1.

Introduction
1.1 The Art and Science of sustainable agriculture
Agriculture is a globally occurring activity which relates directly and powerfully to the present
and future condition of environments, economies, and societies. Globally, agriculture has
performed remarkably well over the last 50 years, by keeping pace with rapid population growth
and delivering food at progressively lower prices. However, this success has been at the expense
of the natural resource base, through overuse of natural resources as inputs or through their use
as a sink for pollution. While agriculture has provided for basic social and economic needs of
people, it has also caused environmental degradation which has prompted a burgeoning interest
in its sustainability.
The ecological impacts of agriculture include land degradation, limits to water availability, loss
of biodiversity, declining agricultural genetic diversity and contributions to climate change. For
agricultural growth to occur at the rate required to meet future demand, a series of factors will
need to be in place. These include availability of land, better use of water resources, capability to
accommodate climate change and management of genetic resources. Meeting current and future
food requirements will require rapid increases in productivity to avoid an undesirable expansion
onto fragile and marginal lands. However, production increase needs to happen without further
damage to the environment. For this to happen, principles of sustainability must be a core part of
agricultural policies, to provide incentives and enabling conditions for sustainable resource use.

Sustainable agriculture has been given many different definitions over the years. However, there
is no disagreement about what it means among those who take it seriously. Sustainability is the
ability to meet the needs of the present without diminishing opportunities for the future.
Sustainable agriculture is one that produces abundant food without depleting the earth’s
resources or polluting its environment. Sustainable agriculture, which is a goal rather than a
distinct set of practices, is a system of food and fiber production that
 Improves the underlying productivity of natural resources and cropping systems so that
farmers can meet increasing levels of demand in concert with population and economic
growth;
 Produces food that is safe, wholesome, and nutritious and that promotes human well-
being;
  Ensures an adequate net farm income to support an acceptable standard of living for
farmers while also underwriting the annual investments needed to improve progressively
the productivity of soil, water, and other resources; and
 Complies with community norms and meets social expectations.
Sustainable agriculture addresses many serious problems afflicting world food production: high
energy costs, groundwater contamination, soil erosion, loss of productivity, depletion of fossil
resources, low farm incomes and risks to human health and wildlife habitats. It is not so much a
specific farming strategy as it is a system-level approach to understanding the complex
interactions within agricultural ecologies. Sustainable agriculture does not represent a return to
pre-industrial revolution methods; rather it combines traditional conservation minded farming
techniques with modern technologies. Sustainable systems use modern equipment, certified seed,
soil and water conservation practices and the latest innovations in feeding and handling
livestock. Emphasis is placed on rotating crops, building up soil, diversifying crops and livestock
and controlling pests naturally. Whenever possible, external resources such as commercially
purchased chemicals and fuels-are replaced by resources found on or near the farm. These
internal resources include solar or wind energy, biological pest controls and biologically fixed
nitrogen and other nutrients released from organic matter or from soil reserves. In some cases,
external resources may be essential for reaching sustainability. As a result, such farming systems
can differ considerably from one another because each tailors its practices to meet specific
environmental and economic needs.
As an art, it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful
manner. The skill is categorized as;
Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry out the operation in an efficient way
for e.g., handling of farm implements, animals etc., sowing of seeds, fertilizer and pesticides
application etc.
Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based on experience, such as (i) time and
method of ploughing, (ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate, (iii)
adopting improved farm practices etc.
As a science: It utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific principles such as crop
improvement/breeding, crop production, crop protection, economics etc., to maximize the yield
and profit. For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization, transgenic crop
varieties resistant to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer responsive varieties,
water management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-control agents to combat pest and
diseases etc.
As the business: As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population, production is
ultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return
through the management of land, labor, water and capital, employing the knowledge of various
sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture is
commercialized to run as a business through mechanization.

Sustainable agriculture uses technologies and production methods that meet ecological
environmental development requirements.

