Reproduction

 Characteristic of living beings

 Produce young ones
 Genes – generation  generation
 Continuity of race
 Involves
 Growth of cells
 DNA replication
 Cell division
 Reproductive units
 Formation
 Development  individual
 Modes of reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
 Rapid multiplication
 Single parent
 Mitotic or amitotic cell division
 Fission, budding, fragmentation & regeneration, vegetative
propagation & spore formation
 Sexual reproduction
 Two parents – male & female sexes
 Special cells – germ cells/gametes
 Male gametes – sperms/sperm
Haploid (n)
 Female gametes – ova/ovum
 Fertilization – zygote (2n)  embryo  fetus  young
individual
Sexual vs asexual reproduction
 Fission
 Binary fission

 One parent  two progeny cells

 Under favorable conditions

 Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena

 Bacteria – most common

 Multiple fission

 One parent  multiple progeny cells

 Repeated karyokinesis

 Cytokinesis

 Plasmodium in RBC
Binary vs multiple fission
 Budding
 New individual – an outgrowth
 Yeast
 Amitotic division
 Small outgrowth – bud
 Grows bigger
 Separation & maturation Budding yeast cells
 Budding
 New individual – an outgrowth
 Hydra
 Repeated mitotic divisions
 Small outgrowth – bud
 Grows bigger
 Separation & independent
 Fragmentation & regeneration
 Parent  two or more fragments
 Each fragment – new individual
 E.g., Platyhelminthes
Coelenterates
Echinodermates
Spirogyra, fungi, etc. Spirogyra
 Vegetative propagation
 Higher plants
 Rapid & simple way
 From stem, root or leaf
 2 types
 Natural vegetative propagation
 By leaves
 E.g., Bryophyllum
 Adventitious buds
 Leaf notches
 Young plantlets
 By stems
 E.g., potato, garlic, onion – underground
 E.g., water-hyacinth, mint – sub-aerial
 Vegetative propagation
 By roots
 E.g., carrot, sweet potato
 Adventitious buds
 Shoots → new plants
 Artificial vegetative propagation
 Large scale/commercial
 Gardeners & horticulturists
 Grafting
 Joining stems
 Two different plants
 Support – root system: stock
 Disease resistant
 Grafting part – scion
 Desirable variety – superior fruit/flower quality
 Vegetative propagation
 Direct contact of cambium
 New plant variety
 Root system – stock; shoot system – scion
 Fruit varietal improvement – mango, citrus, apple, etc.
 Same stock, different fruit grafts – orange, lime, grapes
 Vegetative propagation
 Cutting
 Short pieces – stem, root, leaf or bulb scale
 Root & shoot develop
 A new plant
 E.g., lemon, grapes, orange, china rose
 Vegetative propagation
 Layering
 Burying plant part in soil
 Roots induced
 Still attached to parent plant
 2 methods
 Air layering – gootying
Tall plants – lemon, Hibiscus
Girdling the branch
Cover with moist soil
Wrap with polythene cover
Rooting after 4 – 8 weeks
Detachable from parent plant
 Vegetative propagation
 Mound layering
Flexible branch
Bent & buried 5 – 8 cm beneath the soil
Growing tip is exposed
Rooting from buried stem
Detachable from parent plant
Jasmine, strawberry
 Vegetative propagation
 Plant tissue culture

 Micropropagation

 New plants production

 Isolated plant cells/tissues

 Synthetic nutrients – media

 Sterilized/aseptic conditions

 Undifferentiated cell mass – callus

 Growth & differentiation – hormones

 Plantlets – pots or soil

 Ornamental plants – orchids, Dahlia

 Spore formation
 Most common in bacteria & fungi
 Fungi – sporangium
 Nuclear division
 Cytoplasmic division
 Microscopic spores
 Thick spore coat – protection
 Contact with moist substrate
 Germinate & form hyphae
 Bacteria
 Under unfavorable conditions
 Lack of nutrients, water
 High/low temperatures
 Dormant form of bacteria
 Minimum metabolism
 Sexual reproduction
 Highly evolved
 Two parents: male & female
 Special sex cells: Gametes
 Male gametes – sperms
 Female gametes – ova
 Meiosis
 Haploid gametes
 Non-identical cells
 Fusion of gametes – fertilization
 Diploid product
 Zygote
 Mitotic divisions
 Embryo → differentiation → multicellular organism
 Fertilization
 Fusion of nuclei - haploid
 Sperm with egg
 Forms zygote – single cell (diploid)
 Two types
 External
 Outside the body
 Fishes & frogs
 Internal
 Inside female’s body
 Insects, earthworms, birds, mammals
 Sexual reproduction in plants
 Life cycle of flowering plants
 Genetically programmed
 Developmental changes
 Two steps
 Pollination
 Transfer of pollen grains
 Anther → stigma
 Self pollination
 Same flower or another flower of same spp.
 Cross pollination
 Two different flowers of same spp.
 Fertilization
 Fertilization in plants
 Follows pollination
 Germination of pollen grain – pollen tube
 Pollen tube enters ovule @ micropyle
 Male gametes of pollen tube enters ovule
 Gametophytes
 Germinating pollen – male gametes
 Ovule (embryo sac) – egg
 Fertilization → zygote → sporophyte
 Ovule containing embryo → seed
 Ovary → fruit → attracts animals → seed dispersal
 Seed germination
 New plantlet
 Double fertilization
 Two fusions

