air at concentrations much higher than 78% it can act as a simple
asphyxiant by crowding out essential oxygen. Oxygen deficiency is a
serious hazard resulting in many fatalities every year.
16.30. Acetylene is normally dissolved in acetone while in storage and is thus

much more stable than in its free gaseous state. In addition, the
acetylene cylinder is typically filled with a porous solid material
which suspends the acetone/acetylene solution and protects it from
shock pressure.
16.31. 1. Extremely high pressure is contained within an oxygen cylinder

(approximately 2000 psi). Respect for this pressure demands that the
valves be protected with caps when the cylinder is not connected for
use and that the cylinders themselves not be misused.
2. Fire hazards are exacerbated by oxygen-rich atmospheres especially
when the oxygen is under pressure. Greasy gloves ignite explosively
when oxygen cylinder valves are opened and checked manually by the
welder.
16.32. MAPP gas and natural gas can sometimes be used as alternative fuels for
acetylene. The disadvantage is that these fuels do not burn at
temperatures as hot as does acetylene.
16.33. Welding hazards are easily subject to exaggeration on one hand or

understatement on the other. Many very dangerous gases are released in
the process of welding materials that are both widely varying and under
temperature extremes. These very dangerous gases, such as phosgene
(chemical warfare gas) can be terrifying to consider in a work
environment. The key to controlling paranoia about welding hazards is
to recognize that the quantities and concentrations of these dangerous
gases is quite low. Air contaminants can be controlled by exhaust
ventilation or by personal protective equipment or both. With proper
protection from hazards welders can live long lives despite the deadly
gases that are produced by their work. Epidemiological studies have
shown that welders will not necessarily die young.
On the other hand, welding hazards are often overly minimized because
their acute effects might be mild, or at least tolerable. Welding gives
rise to serious hazards that are insidious in their attack. Minute
exposures may result in minimal acute effects, and welders may simply
ignore the hazards as a result. The insidious nature of the health
hazards is that many of the contaminants slowly take their toll over
the years, resulting in serious illness or even death long after
exposure. Therefore, the wise Safety and Health Manager will take
welding hazards seriously and not minimize their importance even though
nausea, dizziness, or other acute symptoms may not be present.
16.34. Phosgene
16.35. ―Monday morning sickness‖ is a suspicious condition, raising

speculation that a worker may be malingering or attempting to extend a
weekend for personal activities. If the worker is a welder, however,
there is a genuine, medical reason for the worker to become sick on
Mondays more than on other days. Exposure to zinc fume and some other
metal fumes gives rise to ―metal fume fever.‖ Daily exposure to metal
fume results in a sort of immunity, but this immunity can be lost in
just a few days away from exposure. Thus, on a weekend a welder can
lose immunity to metal fume fever and become sick upon returning to
work and exposure to metal fume on Monday.
16.36. The principal hazard from exposure to welding flux during welding
operations is in elemental fluorine or fluorine compounds becoming
airborne and contaminating the breathing atmosphere. As with many
other welding air contaminants, the hazardous exposure effect is
chronic, not acute. Therefore, the hazard may go unnoticed until the
long term damage is done. Long-term exposure can cause abnormalities
in the victim’s bones.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
16.37. Nitrogen and oxygen are very complex in the ways the atoms form bonds
to make compounds. Four different compounds make up the classification
NOx. They are:
N2O Nitrous oxide, commonly called ―laughing gas‖ and formerly used
as dental anesthetic. N2O is associated with the mildest hazards among
the compounds of the NOx family. It is listed as ―slightly dangerous‖
by Sax (see reference below) and has both health and safety hazard
implications.
NO Nitric oxide.
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide.
N2O5 Nitrogen pentoxide.

Except for N2O, the hazards of NOX are quite serious and even insidious
in their nature. The term ―insidious‖ is used because of the mechanism
of their attack on the body. NOx is only slightly soluble in water, so
the acid they produce (nitric and nitrous acid) does not irritate the
mucous membranes as much as they would if the solubilities were
greater. This would seem to be good, but unfortunately, the warning
property of the irritation is reduced in effect and the exposure goes
unnoticed. Without serious irritation, exposure continues and acids
form deep within the respiratory system, sometimes with disastrous
effects. An excellent source for reviewing these effects are the
various editions of the classic reference by Sax. The version used by
this author is:
Sax, N. Irving. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 5th

edition, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979.
All four of the oxides of nitrogen are both health and safety hazards,
to varying degrees. The safety hazards are explosion, fire, and
violent reactions with common materials. The health hazards are highly
toxic gases formed during decomposition from heating and reaction with
common materials, even water.
16.38. An Internet search using such keywords as ―disaster,‖ ―fire,‖ and

