72 Chapter? (Ovewiew of Graphics Systems 2-6 HARD-COPY DEVICES We can obtain hard-copy output for our images in several formats. For presenta tons or archiving, we can send image files to devices or service bureaus that will produce 35-mm slides or overhead transparencies. To put images on film, we can simply photograph a scene displayed on a video monitor. And we can put our pictures on paper by directing graphics output to a printer or plotter ‘The quality of the pietures obtained {rom a device depends on dot size and the number of dots per inch, or lines per inch, that can be displayed. To produce smooth characters in printed text strings, higher-quality printers shift dot posi- tions so that adjacent dots overlap. Printers produce output by either impact or nonimpact methods. Impact printers press formed character faces against an inked ribbon onto the paper. A line printer is an example of an impact device, with the typefaces mounted on bands, chains, drums, or wheels, Notimpact printers and plotters use laser tech niques, ink-pt sprays, xerographic processes (as used in photocopying ma chines), electrostatic methods, and electrothermal methods fo get images onto paper. Character impact printers often have a dot-matrix print head containing a rectangular array of protruding wire pins, with the number of pins depending on the quality of the printer. individual characters or graphics patterns are obtained by retracting certain pins so that the remaining pins form the pattern to be printed. Figure 2-58 shows a picture printed on a dot-matrix printer, Ina laser device, a laser beam creates a charge distribution on a rotating, drum coated with a photoelectric material, such as selenium. Toner is applied to the drum and then transferred to paper. Figure 2-59 shows examples of desktop laser printers with a resolution of 360 dots per inch. Ink-jet methods produce output by squirting ink in horizontal rows across a roll of paper wrapped on a drum. The electrically charged ink stream is deflected by an electric field to produce dot-matrix patterns. A desktop ink-jet plotter with Figure 258 [A picture generated on a dot-matrix printer showing how the density of the dot patterns can be varied to produce light and dark areas. (Courtey of Apple Computer. tn)Figure 259 Smali-footprint laser printers. (Courtesy of Texas instruments 4 resolution of 360 dots per inch is shown in Fig, 2-60, and examples of larger hagh-resolution ink-jet printer /plotters are shown in Fig, 2-61 [An elttrostatic device places a negative charge on the paper, one complete row ata time along the length ofthe paper. Then the paper is exposed to a toner. The toner is positively charged and so is attracted to the negatively charged areas, where it adheres to produce the specified output. A color electrostatic printer/plotter is shown in Fig, 262. Electrothermal methods use heat in a dot- rnatrix print head to output patterns on heat-sersitive paper ‘We can get limited color output on an impact printer by using different: colored ribbons. Nonimpact devices use various techniques to combine three color pigments cyan, magenta, and yellow) to produce a range of color patterns Laser and xerographic devices deposit the three pigments on separate passes: ink-jet methods shoot the three colors simultaneously on a single pass along each print fine on the paper Figure 2-60 A 3ed-dot-per inch desktop ink jet «plotter (Courtesy of Summagraphics Corporation.) Section 246 ard Copy Devices 7374 Figure 2-61 Floor-model, ink et color printers that use variable det size te achieve an equivalent resolution of 1500 to 1800 dots per inch. (Courtesy of RIS Graphics rc, Bedford, Masachusts) Figure 262 ‘An electrostatic printer that can display 400 dots per inch. (Courteryef CalComp Digitizer Divison, « prt of CalComp, Ine) Drafting layouts and other drawings are typically generated with ink-jet or pen plotters. A pen plotter has one or more pens mounted on a carriage, oF cross: bar, that spans a sheet of paper. Pens with varying colors and widths are used to produce a variety of shadings and line styles, Wet-ink, ball-point, and felt-ip pens are all possible choices for use with a pen plotter. Plotter paper can lie flat or bbe rolled onto a drum or belt. Crossbars can be either moveable or stationary, while the pen moves back and forth along the bar. Either clamps, a vacuum, or an electrostatic charge hold the paper in position. An example of a table-top flatbed pen plotter is given in Figure 2-63, and a larger, rollfeed pen plotier is, shown in Fig. 2-64.Graphs Sofware Figure 2-63 A desktop pen plotter with a resolution of 0,025 mum. (Courtesy of Summagraphies Copoation) Figure 2-64 ‘A large, rolfeed pen plotter with autoanatic muleicolor &pen changer and a resolution of 00127 men, (Courtesy of Summagraphics Carprstion) 27 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE ‘There are two general classifications for graphics software: general programming packages and special-purpose applications packages. A general graphics pro- gramming, package provides an extensive set of graphics functions that can beCoase 2 ‘Dreeiwen of Graphs Sse 76 ‘used in a high-level programming language, such as C or FORTRAN. An