1.2 Sustainable Agriculture: Principle and Practice

The main preoccupation of the sustainable agricultural development is the natural environment
protection under conditions of a guarantee on the market for the requirements of agricultural
produces and services for the whole population. This protection must be achieved in an efficient
manner. Thus, if there are alternatives for maintaining the agriculture capacity of the natural
environment, the solution that minimizes the inputs (i.e. inputs of energy and products for plant
protection) on the unit of the agricultural produce or that maximizes the number of agricultural
products for a specific input must be chosen. Sustainable agriculture can be broken into three
components: economic, environmental, and social.
1. Ecological
Environmental concerns are central to sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture is
frequently described as: ecologically sound practices that have little to no adverse effect on
natural ecosystems.
However, more than that, sustainable agriculture also seeks to have a positive impact on natural
resources and wildlife. This can often mean taking measures to reverse the damage (e.g. soil
erosion or draining of wetlands) that have already occurred through harmful agricultural
practices. The core concerns are to reduce negative environmental and health externalities, to
enhance and use local ecosystem resources, and preserve biodiversity. More recent concerns
include broader recognition for positive environmental externalities from agriculture.
2. Economic
To be truly sustainable, a farm must be economically viable. The environmental and social
benefits of sustainable production methods do not always translate into immediate economic
gains. Economic perspectives on agricultural sustainability seek to assign value to ecological
assets, and also to include a longer time frame in economic analysis. They also highlight
subsidies that promote the depletion of resources or unfair competition with other production
systems.
3. Social and political
Social sustainability relates to the quality of life for those who work and live on the farm, as well
as those in the local community. Fair treatment of workers, positive farm family relationships,
personal interactions with consumers, and choosing to purchase supplies locally (rather than
from a more distant market) are just some of the aspects considered in social sustainability.
There are many concerns about the equity of technological change. At the local level,
agricultural sustainability is associated with farmer participation, group action and promotion of
local institutions, culture and farming communities. At the higher level, the concern is for
enabling policies that target poverty reduction.
1.3 Objectives of Sustainable Agriculture
 Maintaining Favorable Environment
 Satisfying human needs of food and agricultural material resources
 Conservation of environment and natural resources;
 Increase efficiency in using of renewable and non-renewable natural resources
 Economic efficiency of agricultural activities, of the living standards of farmers and
members of society.
1.4 Benefit of Sustainable Agriculture
o Sustains the economic viability of farm operations

o Satisfies human food, fiber and energy needs

o Maintains or enhances the resource base upon which it depends by emphasizing soil
conservation, nutrient recycling, biologically based-pest management and biodiversity
o Takes advantage of the knowledge and skills of farmers

o Is durable and resilient to disturbance, pest outbreaks and market variability

 o Makes the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources

o Integrates, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and pest control tools with
production practices
o
1.5 Elements of Sustainability
o Use water and nutrients efficiently

o Keep soil covered throughout the year

o Reduce or eliminate tillage in a manner consistent with effective weed control

o Diversify your farming enterprise to spread agronomic and economic risk

o Rotate crops to enhance yields and facilitate pest management

o Use cover crops and green manure and/or animal manure to build soil quality and fertility

o Protect water quality

o Develop ecologically-based pest management programs

o Integrate crop and livestock production

o Increase energy efficiency in production and food distribution

o Maintain profitability

1.6 Achieving Sustainability

The importance of sustainability of agricultural production system is becoming a major concern
of agricultural researchers and policy makers in both developed and developing countries. The
concept of sustainability is meant to integrate economic, social, and environmental dimensions of
agriculture. This is not merely an artificial construct. Rather it is recognition of the fact that all
these aspects are interconnected. Policies and practices will not meet the test of sustainability
unless they satisfy all three sets of criteria given in the definition. The holistic nature of
sustainability suggests that in all policy and program areas, those options that would tend to
increase the number of farming and related agricultural jobs in a community and improve the
working conditions in those jobs should be favored over those that would not. Those options that
would tend to encourage further specialization and concentration should be rejected in favor of
other options that would not do so. Programs should be favored that tend to promote the integrity
of the agro-ecosystem, its homeostasis and self-regulating, self-supporting ability.
Programs that promote the use of chemicals toxic to humans and/or other non-target organisms
should be replaced whenever possible with programs that lessen the toxic load in the
environment. Thus, as far as possible, the criteria of sustainability should help shape all farm
policies, research programs, and curricula. In this way it may be possible to empower students
and farmers to control their own destinies, to provide proper stewardship for our nation’s natural
resources, and provide a future for rural communities.
2. Cropping Systems
2.1 Introduction
Prosperity of any country depends upon the prosperity of its people. Economy of most countries,
is directly or indirectly dependant on their agriculture. All over the world, farmers work hard but
do not make money, especially small farmers because there is very little left after they pay for all
inputs. To increase productivity continuous efforts need to be made in conduct of research on
different aspects of crop production, post harvest and marketing of the value added products. The
emergence of system approach has enabled us to increase production without deteriorating the
resource base. There is every possibility of saving resources following system approach in
cropping. Cropping system is a commonly and broadly used word to explain a more integrated
approach to cropping as compared to monoculture approaches.