 Syngamy

 Fertilization

 Sperm & egg

 Zygote (2n) → mitosis → embryo

 Triple fusion

 Sperm & two polar nuclei

 3n nucleus → endosperm → nourishment to embryo

 Human reproductive system
 Different structures & functions
 Male reproductive system
 Testes
 Vas deferens
 Urethra
 Associated glands
 Female reproductive system
 Ovaries
 Fallopian tubes
 Uterus
 Vagina
 Types of sex organs in human

Sex Primary sex organ Secondary sex organs

Male Testes Vas efferentia, rete testes,
epididymis, vas deferens,
accessory glands, urethra, penis
Female Ovaries Oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina,
mammary glands
 Male reproductive system
 Testes
 One pair: sperm & testosterone
 Loose fold of skin
 Outside abdomen
 Scrotum : 1-3° C lesser
 Spermatogenesis
 Epididymis
 Testicular lobules → seminiferous tubules
 Collecting ducts (tubules): vasa efferentia
 Wider & horseshoe-shaped
 Maturation & motility of sperm
 Male reproductive system
 Vas deferens
 From each testis
 Short tube
 Enters abdomen
 Loop over urinary bladder
 Urethra
 Ejaculatory duct
 Originates from urinary bladder
 Common passage
 Vas deferens
 Accessory glands
 Enters penis (muscular)
 Opens out: male genital pore
 Male reproductive system
 Accessory glands

 Paired seminal vesicles

 A prostate gland

 Paired bulbourethral glands

 Secrete into urethra: seminal plasma

 Nourishment & motility of sperm

 Seminal plasma + sperms → semen

 Female reproductive system
 Ovaries
 One pair @ lower abdomine
 Dual functions
 Ova production
 Hormone secretion
 Oestrogen
 Progesterone
 Immature ovarian follicles
 Fallopian tubes
 Two tubular
 Very close to ovaries
 Funnel-like opening: infundibulum
 Receive ovum
 Fertilization @ upper portion
 Female reproductive system
 Uterus

 Thick walled & muscular

 Fallopian tubes open

 Lower tip: cervix

 Vagina

 Narrow & tubular

 Receives sperms: insemination

 Birth canal: birth of child

 Menstrual cycle
 Cyclical changes – ovaries & uterus  Between 5th-14th day
 Begins @ 11-13 years: menarche  Ovulation phase
 Stops @ 50-55 years: menopause  Matured ovum releases
 Repeated for every 28/29 days  Ovulation
 Four phases  On 14th day
 Menstrual phase  Taken up by infundibulum
 Breakdown of uterine lining  Secretory phase
 Blood & tissue discharge  Endometrium changes
 Through vagina:  Secretory activity
menstruation  Between 14th-28th day
 Lasts for 4-6 days
 Proliferative phase
 Repair of uterus lining
 Maturation of ovum
 Birth control methods
 World population – more than 7 billion
 Earth’s capacity – around 8 billion
 Very close to the limit
 For benefits of humanity – population control
 Awareness – births control
 Different ways to control fertility
 Advantages of small family
 Disadvantages of big family
 Conception
 Fertilization & pregnancy
 Contraception
 Prevents pregnancy
 Birth control methods
 Contraception methods
 Use of devices & methods Prior to ejaculation
 Against conception From vagina
 Prevents pregnancy by  Mechanical methods
 Preventing fertilization  Condoms
 Female genitalia – hostile Rubber tube
environment Collects ejaculate
 For sperms Not inseminated
 For pre-embryo implantation  Diaphragm
 Five methods Fitted by doctor
 Natural methods Prevents sperms
 Rhythm method Entering cervical canal
Avoiding copulation  Intra uterine device (IUD)
On egg release days Plastic or stainless steel
No conception In the uterus
 Coitus interruptus Prevents implantation
Penis withdrawn
 Contraception methods
 Chemical methods  Surgical methods/Permanent
 Spermicides methods
Sperm killing  Vasectomy

Creams, jellies Sterilization in males

Applied in vagina Vas deferens is cut

Prevent fertilization Tie cut ends

 Oral contraceptive pills Using ligature

Taken daily No insemination

Prevents ovulation No fertilization

Menstruation continues  Tubectomy

 Medical termination of Sterilization in females

pregnancy (MTP) Fallopian tubes cut
On conception Tie both ends
Abortion & aspiration Eggs can’t reach oviducts
Mechanical or hormonal No fertilization
Vasectomy Tubectomy