―welding‖ will be the start of a search into dozens of interesting
sites. One outstanding example that students may be familiar with from
media reports is the Indianapolis fire that burned 10 floats in May,
1997, before the Indianapolis 500 Festival Parade. Many students may
remember that disastrous fire that destroyed 10 floats and caused $1
million damage to the company (ExpoDesign) that builds the floats.
What many may not remember is that the fire was caused by a welder’s
torch. Many other disastrous welding fires can be found in media
reports.
16.39. This research question could evolve into a term paper project for a
student. On the Internet try either of the following sites for
starters:
http://www.amweld.org
http://www.aws.org
Example types of information available include: book titles, visual

aids, welding products buyers’ guides, manufacturer names, journal
subscription information, information on welding inspection,
scholarship opportunities, certification information, conference and
convention calendars, membership information, welding schools
information, career advertisements, welding standards information,
government affairs, answers to technical questions, and local chapter
information.
16.40. The reader should go to the OSHA website on the internet and activate
the link to ―standards‖ under ―Laws and Regulations.‖ Then select the
link to Part 1910. A text search capability is then displayed, and an
excellent search term for this exercise is the term ―noncombustible
barrier.‖ This search term will zero in on the general industry
standard 1910.253 and the corresponding construction industry standard
1926.350. Select the general industry standard, 1910.253. Upon display
of the full text of the standard, use edit to perform a search within
the text of the standard, again using the search term ―noncombustible
barrier.‖ The search will jump immediately to the standard in question,
1910.253(b)(4)(iii). The NCM database can then be searched for this
particular provision of the general industry welding standard to
determine the frequency of citation of this provision. For the Fiscal
Year this provision of the standard was cited 621 times.
16.41. From searching the OSHA website within the OSHA Part 1910 General
Industry standards, it can be determined that the principal standard
for gas welding is 29CFR1910.253 and the principal standard for arc
welding is 29CFR1910.254. The NCM database can be used to gather
summary data on the citation of all of the provisions of each of these
standards. For frequency of citation the comparison is as follows:
1910.253 1400 citations in the Fiscal Year
1910.254 254 citations in the Fiscal Year
It is apparent that OSHA finds many more citations of the gas welding
standard than it does for the arc welding standard.
17.1. Fire and electrocution

17.2. approximately 500 to 1,000
17.3. Although 220-volt and 440-volt circuits have a higher potential for
delivering a fatal amperage than does a 110-volt circuit, the 110-volt
circuit can deliver a fatal amperage. The common use of 110-volt
circuits has led to a complacency with 110-volt circuits which causes
the hazards of 110-volt circuits to be greater than that of the higher
voltage circuits.
17.4. At 70 milliamperes or greater (Figure 17.1)
17.5. Grounding is the return section in a complete electrical circuit.

Equipment must be grounded to protect a worker in case of a "short" to
the equipment casing.
17.6. The "hot" wire provides contact between the power source and the load
using electricity. The "neutral" wire is the normal completion of the
circuit providing a path for the current to ground. The "ground" wire
is a safety device which is the ground wire in case of a short from the
hot wire to the casing (or other conductive part of the load being
used). This low resistance circuit will "blow" a fuse or "trip" a
breaker to open the circuit.
17.7. GFCI is abbreviation for "ground fault circuit interruptor" which is a

safety switch to open a circuit that has a partial short to ground that
is insufficient to "trip" a circuit breaker. The short is revealed by
detecting a tiny current imbalance between the flows of the hot and
neutral wires. The GFCI is commonly used on construction sites.
17.8. Double insulation is an extra layer of insulation on electric hand

tools. It gives the operator of the tool an extra measure of protection
in case of a short to the equipment case. If the equipment has an
effective, ULL laboratory approved system of double insulation and is
so marked, a third wire grounding conductor is not required.
17.9. (1) Danger to technicians unsuspecting of reversal of color coding on

the designated leads.
(2) A short to ground between the switch and the load could cause the
equipment to run indefinitely, regardless of the position of the
switch.
(3) Bulb sockets cause the threads on a light bulb to become "hot".
17.10. An electric "arc" is the completion of an electrical circuit just prior

to contact between two conductors. A "spark" is an electric "arc"
occurring as an instantaneous discharge of a statically charged object.
17.11. Class I, II, and III locations describe the type of hazardous material
present: Class I--gases and vapors; Class II--ignitable dusts; Class
III--ignitable fibers or flyings.
17.12. "Group" is a classification of the material type within the class.

"Division" refers to the extent of the hazard, i.e., whether the
hazardous atmosphere in that location is expected to occur during
normal operations or to occur occasionally, such as upon occurrence of
a spill.
17.13. A circuit tester is used to determine if a suspected circuit is

energized.
A continuity tester is used on de-energized circuits to determine if
the circuit is complete. It can also be used to check if an object is
properly grounded by checking the object's continuity with another
object which is already known to be grounded.
17.14. (1) Improper grounding of portable tools and appliances

(2) Exposed live parts of electrical circuits
(3) Improper use of flexible cords
(4) Improperly marked disconnects
(5) Worn, frayed, or inadequate connection of plugs to cords
17.15. Starting with the ―given‖ that the bulbs each consume 5 watts of power,
whether the Christmas tree lights are connected in series or in
parallel is irrelevant because the answer to the problem is the same
either way. Most Christmas tree lights are connected in parallel, but
for illustration, both solutions are demonstrated here. It is
recognized that the RESISTANCES of the bulbs are vastly different,
depending upon whether you assume that the bulbs are connected in
series or in parallel.
Method I: Assume a parallel circuit

In a parallel circuit, each resistance sees the full voltage.
If W = V x I and I = V/R, then W = V2/R or
R = V2/W for each branch

R = (110)2/5 = 2420 ohms
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ... etc.

