CHAPTER

03
Human
Reproduction
 is the production of young ones by anorganism. Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- It consists of paired testes, Accessory
ducts, Accessory glands & external
genitalia (penis).

a. Paired testes
- Primary sexorgans that produce sperms & testosterone.
- Testes are formed within the abdomen. Soon after the birth or at the
of pregnancy they descent into the scrotal sac
through inguinalcanal.
- The low temperature of
scrotum helps for proper functioning of testes and for spermatogenesis.
- Each testis is oval shaped. Length , width:
- Each testis has about testicular lobules.
- Each lobule contains coiled seminiferous tubules.
- Seminiferous tubule is lined internally with spermatogonia

- Sertoli cells give shape and nourishment to developing spermatogonia.

- The regions outside the seminiferous tubules contain
small blood vessels, interstitial cells and immunologically
competent cells.
- Leydig cells secrete testicular hormones

b. Accessory ducts (Duct system)

- Include
They conduct spermsfrom testis as follows:
- Seminiferous tubules - (irregular cavities)
- (series of fine tubules) -
(stores sperms temporarily) - - join with
duct of to form
urethra -
- Urethra receives ducts of prostate and Cowper’s
glands.
c. Accessory glands
Include a prostate gland, a pair of seminal vesicles and a pair of

- Their collective secretion is rich in

fructose, Ca and enzymes.
- Seminal plasma + sperms -

• Helps for transporting sperms.

• Supplies nutrients to sperms.
• Provides alkalinity to counteract the acidity of uterus.
• Secretions of Cowper’s glands lubricate the penis.
- Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle &
prostate help for maturation and motility of sperms.

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 d. Penis (external genitalia)
It is a made of erectile
- When spongy tissue is filled with blood, the penis erects. It facilitates

- The cone-shaped tip of the penis is called . It is covered by

2. Female Reproductive System

It includes Ovaries, Accessory ducts & Externalgenitalia.

- Primary sex organs which produce ova

(female gamete) & steroid ovarian
hormones (estrogen & progesterone).
- Each ovary is 2-4 cm in length.
- They are located on both side of the lower
abdomen and connected to the pelvic wall
and uterus by ligaments.
- Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium
which encloses the ovarian stroma.
- The stroma has outer cortex and inner medulla.
- Ovary contains groups of cells (Ovarian follicles). Each follicle carries a centrally
placed ovum

Include 2 oviducts , a uterus & vagina.

Each oviduct (10-12 cm long) has 3parts:
• Funnel-shaped opening provided with many finger-like
. It helps to collect the ovum.
• Wider part.
• : Narrow part. It joins theuterus.
The lined the lumen of the oviduct
drives the ovum towards the uterus.
It is inverted pear shaped. It is supported
by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.
Uterus has 3 parts- Upper fundus, middle body and
terminal cervix. opens to vagina.
The uterine wall has 3 layers:
• External thin membrane.
• Middle thick layer of smooth muscle.
• Inner glandular and vascular layer.
It opens to the exterior between urethra & anus. The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich
mucous membrane consisting of sensitive papillae & Bartholin’s glands. Bartholin’s glands secrete mucus
that lubricates the penis during sexual act.

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 c. External genitalia (vulva orpudendum)
- Consist of Mons pubis, vestibule, hymen & clitoris.
A cushion of fatty tissue covered by pubic hair.
- A median channel. It includes
• Large, fleshy, fatty and hairy outer folds. Surrounds
vaginal opening.
• Small, thin and hairless inner folds.
- A membrane whichpartially cover the vaginal opening. It is often torn during the
first coitus.It may also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon; activeparticipation
in some sportsitems etc.
In some women, hymen persists after coitus. So the hymen is not a reliable indicator ofvirginity.
- A highly sensitive organ lying just in front of the urethral opening.

Mammary glands (breasts)

A pair of mammary glands contains
glandular tissue & fat.
- Glandular tissue of each breast has 15-20 mammarylobes
containing clusters of cells

- Cells of alveoli secrete milk. It is stored in lumen of alveoli.

- The alveoli open into
- The tubules of each lobe join to form a
- Several mammary ducts join to form a wider
which is connected to through which milk
issucked out.

GAMETOGENESIS
- It is the formation of gametes in the gonads.
- It is 2 types: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis.

It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) in seminiferous tubules of testis. It has

In this, Spermatogonia (Sperm mother cells or immature male germ cells)
produce spermatids.
transform into

Mitosis differentiation

1st meiotic division

2nd meiotic division

Differentiation

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 - are formed from each primaryspermatocyte.
- After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells. Then they are released to lumen
of seminiferous tubules. It is called

Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis

- Hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
- GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete 2
and

- LH acts on the and stimulates secretion of androgens. Androgens stimulate the

spermatogenesis.
- FSH acts on the and stimulates secretion of some factors for the spermiogenesis.

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

- A mature sperm is about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.
- A plasma membrane envelops the whole body ofsperm.

a. Head: Oval shaped. Formed of nucleus and acrosome. Acrosome is formed

from Golgi complex. It contains lytic enzymes. Behind the head is a neck.
: Composed of axial filament surrounded by mitochondria &
cytoplasm. Mitochondria produce energy for the sperm motility.
Consists of a central axial filament. The sperm moves in fluid
medium and female genital tract by the undulating movement of the tail.
- Man ejaculates 200-300 million sperms during a coitus.
- For normal fertility, at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size.
40% of them must show vigorous motility.

2. Oogenesis
- It is the process of formation and maturation of
- It takes place in
Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic stage when millions of
are formed within each ovary.
- No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.
- Oogonia multiply to form . They enter
of the meiosis and get temporarily arrested at
that stage.
Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of
to form
Many primary follicles degenerate during the phase from
birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty, only
primary follicles are left in each ovary.