The term cropping system is used to describe the pattern in which crops are grown in a given
area over a period of time and includes the technical and managerial resources that are utilized.
In short, when we talk about the cropping system of a given area, we are not only interested in
how those crops are distributed on the field at any given time but also how this distribution
changes over time. In addition, the level of management and amount of resource inputs are
integral aspects of a cropping system.

Principles of cropping system

 Choose crops that complement each other
 Choose crops and cropping a crop rotation which utilizes available resources efficiently
 Choose crops and cropping system that maintains and enhance soil fertility
 Choose crops that have a diversity of crop growth cycles
 Choose a diverse types of crop species
 Keep the soil covered
 Strategically plan and modify your cropping system as needed
 Monitor your progress
2.2 Terms and Definitions
Crop: Plant grown for human use
System: A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common
purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli.
Cropping Systems: represents a cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm
resources, other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup.
Cropping pattern: is yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or of crops and fallow
on a given area.
Allelopathy is the release of a chemical substance by one plant species that inhibits the growth
of another species.
Double-cropping (also known as sequential cropping) is the practice of planting a second crop
immediately following the harvest of a first crop, thus harvesting two crops from the same field
in one year.
Intercropping is the presence of two or more crops in the same field at the same time, planted in
an arrangement that results in the crops competing with one another.
Monocropping, or monoculture refers to growing the same crop year after year in the same
field.
Relay intercropping is a technique in which different crops are planted at different times in the
same field, and both (or all) crops spend at least part of their season growing together in the field.
Strip cropping is the presence of two or more crops in the same field, planted in strips such that
most plant competition is within each crop rather than between crops.
2.3 Types of cropping systems
Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of cropping systems are
adopted on farms.
A. Mono-cropping
Mono-cropping refers to growing only one crop on a particular land year after year. The main
advantage of monoculture is that it permits maximum concentration of production effort on a
single target crop.
B. Multiple Cropping or Polycropping
It is a cropping system where two or three crops are gown annually on the same piece of land
using high input without affecting basic fertility of the soil. Growing two or more crops on the
same piece of land in one calendar year is known as multiple cropping. It is the intensification of
cropping in time and space dimensions i.e. more number of crops within a year and more number
of crops on the same piece of land at any given period. It includes inter-cropping, mixed
cropping and sequence cropping. Multiple cropping is a philosophy of maximum crop
production per acre of land with minimum of soil deterioration.
C. Crop Rotation
The practice of growing different kinds of crops, one at a time, in a definite sequence on the
same piece of land is referred to as crop rotation. In designing a good crop rotation, the farmer
must decide what crops to have in the rotation, in what sequence the crops should occur, and for
how many years or season each cycle of the rotation must run. A good rotation that provides for
maintenance or improvement of soil productivity usually includes a legume crop to promote
fixation of nitrogen, a grass or legume sod crop for maintenance of humus, a cultivated or inter
tilled crop for weed control and fertilizers.
D. Sole Cropping
The practice of growing one crop variety in pure stands on a field is referred to as sole cropping.
E. Intercropping
The alternative practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field is called
intercropping. In this practice, only one crop variety occupies the land at any one time. The