1/RT = 8/2420
RT = 302.5 ohms
I = V/R = 110/302.5 = 0.364 amps
Method II: Assume a series circuit
In a series circuit, the voltage drop is divided among the components

in relation to their resistance. In this case, all are equal.
110V/8 = 13.75 volts per bulb
R = V2/W = (13.75)2/5 = 37.81 ohms
RT = R1 + R2 + R3... etc.
RT = (37.81)8
= 302.5 ohms
I = V/R = 110/302.5 = 0.364 amps
Method III: Assume it doesn't matter.
I = W/V = (5 x 8)/110 = 40/110 = 0.364 amps
The current in the hot wire and the neutral wire are equal.
17.16. Yes, according to Figure 17.1, 363.6 milliamperes is usually fatal.
17.17. The worker will probably be shocked since his/her body will likely
provide the ground to complete the circuit.
If the worker is "moist" enough or otherwise provides good contact and
the current passes through his/her chest, the mishap will probably be
fatal.
17.18. Since there usually is little or no voltage potential between the

neutral wire and ground, there would be no shock. However, a
considerable load (resistance) downstream from the neutral could cause
a voltage to ground to occur on the neutral, possibly sufficient to be
fatal.
17.19. The ground wire, unlike the neutral, is normally not a current
conductor and should always be at zero voltage to ground and thus would
not be hazardous.
17.20. Improper grounding; rough treatment of light and cord (pulling the
cord, the cord being pinched by a closing hood on a car, dropping the
light when the bulb burns a worker's fingers, etc.), wet hands and
clothing when handling light; standing on ground (sometimes wet with
dew) barefoot; leaning bare-chested over fender of car, making good
contact between metal and chest.
17.21. The ordinary circuit breaker checks for overloaded circuits (circuits
carrying larger than the amperage limit set for the circuit). Typical
amperage limits in household circuits are 15, 20, and 30 amperes,
depending upon the rating of the circuit (a ―20 amp circuit‖ for
example). The GFCI checks for imbalances between the amperage carried
by the hot conductor and the amperage carried by the neutral. Any
imbalance between these two implies that there is a leakage to ground
somewhere in the circuit. Typical limits for which a GFCI will trip is
around 0.5 amp.
17.22. The grounding conductor (―ground‖) is at nearly same voltage potential

as the neutral conductor, even in a correctly wired circuit, because
both are grounded back at the meter. Therefore, a simple circuit
tester is unable to detect any difference in potential between the
ground and the neutral, whether they are correctly wired or incorrectly
―jumped‖ together right at the receptacle.
17.23. Precautions should have been taken to ensure no electrical wires were
beyond the wall, and if this was unavoidable, they should have been de-
energized.
The drill should not have been used without a proper ground wire.
The worker could have been wearing insulated gloves.
17.24. The broken ground plug removed the chance of a short circuit which
would have tripped the breaker.
17.25. There are basically two good features of electrical grounding as it is

conventionally used. The first is that it is a convenient means to
complete a circuit, by connecting the hot conductor to the load and the
neutral to ground. The second good feature about grounding is that if
the normally non-current-carrying metal parts (or other conductive
parts of a machine or device) are continuously grounded, a person who
contacts the equipment does not become a primary path of current flow
to ground. The bad feature of the use of grounding to complete a
circuit, is that connection to ground is so convenient that a person’s
body can become a part of the circuit. If the person’s body is well-
grounded and the equipment is not, the person’s body can become the
neutral path of the circuit back to ground.
17.26. The grounded conductor refers to the neutral, current-carrying

conductor that normally completes the circuit by connection with the
load, which is in turn connected to the hot conductor. The grounding
conductor refers to the safety ground that is connected to the normally
non-current-carrying conductive parts of the equipment. If an
accidental short occurs, the safety ground will carry the current to
ground, causing the circuit breaker to trip the circuit.
17.27. (a) The resistance of the pantleg material would likely prevent shock.
If skin contact did occur, the proximity of the neutral contacts would
likely prevent the passage of current through the worker's torso.
Electrocution would be highly unlikely.
(b) I = V/R = 440v/10,000 = .044 amps = 44 mA
Electrical shock is likely, but electrocution is highly unlikely

because of the high resistance in the circuit and the fact that the
path of the current is not through the worker's torso.
(c) This is a dangerous situation. A 220-volt circuit wired "hot"

invites a serious shock and electrocution hazard. However in the
situation described, the low resistance screwdriver shaft would likely
conduct a large current and trip a breaker. The worker would also be
protected by the nonconducting (wood) handle for the screwdriver.
(d) This is a very dangerous situation. The worker is likely to be

