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Lecture 8 - Knowledge

The document discusses resolution theorem proving and the resolution by refutation algorithm. It begins by explaining that resolution theorem proving is a technique for proving theorems in predicate logic using the resolution by refutation algorithm. It then provides 9 steps for converting statements from predicate calculus to clause form. Finally, it provides an example of using the resolution algorithm to prove that John is happy by reducing the clauses to a contradiction.

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20 views

Lecture 8 - Knowledge

The document discusses resolution theorem proving and the resolution by refutation algorithm. It begins by explaining that resolution theorem proving is a technique for proving theorems in predicate logic using the resolution by refutation algorithm. It then provides 9 steps for converting statements from predicate calculus to clause form. Finally, it provides an example of using the resolution algorithm to prove that John is happy by reducing the clauses to a contradiction.

Uploaded by

oqaoud4
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 8

Resolution
Dr. Firas Omari
Resolution Theorem Proving
is a technique for proving theorems in the predicate logic using the resolution by
refutation algorithm. The resolution refutation proof procedure answers a query or
deduces a new result by reducing the set of clauses to a contradiction.

The Resolution by RefutationAlgorithm includes the following steps:-


a) Convert the statements to predicate calculus (predicate logic).
b) Convert the statements from predicate calculus to clause form.
c) Add the negation of what is to be proved to the clause form.
d) Resolve the clauses to producing new clauses and producing a
contradiction by generating the empty clause.
Clause Form

The statements that produced from predicate calculus method are


nested and very complex to understand, so this will lead to more
complexity in resolution stage, therefore the following steps are used to
convert the predicate calculus to clause form:-

1. Eliminate (→) by replacing each instance of the form (P → Q) by


expression (‫ך‬P˅Q)

2. Reduce the scope of negation.


➢ ‫ך(ך‬a) ≡ a
➢ ‫(ך‬a^b) ≡‫ך‬a ˅‫ך‬b
➢ ‫(ך‬a˅b) ≡‫ך‬a ˄‫ך‬b
3. Standardize variables: rename all variables so that each
quantifier has its own unique variable name. For example,
➢ ∀X a(X) ˅ ∀X b(X) ≡ ∀X a(X) ˅ ∀Y b(Y)

4. Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their order.


For example,
➢ ∀X a(X) ˅ ∀Y b(Y) ≡ ∀X ∀Y a(X) ˅ b(Y )

5. Eliminate existential quantification by using the equivalent


function. For example,
➢ ∀X ∃Y mother(X,Y) ≡ ∀X mother(X,m(X))
➢ ∀X ∀Y ∃Z p(X,Y,Z) ≡ ∀X ∀Y p(X,Y, f(X,Y))

6. Remove universal quantification symbols. For example,


➢ ∀X ∀Y p(X,Y, f(X,Y)) ≡ p(X,Y, f(X,Y))
7. Use the associative and distributive properties to get a
conjunction of disjunctions called conjunctive Normal (CNF) Form
. For example,
➢ a˅(b˅c)≡(a˅b)˅c
➢ a^(b^c)≡(a^b)^c
➢ a˅(b^c)≡(a˅b)^(a˅c)
➢ a^(b˅c)≡(a^b)˅(a^c)

8. Split each conjunct into a separate clause. For example,


➢ (‫ך‬a(X)˅ ‫ך‬b(X)˅e(W)) ^ (‫ך‬b(X)˅‫ך‬d(X,f(X))˅e(W))
✓ ‫ך‬a(X)˅ ‫ך‬b(X)˅e(W)
✓ ‫ך‬b(X)˅‫ך‬d(X,f(X))˅e(W)

9. Standardize variables again so that each clause contains


variable names that do not occur in any other clause. For
example,
➢ (‫ך‬a(X)˅ ‫ך‬b(X)˅e(W)) 𝖠 (‫ך‬b(X)˅‫ך‬d(X,f(X))˅e(W))
✓ ‫ך‬a(X)˅‫ך‬b(X)˅e(W)
✓ ‫ך‬b(Y)˅‫ך‬d(Z,f(Z))˅e(V)
Example1: Use the Resolution Algorithm for proving that
John is happy with regard the following story:

Everyone passing his AI exam and winning the lottery is happy.