various crops in the intercrop do not necessarily have to be sown or harvested at the same time;
the main requirement is that they are on the field at the same time for a significant part of their
growing periods.
Types of intercropping
A. Row intercropping: this is when the various crops are grown in separate rows.
B. Mixed cropping: this is when the various crops are grown intermingled more or less at
random with each other.
C. Relay inter-cropping: this is when a second crop variety is sown between the stands of an
existing sole crop just before the first crop is harvested. As such, both the first and second
crops spend most of their field lives as sole crop, and grow together on the field for only
a brief period.
D. Row intercropping: Row intercropping is raised by way of additive and replacement
series. (a) Additive series: One crop (base crop) is raised in full population and in
between the rows of base crop, intercrops are raised at less population level by adjusting
or changing crop geometry of the base crop. (b) Replacement series: By sacrificing
 certain proportion of population of one component crop, another component crop is
introduced. For example, sorghum + cowpea at 2:1 ratio
E. Strip intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips wide
enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crop to interact
agronomically.
F.
Evaluating yield from intercropping
Land equivalent ratio (LER)
Yield of Crop A ∈the intercropping Yield of crop B∈theintercropping
LER= +
Yield of the crop A of as a sole crop Yield of the crop B of as a sole crop
An LER greater than 1.0 implies that for that particular crop combination, intercropping yielded
more than growing the same number of stands of each crop as sole crops. An LER of less than
1.0 implies that the intercropping was less beneficial than sole cropping.
3. Principles of Crop Husbandry
3.1 Tillage and Land Preparation
Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements so as to
create favorable soil conditions for better seed germination and subsequent growth of crops.
Tillage operations in various forms have been practiced from the very inception of growing
plants. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soils for placing seeds.
Tillage is done:
• To prepare ideal seed bed favourable for seed germination, growth and establishment;
• To loosen the soil for easy root penetration and proliferation;
• To remove other sprouting materials in the soil;
• To control weeds;
• To certain extent to control pest and diseases which harbour in the soil;
• To improve soil physical conditions;
• To ensure adequate aeration in the root zone which in turn favour for microbial and
biochemical activities;
• To modify soil temperature;
• To break hard soil pans and to improve drainage facility;
• To incorporate crop residues and organic matter left over;
• To conserve soil by minimizing the soil erosion;
• To conserve the soil moisture;
• To harvest efficiently the effective rain water;
• To assure the through mixing of manures, fertilizers and pesticides in the soil;
• To facilitate water infiltration and thus increasing the water holding capacity of the soil, and
• To level the field for efficient water management
3.2 Irrigation & Drainage
Irrigation is the artificial application of water made for supplementing the moisture in the soil
that is deficient and does not meet the full requirements of growing crops. Irrigation is essentially
a practice of supplementing the natural precipitation for increasing production of agricultural and
horticultural crops. The purpose of irrigation is to produce crops that have economic and social
value. The continued productivity of irrigated agriculture will be critical as national and world
populations grow and demand more food and fiber.
Properly managed irrigation can increase crop yields, reduce risks commonly associated with
agriculture, increase product quality, reduce pest pressures, and precisely deliver and manage
nutrients. Because irrigation management is specific to each crop, irrigation research must be
crop-specific, meaning that cropping systems must be understood, including those involving
high-value specialty crops with particular needs.