well-grounded via the concrete floor, especially if damp, as garages
often are. The circuit is energized. The worker is foolish to believe
that avoiding contact with both hot and neutral at the same time will
protect him. Contact with the hot wire alone would permit a path to
ground to pass through his body to the floor. Electrocution is a real
possibility here.
17.28. This is a very dangerous situation. Note carefully that although the
worker is right-handed, he is holding the work in his left hand. His
bare right arm is braced against a water pipe and therefore acts as an
excellent connection to ground. Calculation of ground path current:
I = V/R = 120v/600 = .2 amp = 200 mA
The probable path is from the worker's left hand through his torso
(including heart and lungs) and to ground via the right arm braced
against the water pipe. The breaker will not likely be tripped. The
ground path carries a current of a mere 200 mA, whereas at least 15 amp
would likely be required to trip the breaker. Electrocution is a real
possibility considering the factors already stated.
17.29 Fibrillation is rapid and weak pulsations of the heart due to exposure
to electric shock, especially alternating current in the 50 to 60 Hz
range. Once fibrillation begins it is difficult to arrest without
defibrillation equipment and death is the virtually certain and almost
immediate result.
17.30 The voltage is alternating, not direct. Alternating current increases

the likelihood of fibrillation.
17.31 Peak voltage = Effective voltage x 1.414
= 240v x 1.414
= 339.4 volts
17.32 Effective voltage = Peak voltage x 0.707
= 80v x 0.707
= 56.6 volts
17.33 Effective voltage = Peak voltage x 0.707
= 170v x 0.707
= 120 volts
W = VI and I = W/V
Effective current = 60 watts/120 volts = 0.5 amp

Peak current flow = Effective current x 1.414
= .5 amp x 1.414
= 0.707 amp
17.34 A low resistance path to ground in the third wire or grounding wire of
the circuit will cause an immediate current overflow in the event of a
short to the equipment case or other grounded part of the equipment.
This current overflow will cause the circuit breaker to trip quickly,
breaking the flow of all current, including the fractional part of the
circuit that might be flowing through the low-resistance grounding
path; it does not protect the person being shocked by drawing the
current to the ―path of least resistance.‖ The person will continue to
receive current flow in accordance with Ohm’s law, until the breaker
removes the voltage.
17.35 If the circuit has reversed polarity, the switch will be on the
neutral, not the hot wire. Any short to ground between the load and
the switch will simply complete the circuit regardless of whether the
switch is on or off (closed or open). Therefore the equipment will
continue to operate whether or not the switch is on or off. The short
to ground through the equipment case will not trip the breaker in this
case because it is the neutral that is making contact with the
equipment case, not the hot. A short between the neutral and the
equipment case will usually go unnoticed and the equipment will
continue to operate. Contract between two parts of the hot circuit
that bypasses the switch will also permit the equipment to continue to
operate without regard to the status of the switch.
17.36 ―Open ground‖ refers to the safety ground not being connected to a
reliable source of ground. Since the safety ground does not carry
current unless there is a short to the equipment case or other non-
current-carrying parts of the equipment, no one will ever notice the
fault ―open ground‖ in ordinary operation. Sloppy electrical wiring
that leaves safety grounds open will not normally be noticed by anyone,
unless an accident occurs.
17.37 Yes, Division 1 approved equipment is also acceptable for Division 2

locations, provided that the Class designation is compatible. Because
Division 1 equipment is ―explosion-proof,‖ it is more expensive than
―vapor-tight‖ Division 2 equipment. Therefore, economics demand that
Division 2 equipment will be preferred in such situations. However, it
is not acceptable to use Class I approved equipment in Class II
locations. The ―Class‖ designation refers to the type of exposure, not
the degree of hazard. Class I is flammable liquids and gases, whereas
Class II is ignitable dusts, as in grain dust, for example. The hazard
mechanisms are different. Grain dust may settle in heavy layers and
cause heat buildup within the equipment that may start a smoldering
fire. Class I locations are not subject to the same hazards of heat
buildup. Therefore, equipment that might be entirely satisfactory for
exposure to Class I atmospheres could cause a fire when exposed to
Class II atmospheres.
17.38. One way to prevent this fatality was suggested in the problem
statement. Also periodic inspection of electrical tools and cords is a
way that the faulty condition could have been noticed and repaired
before the fatal accident.
The ground wire usually helps to protect the worker, but sometimes it
contributes to the hazard. If the wire used to hold the chuck key to
the cord had also contacted the ground wire as well as the hot wire, it
would have shorted out the circuit, possibly preventing the fatality.
However, in this case, ironically the ground wire contributed to the
fatality. The worker was holding the electric drill in one hand and
contacted the energized chuck key with the other hand. The well-
grounded case of the tool provided the path to ground which enabled the
current to pass through the worker's body--hence the fatality.
17.39. Class I, Division 1; Group is probably C, perhaps D. The class is I