xan ple of a general graphics programming package is the GL. (Graphics Library) sys tem on Silicon Graphics equipment. Basic functions in a general package include those for generating picture components (straight lines, polygons, circles, and her figures), setting color and intensity values, selecting, views, and applying, transformations. By contrast, application graphics packages are designed for honprogrammers, so that users can generate displays without worrying about how graphics operations work. The interface to the graphics routines in such packages allows users to communicate with the programs in their own terms. Ex: amples of such applications packages are the artist's painting programs and vari ous business, medical, and CAD systems. Coordinate Representations With few exceptions, general graphics packages are designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate specifications. [f coordinate values for a picture are spect fied in some other reference frame (spherical, hyberbolic, et), they must be con- verted to Cartesian coordinates before they can be input ‘0 the graphics package Special-purpose packages may allow use of other coordinate frames that are ap: propriate to the application. In general, several different Cartesian reference frames are used to construct and display a scene. We can construct the shape of individual objects, such as trees or furniture, in a scene within separate coordi nate reference frames called modeling coordinates, or sometimes local coordi- nates or master coordinates, Once individual object shapes have been specified, ‘we can place the objects into appropriate positions within the scene using a refer cence frame called world coordinates. Finally, the worid-coordinate description of the scene is transferred to one or more output-device reference frames for dis play These display coordinate systems are referred t0 as device coordinates. or screen coordinates in the case of a video monitor. Modeling and world coordinate definitions allow us to set any convenient floating point or integer di mensions without being hampered by the constraints of a particular output de- vice. For some scenes, we might want to specify object dimensions in fractions of 4 foot, while for other applications we might want to use millimeters, kilometers, or light-years. ‘Generally, a graphics system first converts world-coondinate posihons to nommalized device coordinates, in the range from 0 to |, before final conversion, to specific device coordinates. This makes the system independent of the various devices that might be used at a particular workstation. Figure 2-65 ilustrates the sequence of coordinate transformations from modeling coordinates to device co- ordinates for a two-dimensional application. An initial modeling-coordinate po- Sition (igo, Juz) iN this illustration is transferred to a device coordinate position (ag Yao) withthe sequence: qe Yc) > Claes Yan) Cle Hoed —? Bs 30) The modeling and world-toordinate positions in this transformation can be any floating-point values; normalized coordinates satisfy the inequalities: 0 = xy, = 1 0 vy, = ti and the device coordinates xy, and ys, are integers within the range (0,0) €0 Coy Yue) for a particular output device. To accommodate differences in. scales and aspect ratios, normalized coordinates are mapped into a square area of the output device so that proper proportions are maintainedGraphics Functions Section 27 ‘A general-purpose graphics package provides users with a variety of functions for creating and manipulating pictures. These routines can be categorized accord- ing to whether they deal with output, input, atributes, transformations, viewing, (or general control The basic building blocks for pictures are referred to as output primitives They include character strings and geometric entities, such as points, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas (polygons, circles, ete), and shapes defined with arrays of color points. Routines for generating output primitives provide the basic tools for constructing pictures, Attributes are the properties of the output primitives; that is, an attribute describes how a particular primitive is to be displayed. They include intensity and color specifications, line styles, text styles, and area-filling patterns. Func tions within this category can be used to set attributes for an individual primitive class or for groups of output primitives. We can change the size, position, or orientation of an object within a scene using geometric transformations, Similar modeling transformations are used to construct a scene using object descriptions given in modeling coordinates Given the primitive and attribute definition of a picture in world coordi nates, a graphics package projects a selected view of the picture on an output de vice. Viewing transformations are used to specify the view that 1s {0 be pre sented and the portion of the output display area that is to be used Pictures can be subdivided into component parts, called structures or seg- ments or objects, depending, on the software package in use Fach structure de- fines one logical unit of the picture. A scene with several objects could reference each