Managing surface and subsurface drainage systems to control contamination of surface runoff
and shallow groundwater, as well as the depth of the water table, evolved first in humid areas
and later in arid areas. In humid areas, controlled drainage has reduced nitrate in subsurface
drainage discharge. Many questions remain about the best drainage practices for improving crop
production and the quality of runoff and subsurface drainage discharge in humid, semiarid, and
arid areas. We need different drainage systems to ensure efficient, environmentally sound crop
production in all of these areas.

Drainage may be defined as the means by which soil and subsoil -water is controlled in, and
removed from, the root zone in relation to the health and vigour of the crop. A soil may need
artificial drainage because the water table is high or because of excess surface water. In both
cases, all the pore spaces are filled with water and aeration is poor. The result is reduced root
development and possibly an accumulation or concentration of ions such as manganese.
The major sources of excess water that make drainage necessary are:
 Seepage losses from reservoirs or canals.
 Deep percolation loss from irrigated lands.
 Flooding of low lands.
 Flow of groundwater towards waterlogged lands in the arid region.
The basic aim of field drainage is to assist land to get rid of water from the upper layers of the
soil in a manner that will maintain the conditions which provide aeration, warmth and adequate
moisture within the root zone of the crop. The adequate drainage of crop-producing lands
requires a general lowering of shallow water tables.
3.3 Seeds & Seeding
Plants reproduce sexually by seeds and asexually by vegetative parts. Grains, which are used for
multiplication, are called seeds while those used for human or animal consumption are called
grains. Good stalks of planting materials are basic to profitable crop production. The seed or
planting material largely determines the quality and quantity of the produce. A good seed or stalk
of planting material is genetically satisfactory and true to type, fully developed and free from
contamination, deformities, diseases and pests. Seed is a fertilized ripened ovule consisting of
three main parts namely seed coat, endosperm and embryo, which in due course gives rise to a
new plant. Endosperm is the storage organ for food substance that nourishes the embryo during
its development. Seed coat is the outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm.
CHARACTERISTICS a Good Quality Seed
A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics.
 Seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure, free from admixtures and should belong
to the proper variety or strain of the crop and their duration should be according to
agroclimate and cropping system of the locality.
 Seed should be pure, viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential.
 Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection.
 Seed should be clean; free from weed seeds or any inert materials.
 Seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged; crushed or peeled off; half filled and
half rotten.
 Seed should meet the prescribed uniform size and weight.
 Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age.
 Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (8-12%).
 Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%).
 Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown.
ADVANTAGES OF USING GOOD QUALITY SEEDS
The following are the advantages of using good quality seeds.
 Reduced cost of cleaning, standardization and disinfections.
 Uniform germination thus avoiding replanting, gap filling.
 Vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and disease, damages.
 Uniform growth stages, maturity and products.
 Maintain good quality under storage conditions.
 Reduced cost.
SEED GERMINATION
Germination is a protrusion of radicle or seedling emergence. Germination results in rupture of
the seed coat and emergence of seedling from embryonic axis. Factors affecting germination are
soil, environment, water, temperature, light, atmospheric gases and exogenous chemicals
required for germination of seeds.
SEED TREATMENT
Seed treatment is a process of application either by mixing or by coating or by soaking in
solutions of chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal, nematicidal or
biopesticidal properties), nutrients, hormones or growth regulators or subjected to a process of
wetting and drying or subjected to reduce, control or repel disease organisms, insects or other
pests which attack seeds or seedlings growing there from. Seed treatment also includes control of
pests when the seed is in storage and after it has been sown/planted.
The seed treatment is done for the following reasons;
• To protect from seed borne pests and diseases.
• To protect from or repel birds and rodents.
• To supply plant nutrients.
• To inoculate microorganisms.
• To supply growth regulators.
• To supply selective herbicides.
• To break seed dormancy.
• To induce drought tolerance.
• To induce higher germination percentage, early emergence.
• To obtain polyploids (genetic variation) by treating with x-rays, gamma rays and colchicines.
• To facilitate mechanized sowing.
SOWING/Planting
Sowing is the placing of a specific quantity of seeds in the soil for germination and growth while
planting is the placing of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cuttings, rhizomes, clones, tubers
etc.) in the soil to grow as plants.
Methods of Sowing
Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed bed) or in the nursery (nursery bed) where seedlings
are raised and transplanted later.
(a) Broad casting
Broad casting is the scattering or spreading of the seeds on the soil, which may or may not be
incorporated into the soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreader or
aeroplane. Broadcasting is the easy, quick and cheap method of seeding. The difficulties
observed in broadcasting are uneven distribution, improper placement of seeds and less soil
cover and compaction. As all the seeds are not placed in uniform density and depth, there is no
uniformity of germination, seedling vigour and establishment. It is mostly suited for closely
spaced and small seeded crops.
(b) Dibbling
It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made at a predetermined spacing and depth with a
dibbler or planter or very often by hand. Dibbling is laborious, time consuming and expensive
compared to broadcasting, but it requires less seeds and, gives rapid and uniform germination
with good seedling vigour.
(c) Drilling –
It is a practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth, covered with soil and compacted. Sowing
implements like seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill are used. Manures, fertilizers, soil
amendments, pesticides, etc. may be applied along with seeds. Seeds are drilled continuously or
at regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform
population per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements.
(d) Sowing behind the country plough –
It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the plough furrow either continuously or at
required spacing by a man working behind a plough. When the plough takes the next adjacent
furrow, the seeds in the previous furrow are closed by the soil closing the furrow. Depth of
sowing is adjusted by adjusting the depth of the plough furrow. e.g., ground nut sowing in dry
land areas of Tamil Nadu.
(e) Planting –
Planting is placing seeds or seed material firmly in the soil to grow.
(f) Transplanting –
Transplanting is planting seedlings in the main field after pulling out from the nursery. It is done
to reduce the main field duration of the crops facilitating to grow more number of crops in an
year. It is easy to give extra care for tender seedlings.
3.3 Soil Fertility Management
It is increasingly evident that declining soil fertility is the most widespread, dominant limitation
on yields of crops. The capacity of soil to supply sufficient quantities and proportions of essential
chemical elements (nutrients) and water required for optimal growth of specified plants as
governed by the soil’s chemical, physical and biological attributes.