because of the presence of flammable vapors. Division 1 is appropriate
for normal manufacturing operations in which regular exposures to
hazardous concentrations would exist. Group would not be A because the
ignitable agent is not acetylene. Group B is also not likely because
chlorobenzene is not a gas. Group C and D both apply to flammable
chemical liquids of which chlorobenzene is an example.
17.40. This case study was intended to provide a variation on the previous
case study (Case Study 17.39). The new process equipment is apparently
intended to permit a re-classification of the hazardous location from
Division 1 to Division 2 and would enhance safety and vastly impact the
requirement for special wiring, saving considerable equipment cost.
However, the problem stated that "such occurrences arise frequently out
of a need to regularly clean the in-feed mechanism." Unfortunately,
this frequent need to open the closed system, which permits
chlorobenzene exposures, negates the advantage and would justify
retaining the Division 1 rating.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
17.41. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) publishes the National
Electrical Code. In addition the website for NFPA
(http://www.nfpa.org) has many other fire safety publications and
pamphlets, not only in English, but in other languages as well (click
on NFPA International). Safety publications include such topics as
fire safety in the home, fire safety tips, fire protective clothing,
and fire prevention and protection educational materials for children.
17.42. The National Safety Council publication Accident Facts has tabulated
annual estimates for the number of electrocutions. The figure has been
continuing a downward trend in recent years. The total for 1995 (shown
in the 1997 edition) was 347 and for 1996 (shown in the 1998 edition)
was 279. NSC’s Injury Facts, 2002 Edition, (previously ―Accident
Facts‖) reports a total of 437 deaths from exposure to electric current
in 1999. This most recent edition of Injury Facts did not show a
breakdown between electrocutions on- versus off-the-job.
17.43. The NCM database can be used to check citation frequencies. Following
are example citation frequencies for the top ten most frequently cited
electrical standards:
Rank Std cited Description Citations

1 305(b)(1) Elect boxes: unused openings or unprotected conductors entering boxes 2159
2 305(b)(2) Open electrical boxes without covers 1729
3 304(f)(4) Grounding path broken or not continuous 1430
4 305(g)(1)(iii) Misuse of flexible elec cords (subst for fixed wiring or run thru holes in wall) 1429
5 303(g)(2)(i) Exposed live parts 1378
6 305(g)(2)(iii) Electric cord plugs: missing or inadequate pull protection (strain relief) 1346
7 303(f) Inadequate marking of electrical disconnects 1158
8 303(g)(1)(ii) Access space around electrical equipment blocked (i.e., by other eqpmt) 757
9 304(a)(2) Reversed polarity 455
10 303(g)(1)(i) Inadequate clearance for access around electrical equipment (for maint) 363
The above list can be seen to approximately match the list of ―frequent
violations‖ discussed in Chapter 17 of the text. The rank shifts
somewhat from year to year, but the same, familiar problems continue
over the years to generate the most OSHA citations. There is some
variation in the way various OSHA inspectors choose to write a
citation. The pattern of citation sometimes follows current OSHA
inspector practices. For instance, the familiar standard covering
―exposed live parts‖ has been used by some OSHA inspectors to cite open
electrical boxes as well.
17.44. The objective of this exercise is to give students practice in using
the OSHA website and the NCM database. The answer can obviously take on
many forms.
18.1. 5 foot-candles. May be dropped to 3 foot-candles for concrete

placement excavation and waste areas, accessways, active storage areas,
loading platforms, and refueling and maintenance areas.
18.2. Lasers may be used as tools for checking steel girder alignment and
deflection in bridges and buildings.
18.3. Tensile strength = 4000 lbs.

(1) The shock load of a fall may be several times the weight of the
individual.
(2) A safety factor is included in the tensile strength specification.
18.4. A safety belt lanyard is that part of a fall protection system which
attaches to the safety belt on one end and the lifeline or structure on
the other.
Nominal breaking strength = 5400 pounds
18.5. A triple rolling hitch is a knot used to attach a lanyard to a

lifeline.
18.6. Hydraulic tools operate with higher pressure than pneumatic tools which
causes a higher degree of hazard. Hydraulic pressure is supplied by a
liquid which can have an electrical conductivity or fire hazard
associated with the chosen liquid.
Hydraulic tools are quieter than pneumatic tools.
18.7. The rear of many cranes has a swing radius that exceeds the base of the
crane. The poor visibility of the crane operator plus the extended
rear of the crane present a hazard of crushing personnel between the
rear of the crane and some other object.
18.8. Helicopter hooks present an additional hazard of the hook possibly not
disconnecting at the proper time. A backup mechanical disconnect is
used to alleviate this hazard.
18.9. ROPS (Rollover Protective Structures) is an OSHA-specified means of

protection for the operator of a vehicle in case of a rollover of that
vehicle.
18.10. (1) Operator visibility
(2) Pedestrian awareness
18.11. A trench is an excavation in which: (1) the depth is greater than the
width, (2) the width is no greater than 15 feet.
18.12. A trench jack placed too high can be damaged as shown in Figure 18.16.
18.13. Rebar is a rod of steel used to reinforce poured concrete structures.

It can be a hazard when the end of the rebar protrudes past the last
level of concrete while waiting for another layer of concrete. The
protrusion can be a trip hazard, or a worker could be impaled upon it
in a fall.
18.14. When the fall distance exceeds 25 feet.
18.15. A 1/2 inch wire rope approximately 42 inches high kept taut.
18.16. The building to be demolished may have previous structural damage.