individual object in a separate named structure. Routines for processing World Normalized Cooreinates Coordinates Devi Figure 2-65 The transformation sequence from modeling coordinates to device coordinates for « two Graphics Sof dimensional scene. Object shapes are defined in local modeling-coordinate systems, then positioned within the overall world-coordinate scene. World-coordinate specifications are {then transformed into normalized coordinates. At the final step, individual device drivers transfer the normalized-coordinate representation ofthe scene to the output devices for displayCreer Grants Sse. 78 Structures carry out operations suc as the creation modification, and translor imation ot stractores Interactive graphis applications use various kinds of input devices, such as sich, Input functions are used to control and process the data flow from these interactive devices Finally, a graphics package contains a ntimber of hausekeeping tasks, such as clearing a display steen and initializing parameters. We can lump the func tuons for carrving opt *hese chores under the heading control operations. A tablet, oF a Sottware Standards Phe primary goal of standardized graphics software is portability. When pack: ages are designed wit -tandard geaphles functions, sattware can he moved eas aly from one hardware system to another and sed it different implementations, and applications, Witho it standards. programs designed! for one hardware sys- tom often cannot be trausterred to another sustem withont extensive rewriting of the programs International aad rahonal standards planning organizations in many coun tres have cooperated ion effort to develop a generally accepted standard tor computer graphics Aer considerable effort, this work wn standards led t0 the developmert of the Graphical Kernel System (GKSI, This system was adopted 1s the first graphics sullivare standard hy the International Standards Or tion SO) and by variots national standards organizations, including the Ameri: can National Standards lestitute (ANSD. Although GKS was originally designed 8a twordimensional gtaplucs package, a three-dimensional GKS extension was subsequently developest. The second softivare standsed to he developed and ap: proved by the standards orgainzations was PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics Standard), which is a9 extension af GKS. Increased capabil ities for object modeling: color specttications, surface rendering, and picture ma- nipuiiations are provides in PHIGS. Subsesjuently, an extension of PHICGS, calied PHIGSs, was developed te provide ‘hree-dimensional surlace-shading capabil tues not available in PEC. Standard graphics tuncts ns are defined as a set of specifications that is 1m dependent of ane progr mminy language. A language binding is then defaced for a particular high level prngrammung language. This binding gives the syntay for accessing the various slandard graphics functions fromn this language. For ex ample, the general for of the PHIGS land GKS) function for specifying a se quence of =! connected tivo-dlimensional straight bine segments 1s In FORTRAN, this proccure is implemented as a subroutine with the name GPL A graphics programmes, using FORTRAN, would invoke this procedure with, the subroutine call styemnent CALL GPLIN, X,Y), Where X and ¥ are one: dimensional arrays of coordinate values for the ine endpoints Ja C, the proce dure would be invoked with ppeiyiinein. pts), where pte is the list af eo ordinate endpoint positions Each language binding ts detined to make best use of the corresponding language capabilities and (o handle various syntax issues, such as data types, paranveter passing, and errors. lis the following chapters, we use the standard funchons defined in PHIGS asa framework for discussing basie graphics concepts and the design and appli cation of graphics packages, Example programs ate presented in Pascal to illus.trate te algorithms fr implementation ofthe graphics functions and to ilustrate abo some applications ofthe functions Descriptive names for functions, based onthe PHICS definitions, are used whenever a graphics function i referenced in PvAlthough PHIGS presents a specication for basic graphics functions, i does fot provide a standard methodology for a graphics interface (o output de ‘ices, Nof does it specify methods for stonng and transmitting pictures, Separate Standards have been devcloped for these areas Standardization for device inter face methods is given in the Computer Graphics Interface (CGD) system. And the Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM) system specifies standards for archi ing and transporting pictures PHIGS Workstations Generally, the term workstation refers to.a computer system with a combination of input and output devices that is designed for a single user In PHICS and GKS, however, the term workstation is used to identify various combinations of graphics hardware and software. A PHIGS workstation can be a single output device, a single mput device, a combination of input and output devices, a file, or even a window displayed on a video monitor, To define and use various “workstations” within an applications program. we need to specify a workstation