3.5 Crop Improvement

Crop improvement has been in progress since primitive man first exercised a choice in selecting
seed from wild plants for growing under cultivation. The greatest advances were made before the
dawn of civilization. Material progress was also made thereafter. However, not until the last
century, when some knowledge of genetics was acquired, did crop breeding become a science
with the outcome of breeding methods reasonably predictable. Remarkable increases in yield
followed the breeding and distribution of semi dwarf, photoperiod- insensitive cultivars of rice
and wheat that are resistant to lodging under heavy nitrogen fertilization.
Crop breeding is concerned mainly with more abundant, stable and economical crop production,
but is also deeply motivated by social and humane wants. Farmers now have smooth-awned
cereals that do not irritate the eyes, mouth, or skin of the farm workers or livestock. Consumers
now have some food products that are higher in protein or certain essential amino acids. They
also have sweeter and tenderer sweet corn as well as lighter bread made from stronger wheat.
Crops that are easier for man to harvest and feed crops that are more palatable or less toxic to
livestock have been developed. Improved cultivars have helped to alleviate crop failures and
their accompanying human and livestock starvation.
Objectives of Crop Improvement
 To produced crops that are resistant to common diseases and pest.
 To produce crops that are resistant to adverse weather condition such as drought, cold,
heat and salt.
 To produce crops that have adaptation to variable photoperiods.
 To produce crops with adaptation to heavy grazing or frequent cuttings.
 Crops with enhanced market quality e.g. higher content of fiber, of protein, sugar, starch,
or other extractives; better processing quality for textiles, foods, beverages, and drugs,
and better colour.
  Seed quality e.g. higher or lower seed-setting tendency, greater longevity, high viability,
larger size and non shattering.
 Growth habit e.g. more erect or prostrate stems, more or less Tillering or branching, more
uniform flowering and maturity, more uniform height, longer life, and better ratio of tops
to roots.
 Harvesting quality e.g. stronger, shorter, or taller stalks, erect stalks and heads, non-
shattering qualities, easier processing and freedom from irritating awns and fuzz.
 Productive capacity e.g. greater vigor, higher fertility and faster recovery after cutting.
 Feeding quality of fodder e.g. palatability, leafiness, hull percentage, nutritive value and
texture.
Methods of Crop Improvement
There are three general methods of crop improvements namely:
A. Introduction.
B. Selection.
C. Hybridization.
3.6 Crop protection
It is estimated that world crop losses due to pests are of the order of about 35 per cent of
potential yield, but in most Tropical countries of Africa and Asia, the field and store losses are of
a higher magnitude and may be as high as 50 per cent in some cases. FAO estimates showed, for
example, that nearly 100 million metric tons of cereals grains are destroyed by pests each year.
Diseases are estimated to caused about 10 per cent loss of the annual agricultural production in
the U.S.A and about 20- 30 per cent in the developing countries. Therefore, it is now widely
recognized that the reduction of losses due to pests and diseases is an important element in
increasing the efficiency of crop production.
Pest is any animal or plant which harm or causes damage to man, his animals, crops, or
possession. On agricultural basis, a pest is that which causes a loss in yield or quality of the crops
resulting in loss of profits by the farmer. When a loss in yield reaches certain proportions, then,
the pest can be defined as an economic pest.
Economic damage is the amount of injury done to a crop which will justify the cost of artificial
control measures. The economic injury level is the lowest pest population density that will cause
economic damage to a crop and this varies from crop to crop, season to season, and area to area.
Economic threshold is defined as the population density at which control measures should be
started to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level.
The control of the various insect pests affecting crop plants is a major problem for crop
production. Insect pests may be controlled by means of various cultural practices, the use of
chemicals known as insecticide and, biological methods of insect control.
1. Cultural Methods of Insect Control
A. Hand weeding/picking
B. Crop rotation
C. Tillage
D. Timely operation
E. Trap cropping
F. Crop Sanitation
2. Chemicals
A. Stomach poisons
B. Contact poisons
C. Systemic poisons
D. Fumigation:
3. Host plant resistance
A. Non preference
B. Antibiotics