There could be a hazard of an uncontrolled collapse of some part of the
building.
18.17. Yes, a fire that has started in an area other than the explosives
compartment could be extinguished, saving a disastrous explosion.
18.18. (from Figure 18.10)
Clearance = 10 ft + (0.4 in)(550 - 50)/12

= 10 ft + (0.4)(500)/12
= 10 ft + 200/12
= 10 ft + 16.6
 26.6 ft.
18.19. (from Figure 18.10)

Clearance = 16 ft.
18.20. (from Figure 18.10)

Clearance = same calculation as for Problem 18.18
Clearance  26.6 ft
18.21. (from Figure 18.10)

Clearance = 4 ft.
18.22. No; the platform is 27 feet from the ground, so the worker's safety
belt would normally be at his or her waist, approximately at 30 feet
(27 + 3). If the worker fell off the platform the maximum fall
distance would be
30 ft - [40 ft - 12 ft] = 2 ft
Such a fall distance is well within the 6 foot limit specified in
standards for lanyards.
18.23. Fall distance should be limited to 6 feet. However, the first step in
this problem is to determine the lowest point at which the platform can
be placed and it still remain feasible for the worker to stand on the
platform while attached to the 20 foot safety line. The attachment
point on the safety line would hang at an elevation of 15 feet (35 – 20
= 15). Considering various worker heights, assume that a worker’s body
in a standing position would naturally reach at least another 3 feet
below the point at which the lanyard is attached to the worker’s safety
harness. Therefore, the working platform could be attached as low as
12 feet from the ground (15 – 3 = 12). Any lower level for the
platform would leave the shorter workers hanging from their lanyards,
because their feet would not reach down to the working platform level.
To limit the fall distance to 6 feet, the highest level at which the
platform could be placed would be 18 feet (12 + 6 = 18).
Lowest level: 12 feet
Highest level: 18 feet
18.24. Mushroomed heads on chisels may release tiny metal fragments when the
chisel head is struck. These metal fragments are a hazard to the eyes
and other body parts.
18.25 1. Life jackets or buoyant work vests.

2. Ring buoys every 200 feet.
3. A lifesaving skiff whenever workers work over or near water and a
danger of drowning exists.
18.26 There are 12 power levels. The 12 levels are divided into two groups
of 6 each, the group being designated by the color of the case as
follows;
Brass: lighter (less powerful) group
Nickel: heavier (more powerful) group
Within the two groups there are six levels each, the levels being
designated by the color of the load. The load color code sequence is
as follows from lightest to heaviest:
Gray, Brown, Green, Yellow, Red, Purple
18.27 Every shift
18.28 Via gravity chutes to ground level. If the height is greater than 20
feet the gravity chutes are required to be enclosed.
18.29 Flammable liquids
18.30 The hose flies about dangerously, propelled by the rapidly escaping air
under pressure. Federal standards require in-line automatic shut-off
valves that close whenever a line break causes a sudden
depressurization in the line. The problem is that under heavy usage
with large airflows, the shut-off valves may close during normal
operation causing a nuisance.
18.31 The obvious way to two-block a crane is to hoist the load block too
high to the point at which it contacts the boom tip. Less obvious are
the ways that the geometry can be changed by moving the boon while the
hoist is held fixed. When the boom is lowered, the load block will
slowly creep closer to the boom point even with the hoist fixed. This
is due to the positioning of the hoist drum behind the pivot point of
the boom. Another way to two-block the crane is to extend a
telescoping boon while the hoist is held fixed.
18.32. The two principal hazards associated with the choice of hydraulic
fluids are fire and electrical shock through contact with high-voltage
utility lines. For general hydraulic tool applications, the fire
resistance characteristic of the hydraulic fluid takes priority.
However, when working in construction and alteration of electric
utility transmission and distribution systems, the hazard of electrical
conductivity takes precedence over the fire hazard. Therefore, the
hydraulic fluids used for insulated sections of derrick trucks, aerial
lifts, and hydraulic tools that are used on or around energized lines
and equipment for power transmission and distribution are required to
be of the insulating type.
18.33. Powder-actuated tools are similar in appearance to hand-guns and

function in a similar way, except that for powder-actuated tools the
projectile is separate from the cartridge. A powder-actuated tool, if
used incorrectly, is fully capable of killing a person, the same as a
handgun will. Powder-actuated tools may be even more dangerous, because
the cartridge power must be carefully selected to be sufficiently
powerful to drive the projectile, but not so powerful as to drive it
completely through the wall or other surface so that it dangerously
emerges from the back side, possibly killing an unsuspecting coworker.
There are twelve different power levels for the cartridge (coded by
color), so a decision as to which power level is to be used for a given
application must be made carefully.
18.34 Due to the sensitivity of the GFCI device it can sometimes trip due to
small, perhaps harmless, leaks to ground in a typical construction site
outdoors. This is called "nuisance tripping" .
18.35 A cornice hook is used to secure suspension ropes for scaffolds by
forming an attachment at the edge of a rook if there is a vertical
barrier at the edge. Tiebacks tied to a secure point are required as a
secondary means of support.
18.36 People think of concrete blocks as very rigid and durable. However, a
tiny scaffold foot directs a highly concentrated load on the concrete
block and can break through the concrete block, causing a critical
shift aloft. Unfortunately, the timing is usually bad because the
scaffold loading is usually the greatest when personnel are on the
scaffold.
18.37 Stairways often consist of a steel structure with concrete poured into
the treads during construction. Often the steel stairway structure is
used as a stairway before the concrete treads have been poured. The
unfilled pan-type treads represent a tripping hazard to personnel who
use the stairs before the pans are filled. Standards require that the
empty tread cavities be filled in with lumber or other material to form
a temporary tread while the stairway frame is being used during
construction.
18.35 The crane likely two-blocked. While the boom was lowered, the hoist
was held fixed and the load block and headache ball slowly creeped up
to the boom point. See diagram. The accident could have been
prevented by motoring out the hoist while lowering the boom or
automatically by an anti-two-block device.
Position 1. Boom nearly erect. Position 2. Boom lowered.
a1 = a2 (fixed by crane geometry)