identifer and the workstation type. The following statements give the general structure of a PHIGS program penPhigs lerrorFale, menorysize operWorkszazion (ws, connec (create and aisplay ps loseworkstat ion tw losePaigs: where parameter errorFile is to contain any error messages that are gener ated, and parameter memory: 2e specifies the size of an internal storage ares The workstation identifier (an integer) is given in parameter ws, and parameter onnert son states the access mechanism for the workstation. Parameter typ> specifies the particular category for the workstation, such as an input device, an output device, a combination outin device, or an input or output metafile Any number of workstations can be open in a particular application, with input coming from the various open input devicts and output directed to all the open output devices. We discuss input and output methods in applications pro- rams in Chapter 5, after we have explored the basic procedures for creating and manipulating pictures SUMMARY this chaptes, we have surveyed the major hardware and software features of computer graphics systems Hardware components include video monitors, hard copy devices, keyboards, and other devices for graphics inpul or outprst Graphics software includes special applications packages and general program ming packages. The predominant graphics display device is the caster refresh monitor, based on television technology. A raster system uses a frame buffer to store inten sity information for each screen position (pixel). Pictures are then painted on thescreen by retrieving this informanon from the frame buffer as the electron beam an the CRF sweeps across each scan line, from top to bottom. Older vector dis- plays construct pictures by drawing lines between specified line endpoints. Pic- ture information is then stored asa set of line-drawing instructions. Many other video display devices are available. In particular, flat-panel dis- play technology is developing at a rapid rate, and these devices may largely re place raster displays in the near future. At present, lat-panel displays are com> zonly used in small systems and in special-purpose systems. Flat-panel displays. include plasma panels and liquid-crystal devices. Although vector monitors can be used to display high-quality line drawings, improvements in raster display technology have caused vector monitors to be largely replaced with raster sy’ tems, Other display technologies include three-dimensional and_stervoscopic viewing systems, Virtual-reality systems can include either a stereoscopic head- set or a standard video monitor. For graphical input. we have a range of devices to choose from. Keyboards, ton boxes, and dials are used to input text, data values, or programming op- fons. The most popular “pointing” device is the mouse, but trackballs, space balls, joysticks, cursorcantrol keys, and thumbwheels are also used to position the screen cursor. In virtual-reality environments, data gloves are commonly used, Other input devices include mage scanners, digitizers, touch panels, light pens, and voice systems, Hard-copy devices for graphics workstations include standard printers and. plotters, an addition to devices for producing slides, transparencies, and lm out out Printing methods snciude dot matrix laser, ink jet. electrostatic, and elec trothermal. Plotter methods include pen plotting, and combination printer-plotter devices sraphies software can be roughly classitied as applications packages or programming packages. Applications graphics software incluée CAD packages, drawing and painting programs, graphing packages, and visualization pro- grams. Common graphics programming packages include PHIGS, PHIGS+, GKS, 3D GKS, and GL. Soltware standards, such as PHIGS, GKS, CGI, and CGM, are evolving and are becoming, widely available on a variety of machines Normally, graphics packages require coordinate specifications to be given. with respect to Cartesian reference frames. Each object lor a scene can be defined. Cartesian coordinate system, which is then mapped to struct the scene. From world coordinates, objects are bs ina separate modeli world coordinates to lranslerred to normalized device coordinates, then to the final di ordinates, The transformations from mode’ ing cuordinates to normalizes device ‘coordinates are independent of particular devices that might be used 1n an appli- sation, Device drivers are then used to convert normalized coordinates to integer device coordinates, Funct lay device co- in graphics programming packages can be divided inte the fol lowing categores. output primitives, attributes, geometric and modeling, trans- formations, viewing transformations, structure operations, input functions, and control operations, Some graphics systems, stich as PHIGS and GKS. use the concept of a ‘workstatton” to speci!y devices or software that are to be used for input or out pet in a particular application, A workstation identifier ip these systems can refer 0 a file; a single device such as a raster monitor, or a combination of devices, such as a monitor, Keyboard, and a mouse. Multiple workstations can be oper provide input or to receive output in a graphics application,