But everyone who studies or lucky can pass all his exams. John
did not study but he is lucky. Everyone who is lucky wins the
lottery.

Solution:

A. Convert all statements to predicate calculus.


• ∀X pass((X,ai_exam)^win(X,lottery)(→happy(X)
• ∀X ((study(X) ˅ lucky(X))→ ∀E pass(X,E)
• ‫ך‬study(john) ^ lucky(john)
• ∀X lucky(X) →win(X,lottery)
• happy (john) Required to prove it
B. Convert the statements from predicate calculus to clause
form.

1. Remove (→)
• ∀X ‫(ך‬pass(X,ai_exam) ^ win(X,lottery))˅ happy(X)
• ∀X ‫(ך‬study(X)˅lucky(X)) ˅ ∀E pass(X,E)
• ‫ך‬study(john) ^ lucky(john)
• ∀X ‫(ך‬lucky(X))˅ win(X,lottery)

2. Reduce ‫ך‬
• ∀X (‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam) ˅ ‫ך‬win(X,lottery)) ˅ happy(X)
• ∀X (‫ך‬study(X)^^‫ך‬lucky(X)) ˅ ∀E pass(X,E)
• ‫ך‬study(john) ^lucky(john)
• ∀X ‫ך‬lucky(X)˅win(X,lottery)
3. Standardize Variables
• ∀X (‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam)˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery))˅ happy(X)
• ∀Y (‫ך‬study(Y)^‫ך‬lucky(Y))˅ ∀E pass(Y,E)
• ‫ך‬study(john) ^lucky(john)
• ∀Z ‫ך‬lucky(Z)˅win(Z,lottery)

4. Move all quantifiers to the left


• ∀X (‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam)˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery))˅ happy(X)
• ∀Y ∀E (‫ך‬study(Y)^‫ך‬lucky(Y))˅ pass(Y,E)
• ‫ך‬study(john)^lucky(john)
• ∀Z ‫ך‬lucky(Z)˅win(Z,lottery)

5. Remove ∃
• Nothing to do here.
6. Remove ∀
• (‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam) ˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery))˅ happy(X)
• (‫ך‬study(Y)^‫ך‬lucky(Y)) ˅ pass(Y,E)
• ‫ך‬study(john) ^ lucky(john)
• ‫ך‬lucky(Z) ˅ win(Z,lottery)

7. CNF
• ‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam)˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery)˅ happy(X)
•(‫ך‬study(Y)^‫ך‬lucky(Y))˅ pass(Y,E) ≡ The second
statement becomes:
pass(Y,E)˅‫ך‬study(Y)^pass(Y,E)˅‫ך‬lucky(Y)
• ‫ך‬study(john)^lucky(john)
• ‫ך‬lucky(Z)˅win(Z,lottery)
8. Split 𝖠
• ‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam)˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery)˅ happy(X)
• pass(Y,E)˅‫ך‬study(Y)
• pass(Y,E)˅‫ך‬lucky(Y)
• ‫ך‬study(john)
• lucky(john)
• ‫ך‬lucky(Z)˅win(Z,lottery)

9. Standardize Variables
• ‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam)˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery)˅ happy(X)
• pass(Y,E)˅‫ך‬study(Y)
• pass(M,G)˅‫ך‬lucky(M)
• ‫ך‬study(john)
• lucky(john)
• ‫ך‬lucky(Z)˅win(Z,lottery)
C. Add the negation of what is to be proved to the clause form.
• ‫ך‬happy(john).
added it to the other six clauses and shown below:

• ‫ך‬pass(X,ai_exam)˅‫ך‬win(X,lottery)˅happy(X)
• pass(Y,E)˅‫ך‬study(Y)
• pass(M,G)˅‫ך‬lucky(M)
• ‫ך‬study(john)
• lucky(john)
• ‫ך‬lucky(Z)˅win(Z,lottery)
• ‫ך‬happy(john).