b1 = b2 (fixed boom length)
θ < 
Therefore, c2 > c1 which causes the two-block.
18.39 Number of fatalities due to falls: 23
Additional falls after installing safety nets: 10
Number of fatalities due to falls after installing the safety nets: 0
18.40. During its own construction

18.41. ―Two-blocking‖ occurs when the load hook or hook block is drawn up too
close to the boom point of a crane or to the upper block in a reeving
arrangement. When the lower block and the upper block (or crane boom
point) make contact, any further winching of the hoist rope imparts a
severe tensile stress to the wire rope. Two-blocking often results in
breaking the wire rope and the fall of the load and load block. Many
fatalities have resulted from two-blocking. ANSI requires ―two-blocking
damage prevention features‖ on mobile hydraulic cranes if the crane is
of the telescoping boom type with less than 60 feet of extended boom.
18.42. Prior to use on each shift.

18.43. A certain resiliency or elasticity in artificial fiber ropes lessens
the shock load when arresting a fall.
18.44. Cracking, chipping, and splintering of material from contact with tools
or fasteners. The flying debris can cause eye injury.
18.45. No splices are permitted in flexible electrical cords on construction

sites unless they are properly molded or vulcanized.
18.46. The ―headache ball‖ is a ball-shaped weight used to keep a necessary
tension on a crane’s running rope (wire rope) when the crane hook is
not loaded. The headache ball is smaller and lighter than a ―wrecking
ball,‖ which is used for a different purpose.
18.47. Hammerhead tower cranes have the advantage of the convenient placement
of a cantilevered counterweight on the end of the jib opposite the
work.
18.48. Helicopter crane hooks must not only be reliable in holding the load
without releasing it at the wrong time; they must ALSO release the load
reliably at the right time. For safety, a mechanical override is
required that can be used in an emergency to release the load in case
the electrical release fails. (Incidentally, this is an example of the
Fail-Safe Principle of Redundancy discussed in Chapter 3.)
18.49. Material hoists and personnel hoists are different in design and safety
factor. It is a violation of standards to use a material hoist for
personnel; however, it is OK to use a personnel hoist to lift material
provided that rated capacities are not exceeded.
18.50. ―Articulating‖ means capable of bending in the middle, whereas

―hydraulically extensible‖ means ―telescoping.‖ Vehicle-mounted boom
platforms can be of either design.
18.51. An example engineering control would be equipping the vehicle with an

automatic backup alarm for warning pedestrian workers. An example
administrative or work practice control would be posting an observer to
warn pedestrian workers to get out of the way whenever the vehicle
moves in reverse.
18.52. ―Angle of repose‖ refers to the slope of a pile of excavated earth or

other material. If the angle becomes too steep, the pile will begin to
slide away, depending upon the material in the pile and its condition.
Angle of repose is a critical safety consideration because, if the
pile begins to slip back into an excavation, it can endanger workers
inside the trench or other excavation.
18.53. 1. hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete just after pouring.

2. vibrating equipment applied immediately after pouring (the most
dangerous time) adds to the stress on the concrete forms.
18.54. Earlier editions of the text listed the following as the top five
causes of construction fatalities:
Falls
Electrocutions
Vehicle rollovers
Personnel runover by vehicle
Excavation cave-ins
Current editions do not list these causes because of the paucity of
current data on the causes of construction fatalities. It is probably
unfair to ask students to find conclusive answers to this question, but
it is a good question for student research.
RESEARCH EXERCISES
18.55. The National Safety Council publication Injury Facts reveals that farm
hazards are very similar to construction hazards, listing such examples
as transportation accidents, falls, and especially machinery hazards.
Tractor fatalities from rollovers has been targeted as a very frequent
cause of fatalities. The National Safety Council publication Accident
Facts, the predecessor publication to Injury Facts, reported that in
1995, overturns accounted for 55% of all on-the-farm fatalities
reported to the National Safety Council, with an annual rate of 5.5
deaths per 100,000 tractors. For all tractor deaths combined the
estimated number of tractor deaths nationwide for the year was shown as
431 in the 1997 edition of Accident Facts. Formerly the largest source
of farm fatalities, there were only 100 fatal tractor accidents in all
of 2001, as reported by the National Safety Council in the 2002 Edition
of Injury Facts. When all farm fatalities are counted (not just those
that occur while actually on the farm), transportation ranks as the
number one exposure to fatalities. The number of transportation
fatalities reported for the ―agriculture, forestry, and fishing‖
industry was reported as 3744 for the period 1992-2000 (ref. Injury
Facts, 2002 Ed). Averaged over the nine year period, the yearly average
total would be approximately 416.
18.56. The following is quoted from OSHA Directives - STD 3-15.3 - 29 CFR
1926.705, Requirements for Lift-Slab Construction Operations --
Inspection Procedures and Guidelines:
G. Background. The standard for Lift-Slab Construction Operations,

