Machine Drawing (New Age International (P) LTD., Publishers, 2020)

NEW AGE
ENGINEERING
MACHINE
DRAWING
A M BISEN
MACHINE
DRAWING
MACHINE
DRAWING
Anil M. Bisen
Dean Academics
Symbiosis University of Applied Sciences
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

LONDON • NEW DELHI • NAIROBI
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Preface
A desire to motivate users in academics in general and those in mechanical engineering specifically
led to this book. Engineers are involved in systems design while drawing plays an important role in
designing and manufacturing of mechanical engineering components.
Several engineering institutes across the country have revised their curriculum in response to industry
feedback. This book summarizes the standards used in practical field along with step-wise elaboration
of problems that students encounter.
This book covers the syllabus of major varsities and institutes pan India. It comprises four important
elements of mechanical engineering drawing starting from basic to advanced levels. It also encopasses
the basics to understand and solve the assembly and disassembly problems.
Finally, a more pervasive goal is to expose students not only to understanding the mechanical
engineering drawing concepts but to also intellectually enrich their foundations.
It is hoped that this book will fill a gap in knowledge and understanding not only among those
concerned with mechanical engineering drawing but also those interested in it and wishing to dig a bit
deeper.
The first edition is based on feedback from industrial experts, teachers and students. Further
suggestions are solicited from one and all to enhance the utility of this book.
Prof (Dr.) Anil M Bisen
(v)
Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................................(v)
1. A Language of Engineers.......................................................................................... 1–4

1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Brief History of Drawing............................................................................................1
1.3 Importance of Graphical Language in Engineering...................................................3
1.4 Machine Drawing......................................................................................................3
2. Drawing Standard.................................................................................................... 5–18
2.1 Sizes of Drawing Sheets...........................................................................................5
2.2 Layout of Drawing Sheets.........................................................................................7
2.3 Folding of Drawing Sheets........................................................................................8
2.4 Lines.........................................................................................................................9
2.5 Technical Lettering..................................................................................................13
2.6 Engineering Scale...................................................................................................15
2.7 Dimensioning..........................................................................................................16
3. Orthographic Projection........................................................................................ 19–34
3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................19
3.2 First Angle Projection .............................................................................................23
3.3 Third Angle Projection ............................................................................................25
3.4 Glass Box Method...................................................................................................28
3.5 Examples ...............................................................................................................30

Exercises ..............................................................................................................34
4. Development of Surfaces.................................................................................... 35–105
4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................35
4.2 Application..............................................................................................................35
(vii)
viii Machine Drawing
4.3 Methods of Development .......................................................................................35

4.4 Problems.................................................................................................................38

Exercises..............................................................................................................101
5. Intersection of Solids......................................................................................... 106–151
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................106
5.2 Methods of Determining Lines of Intersection ......................................................106
5.3 Intersection of Two Prisms....................................................................................107
5.4 Intersection of Two Cylinders................................................................................116
5.5 Intersection of Prism and Cylinder........................................................................124
5.6 Intersection of Cone and Prism.............................................................................133
5.7 Intersection of Cone and Cylinder.........................................................................138
5.8 Intersection of Pyramid and Prism........................................................................143
5.9 Intersection of Cone and Cone.............................................................................144
5.10 Intersection of Pyramid and Cylinder....................................................................145
5.11 Practical Problems................................................................................................146

Exercises .............................................................................................................150
6. Conventional Representation of Machine Components................................ 152–157
6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................152
7. Representation of Tolerance on Machine Components................................. 158–177
7.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................158
7.2 Limits, Fits and Tolerance.....................................................................................158
7.3 Machining and Surface Roughness Symbols.......................................................168
8. Representation of Welded Joints..................................................................... 178–189
8.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................178
8.2 Method of Representation of Weld ......................................................................178
8.3 Dimensioning of Welds ........................................................................................179
8.4 Convention Representation of Weld ....................................................................180
8.5 Intermittent Fillet Welds .......................................................................................184
8.6 Indication of All Round Weld, Site Weld and Welding Process ............................185
8.7 Rules of Welding Symbols ...................................................................................186
8.8 Examples..............................................................................................................186

Exercises .............................................................................................................188
Contents ix
9. Riveted Joints..................................................................................................... 190–207

9.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................190
9.2 Rivets and Riveting...............................................................................................190
9.3 Terms Used in Riveted Joints...............................................................................191
9.4 Types of Rivet Heads............................................................................................192
9.5 Caulking and Fullering..........................................................................................194
9.6 Proportions for Hole Diameter and Rivet Length..................................................195
9.7 Classification of Riveted Joints and Joint Efficiency.............................................195
9.8 Design Parameters of Rivet Joints........................................................................202
9.9 Rivet Symbols.......................................................................................................203
9.10 Common Use of Rivet Joints................................................................................206
9.11 Review Questions.................................................................................................207

Exercises .............................................................................................................207
10. Screw Fasteners................................................................................................. 208–228
10.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................208
10.2 Fasteners Function...............................................................................................209
10.3 Terms Used in Screw Threads..............................................................................209
10.4 Types of Screw.....................................................................................................210
10.5 Forms of Screw Threads.......................................................................................213
10.6 Common Types of Screw Fastenings ..................................................................216
10.7 Types of Bolts and Material...................................................................................218
10.8 Locking Devices ...................................................................................................219
10.9 Designation of Screw Threads .............................................................................222
10.10 Setscrews.............................................................................................................223
10.11 Multiple Threaded Screws ..................................................................................224
10.12 Foundation Bolts...................................................................................................225
10.13 Screw Symbols ....................................................................................................228
10.14 Over-tightening Vs. Under-tightening ..................................................................228
10.15 Applications of Fasteners ...................................................................................228
11. Keys..................................................................................................................... 229–234
11.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................229
11.2 Types of Keys.......................................................................................................229