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 Primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa
cells and a new toform
- The secondary follicles transform into a . It has a fluid filled cavity The theca layer
forms an inner and an outer
- The primary oocyte in tertiary follicle grows and undergoes first unequal meiotic division to form a large
secondary oocyte (n) & a tiny first polar body (n). So, secondary oocyte retains nutrient rich cytoplasm of
primary oocyte.
- It is unknown that whether the first polar body divides further or degenerates.
- The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle
- Secondary oocyte forms a new membrane
- Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte from the ovary. This is called

Schematic representation of oogenesis

Mitosis differentiation
(at foetal stage)

1st meiotic division

(prior toovulation)

2nd meiotic division

(during fertilization)

Structure of ovum (egg)

- Spherical and About mm indiameter.

- Ovum has 3 membranes:
Innermost layer.
Outer to the plasma membrane.
Outer layer formed of follicle cells

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

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 MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

- It is the cyclic events starting from one menstruation till the next during the
(from puberty to menopause) of a woman’s life.
- Its duration is
- Menstrual cycle is also seen in other primates.
- Menstrual cycle includes (changes in ovary) & (changes in uterus, oviduct & vagina).
- Menstrual cycle has the following phases

I. Menstrual phase: 15th day

- The cycle starts with
- It lasts for 3-5 days.
- Menstruation occurs if the released ovum is not fertilized. It
results in breakdown of endometrial lining and uterine blood
vessels that comes out through vagina.
- Lack of menstruation indicates pregnancy. It may also be
caused due to stress, poor healthetc.
- The first menstruation during puberty.

II. Follicular (Proliferative) phase: 513th day

It starts from after menstruation and completed within
In this phase, the action of gonadotropins (FSH &LH) from pituitary occurs. FSH stimulates
• Development of primary follicles into Graafianfollicles.
• Secretion of oestrogens by

• of and mucus lining of

o Development of secondary sexual characters.
o Suppression of FSHsecretion.
o Secretion of LH (Luteinizing hormone).

III. Ovulatory phase: 14th day

- LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle.
- Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge) induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby ovulation (on 14th day).

IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase: 1528th day

- After ovulation, is transformed into a yellow endocrine mass called . It secretes

-
• Makes the endometrium . Thus, the uterus gets ready forimplantation.
• Inhibits the FSH secretion to prevent development of a second ovarian follicle.
- If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates.
It causes disintegration of endometrium. It leads to next
menstruation and new cycle.
- If a woman becomes pregnant, all events of menstrual cycle
stop and there is no menstruation.
- Menstrual cycle ceases around of age. It is called
.

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 FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
- During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the vagina. It is called
- Fusion of a sperm with ovum is called It occurs in of fallopian tube.

Sperms - vagina - cervical canal - uterus - isthmus

Fertilization - Ampullary- isthmicJunction

Ovum (from ovary)- fimbriae- infundibulum- ampulla-

- Fertilization happens only if are transported simultaneously. So all copulations do not lead to
fertilization & pregnancy.
- A sperm contacts with . It induces changes in the membrane that block entry of additional
sperms.
- The secretions of the help sperm to enter the egg cytoplasm via zona pellucida & plasma
membrane. This causes second meiotic division of secondary oocyte to form an and a

- The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse together to form a
- Zygote undergoes mitotic division (cleavage) as it moves through the isthmus towards the uterus and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called
- The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a
- Morula continues to divide and transforms into
- In blastocyst, blastomeres are arranged into trophoblast (outer layer) and an inner cell mass attached
totrophoblast.
- The trophoblast layer gives nourishment to inner cell mass. Also, it gets attached to endometrium.
- After attachment, uterine cells divide rapidly and cover the blastocyst. Thus, the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium. This is called
- The inner cell mass gets differentiated to
(outer , middle & inner

This 3-layered structure forms theembryo.

PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC

DEVELOPMENT
After implantation, finger-like projections
appear on the trophoblast which is surrounded by the
uterine tissue and maternal blood.
- The chorionic villi & uterine tissue are interdigitated to form
. It is a structural and functional unit b/w embryo
(foetus) and maternal body
- Placenta is connected to the embryo by an
It transports substances to and from the embryo.

Functions of placenta
• Acts as between the foetus and mother.
• Supply etc. from mother to foetus.
• Remove fromfoetus.
• Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes gonadotropin

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 is also secreted by ovary.
- During pregnancy, levels of estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxin etc. are also increased in
maternal blood. They support the fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintain pregnancy.
- The germ layers give rise to all tissues (organs). The stem cells in inner cell mass have the potency to
give rise to all the tissues and organs.
- Human pregnancy (gestation period) lasts 9 months

Changes in embryo during pregnancy

• Heart isformed.
• Limbs and digits aredeveloped.
• The major organs (limbs,
external genital organs etc.) are well developed.
• First movement of foetus and appearance of hair
on the head.
• Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids
separate and eye lashes are formed.
• Ready for delivery.

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Process of giving birth to young ones.
- Parturition isinduced by
- The signals originating from the foetus and placenta induce
mild uterine contractions This causes
the release of from
- Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle contractions
which in turn stimulate further secretion of oxytocin. This
process is continued leading to expulsion of the baby out of
the uterus through the

After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off.

- The placenta & remnants of are expelled
from the maternal body after parturition. It is called

- The mammary glands produce milk towards the end of

pregnancy. It is called
- The yellowish milk produced during the initial few days of
is called colostrum. It contains several antibodies
essentialto develop resistance for the new born babies.

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