29 CFR 1926.705, was promulgated on October 18, 1990, at Federal
Register, Volume 55, No. 202, pages 42306 to 42330; and all portions of
the standard are effective on December 17, 1990.
1. A tragic occurrence on April 23, 1987, at Bridgeport, Connecticut,

resulted in the death of 28 workers and injuries to many others. The
workers were in the act of erecting a building using the lift-slab
method of construction. The collapse resulted in the highest death
toll from a construction-related activity in the United States since
the 51 deaths in 1978 attributed to the cooling tower collapse at
Willow Island, West Virginia.
18.57. The case study states that the worker’s lifeline was attached to an
attachment line that was in turn attached to the beam on which the
worker was standing. Since the lanyard was attached to the worker’s
body harness, the attachment at that point was considerably higher than
the beam on which the worker was standing, perhaps an estimated four
feet higher than the soles of his shoes. Therefore, the worker fell
this estimated four feet PLUS the six-foot length of the lanyard PLUS
the five-foot effective length of the looped, 10 foot attachment line.
This adds up to 4+6+5 = 15 feet. At the 15-foot point in the fall,
then, the lanyard would become taut, and the worker’s body would swing
below the attachment point of the lanyard. This accident points to the
fact that in ANY FALL the fall distance depends not only upon the
length of the lanyard but also on where the worker is standing when the
fall begins. In this accident it also depended upon the additional fall
distance created by the 10-foot, looped attachment line.

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Toaz - Info Industrial Safety and Health Management5th Edasfahl Solution Manual PR

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CHAPTER 1 SOLUTIONS TO END-OF-CHAPTER EXERCISES

1.3. No. It is an unattainable goal. Such a strategy fails to recognize

1.6. A safety hazard is acute, causes or threatens to cause injuries, and is

1.9. Some valid examples are noise, welding, and radiation.

1.12. Work training, statistics, job placement, industrial relations.

1.13. A comprehensive safety and health program involves engineering, and

1.15. CPSC concentrates on the responsibility of the manufacturers of the

1.16. (NSC) National Safety Council

1.17. ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

1.18. OSHA is concerned with hazardous exposures to workers, i.e. worker

Resources include library resources, safety training, professional

1.24. An Internet search on the term ―Certified Industrial Hygienist‖ will

1.28. News Releases are an excellent source of current information on OSHA's

2.2. Acting as a facilitator in assisting, motivating, and advising the line

2.5. Go to top management to re-determine its level of commitment to safety

2.7. The ostensible purpose is to protect the worker by providing statutory

2.9. The employer or the employer's insurance carrier.

2.11. A standardized recordkeeping system for industrial safety established

2.12. Differences in recordkeeping requirements for OSHA and its predecessor

2.14. One that is work related and requires medical treatment.

2.15. 25 x 200,000 = 25 = 8.33

2.16. The injury/illness incidence rate computation prescribed by OSHA

2.24. First-line supervisors

2.25. A six-month work period = 1000 hours.

(a) General injury/illness rate = 18 x 200,000 = 72

2.27. (a) Total incidence rate = (3+1+1+1+1) x 200,000

(b) (According to current OSHA recordkeeping policy, count calendar

LWDI = 3 x 200,000 = 6.67 for the 4-month period

LWDI = 3 x 200,000 = 300 = 2.22

and the objective LWDI of 3.6 would easily be met.

2.29. The classification of the 12 accident files in this case study is

Columns on the OSHA 300 Log

(a) LWDI = 1 x 200,000 = 1 = .11

Total Injury rate = (4 - 1) x 200,000 = 3 = .33

Total Illness rate = (2+0+1+1) x 200,000 = 4 = .44

Fatality rate = 1 x 200,000 = 1 = .11

Number-of-lost-workdays rate = (70 + 38) x 200,000

Total incidence (including fatalities)

(a) Injury incidence = (4 - 1) x 200,000 = 6

(b) Illness incidence = 5 x 200,000 = 10

(c) Number-of-lost-workdays rate = (67 + 16) x 200,000

(d) LWDI = 1 x 200,000 = 2

2.31. 1998 premium $120,000

Total recordable cases = (1+2+3+3) x 200,000 = 5.45 vs 6.1 (NSC)

Days Away From Work = 85,000,000 x 200,000 = 62.27

2.39. Workplace violence

2.43. Although preemployment testing has been shown to be effective in

2.45. the eyes

2.49. The answer to this question is expected to be a moving target.

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3.1. Imminent danger, serious violations, nonserious violations, de minimus

3.3. Author's opinion: Case (a) -- Cat. 1 -- De Minimus

3.4. This is a good example of a hazard that would be better controlled by

3.5. This question is intended to generate a class discussion to reinforce

3.6. Enforcement, psychological, engineering, analytical

212 Total violations: 5154 From employee complaints: 7

36 Total violations: 1037 From employee complaints: 7

151 Total violations: 1882 From employee complaints: 2