D. Resolve the clauses to producing new clauses and producing


a contradiction by generating the empty clause.

• There are two types of resolution, the first one is backward resolution
and the second is forward resolution.
d_1) Backward Resolution
The proving for happy(john) using Backward Resolution is shown as follows:
d_2) Forward Resolution
The proving for happy(john) using Forward Resolution is shown as
follows:
Example2: Given the following Predicate logic statements, prove
∃W¬ s(W) using Backward resolution:

(1) ∀X[ (∀Y s(Y) ^ v(X, Y)) ⇒ ((∃Z ¬ t(X, Z)) ^ v(X, X)) ]
(2) ∀X∀Y s(Y) ⇒ t(X,Y) ^v (X,Y)

B. Convert the predicate logic statements to clause form:

Solution:

(1) ∀X[ (∀Y s(Y) ^ v(X, Y)) ⇒ ((∃Z ¬ t(X, Z)) ^ v(X, X)) ]

1-1) Remove ⇒: ∀X [¬(∀Y s(Y) ^ v(X,Y)) ∨ ((∃Z ¬ t(X,Z)) ^ v(X,X)) ]

1-2) Reduce ¬: ∀X [ (∃Y ¬s(Y) ∨ ¬v(X,Y)) ∨ ((∃Z ¬t(X,Z)) ^ v(X,X)) ]

1-3) Standardize Variables: Nothing to do here.

1-4) Move quantifiers: ∀X ∃Y ∃Z [ (¬s(Y) ∨ ¬v(X,Y)) ∨ (¬t(X,Z) ^v(X,X))]

1-5) Remove ∃:∀X [(¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X))) ∨ (¬ t(X,f2(X)) ^ v(X,X)) ]


1-6) Remove ∀: (¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X))) ∨ (¬t(X,f2(X))^ v(X,X))

1-7) CNF: (¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨ ¬ t(X,f2(X))) ^(¬s(f1(X)) ∨


¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨ v(X,X))

1-8) Split ^: ¬s(f1(X))


∨ ¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨ ¬ t(X,f2(X))
¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨v(X,X)

1-9) Standardize Variables:


¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨ ¬ t(X,f2(X))
¬s(f3(X3)) ∨ ¬v(X3,f3(X3)) ∨ v(X3,X3)
(2) ∀N∀M s(M) ⇒ t(N, M) ^ v(N, M)

2-1) Remove ⇒: ∀N∀M ¬s(M) ∨ (t(N, M) ^ v(N, M))

2-2) 2-3)2-4)2-5) Nothing to do here

2-6) Remove ∀: ¬s(M) ∨ (t(N, M) ^ v(N, M))

2-7) CNF: (¬s(M) ∨ t(N, M))^ (¬s(M) ∨ v(N, M))

2-8) Split 𝖠: ¬s(M) ∨ t(N, M)


¬s(M) ∨ v(N, M)

2-9) Standardize Variables:


¬s(M) ∨ t(N, M)
¬s(M1) ∨ v(N1, M1)
After applying the clause form method, the two sentences
become four clauses as follows:
• ¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨ ¬ t(X,f2(X))
• ¬s(f3(X3)) ∨ ¬v(X3,f3(X3)) ∨ v(X3,X3)
• ¬s(M) ∨ t(N, M)
• ¬s(M1) ∨ v(N1, M1)

C. Add the negation of what is to be proved ∃W ¬ s(W)


Thus, ∃W ¬ s(W) become s(W) because ¬(∃W ¬ s(W) ) = ∀W
s(W) = s(W). Now we have a new clause (5. s(W).)

added to the other four clauses and shown below:


• ¬s(f1(X)) ∨ ¬v(X,f1(X)) ∨ ¬ t(X,f2(X))
• ¬s(f3(X3)) ∨ ¬v(X3,f3(X3)) ∨ v(X3,X3)
• ¬s(M) ∨ t(N, M)
• ¬s(M1) ∨ v(N1, M1)
• s(W)
D. Backward Resolution

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