C. Tolerance
4. Biological Method of Pest Control
Biological control refers to the use of living organisms for the control of pests. Broadly speaking,
biological control includes the use of pathogens (bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoan, and
nematodes), predators and parasites.
5. Regulatory method of pest control
Regulatory methods depend on legislation to enforce the quarantine of plant material. The
legislation requires that propagating material (seeds cuttings, whole plant) imported from abroad
be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate stating that they are free from pests and diseases.
Materials are inspected by a trained quarantine officer at the port of entry and if dangerous
organisms are found the whole consignment may be destroyed.
3.7 Crop harvesting and Storage
Different crops are harvested and stored by various means depending on the end utilization.
Whether the seed will be used for new plantings the following year, for forage being processed
into livestock feed, or even for crops to be developed for a special use, the grower must be aware
of harvesting and storage requirements toward a quality product.
The optimum maturity date for harvesting and for the subsequent storing of crops depends on the
utilization of the final product. Maturity dates and storage requirements will vary among crops
and even within a crop if it is being used for different purposes. In order to fully explore crop
needs for harvesting and storing, the concepts of plant physiological maturity and crop harvest
maturity must be more fully understood.
Delaying harvest until the grain or forage has reached proper harvest maturity can also result in
yield loss. Seed or ear losses as well as stalk lodging in the crop may lower yield. Crop quality
may also be compromised as lower bushel weight, lower seed germ and even deteriorated grain
due to field weathering and losses. Even after the harvest maturity in crops has been reached, the
crop may yet require additional dry down, conditioning or the use of preservatives (in the case of
some forages and silages) to best set the storage maturity needs. In storage, the crops must be
able to retain as much quality and quantity as possible over the time interval needed to utilize or
sell the crop. In some crops, grain drying is a common practice and must be part of the
economical assessment of costs incurred with growing the grain.
Maximum grain yields occur when the grain reaches physiological maturity. As no additional dry
matter will accumulate in the grain after this stage is reached, this is the time when full grain
protein, starch or other constituents may be at their peak. However, grain is a perishable
commodity that can deteriorate over time if not harvested, handled and stored properly. Thus,
storage maturity should be the grain moisture and stage at which the grain is placed into storage.
Higher moistures than safe for storage conditions will result in symptoms of deterioration on the
grain including decreased feeding value, dry matter or weight loss, insect infestation, mold and
possibly a reduction in grade.
The longer a crop remains standing in the field after physiological maturity, the longer the grain
or fiber product is subject to environmental factors that can result in harvest losses. Both quantity
and quality of the grain and fiber can be affected. Several means of accelerating the timing of
grain and fiber harvest have been used to try to bring crops to storage. Some of these methods of
speeding up harvest include use of plant regulators, use of defoliants, use of desiccants, use of
grain dryers or other methods to mechanically, physiologically, chemically or naturally
accelerate crops from the field through to harvest maturity and into storage maturity.
Proper grain and fiber storage minimizes losses due to grain respiration, spoilage, molds, heating
and insects. The two major factors that must be controlled are temperature and moisture.
Indeed, high temperature on grains in storage creates greater respiration of the seed resulting in
heating of the grain, loss in test weight and quality and loss in protein content. High moisture can
cause mold and disease as well as insect growth to be promoted. This can then lead to spoilage,
toxic substances produced and loss in quality and feed value. Grains like forages have
established standards that set benchmarks for quality. Less weed seed, foreign material along
with excellent quality, whole grain at the right moisture will establish the grain that can be sold
at the best price. Grades and grade requirements are also established from all grains. These allow
designations for quality which then relate back to expected price. For crops with specialty traits,
special grades are also established.