Exercises .............................................................................................................234
x Machine Drawing
12. Cotter and Kunckle Joints................................................................................. 235–241

12.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................235
12.2 Cotter Joints..........................................................................................................235
12.3 Types of Cotter Joints...........................................................................................236
12.4 Knuckle Joints.......................................................................................................239

Exercises..............................................................................................................241
13. Pulleys................................................................................................................. 242–247
13.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................242
13.2 History...................................................................................................................242
13.3 Types of Pulleys....................................................................................................242
13.4 Applications of Pulley............................................................................................247

Exercises..............................................................................................................247
14. Shaft Couplings.................................................................................................. 248–268

14.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................248
14.2 Types of Couplings...............................................................................................248
14.3 Rigid Couplings.....................................................................................................249
14.4 Flexible Couplings.................................................................................................252
14.5 Non-Aligned Couplings.........................................................................................255
14.6 Miscellaneous Couplings......................................................................................261
14.7 Applications of Couplings in Industries.................................................................267

Exercises..............................................................................................................268
15. Pipe Joints and Fittings..................................................................................... 269–279
15.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................269
15.2 Pipe Joints............................................................................................................269
15.3 Pipe Fittings..........................................................................................................273
15.4 Symbols for Pipe Fittings......................................................................................274
15.5 Designation for Pipe..............................................................................................278

Exercises..............................................................................................................279
16. Sectional Views.................................................................................................. 280–289

16.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................280
16.2 Cutting Plane Line.................................................................................................282
16.3 Section Lining.......................................................................................................282
Contents xi
16.4 Types of Cutting Plane Sections...........................................................................283

16.5 Additional Section Views......................................................................................285
16.6 Threaded Parts....................................................................................................288
16.7 Conventional Breaks............................................................................................288
Exercises.............................................................................................................289
17. Assembly and Details........................................................................................ 290–394
17.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................290
17.2 Details Drawings..................................................................................................290
17.3 Assembly Drawings..............................................................................................291
17.4 Engine Parts ........................................................................................................291
17.5 Bearings................................................................................................................301
17.6 Valves ...................................................................................................................312
17.7 Expansion Joint ....................................................................................................331
17.8 Screw Jack............................................................................................................335
17.9 Crane Hook ..........................................................................................................340
17.10 Machine Tools Parts..............................................................................................343
17.11 Jigs and Fixtures...................................................................................................378

Exercises .............................................................................................................394
18. Free Hand Sketches........................................................................................... 395–410

18.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................395
18.2 Importance of Free Hand Sketches .....................................................................395
18.3 Freehand Sketching Fundamentals......................................................................395
18.4 Freehand Sketch Lines and Circles .....................................................................396
18.5 CAD and Technical Freehand Drawing.................................................................397
18.6 Freehand Sketches of Bearings ...........................................................................397
18.7 Freehand Sketches of Pulleys .............................................................................402
18.8 Freehand Sketch of Arbor ....................................................................................407
18.9 Freehand Sketch of Wall Bracket .........................................................................408

Exercises..............................................................................................................410
Chapter
A Language of Engineers
1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Generally, in first year of engineering studies, drawing is one of the first subjects taught to engineering
students. First question in individual’s mind rises “why this subject has been taught?”
The answer starts with a quote “Scientists discover the things those already exist but Engineers
create things.” Engineer is a professional who uses knowledge of mathematics and natural laws by study,
judgements, experience and experiments. That knowledge is applied with creativity, utilizing materials
economically, forces of nature and developing unique solutions to satisfy societal needs, since last few
years in eco-friendly way, for the benefit of humanity.
In the second year and above generally a machine drawing taught almost in all the Universities to
the Mechanical engineering students and again the question comes in mind that what is the necessity of
this subject to the Mechanical engineering students. The answer to this question is that without knowing
the mechanical engineering drawing one cannot understand the basics of mechanical engineering and
moreover to apply the innovative ideas and to design the mechanical components one has to understand
the basics of the mechanical engineering. This book will be helpful to understand the basics of the
mechanical engineering in the simplified way.
So where and how engineering drawing come in to picture for creating things? Answer comes with
wonder if we trace roots for uses of graphics in to history of human race!
1.2 Brief History of Drawing
Highlights
•• Oldest painting on cave is nearly 35,000 years old.
•• Charcoal and animal fat colors are used to create images on wall.
•• Indian, Egyptians and Mayans; around 5000 BC created decorated walls of tombs and temples
of Gods.
•• 830 BC drawings on pottery had been found form Greek and Chinese dynasty.
•• 500 BC in Greek period natural proportion of measurements also found in pictures.
•• Around 15th Century a Greek architecture used drawings and projection theories when
engineering graphics took a birth.
1
2 Machine Drawing
•• During World War-1 and World War-2 era; use of graphics was more concentrated to war
machines.
•• Invention of computer around 70 years ago gave a boost to use graphics technologies in
engineering.
1.2.1 What is Engineering Drawing?

It is considered as a language, as it gives ability to the person to convey thoughts in mind like other
languages offer to us except one thing, drawing uses pictures/images instead of words.
1.2.2 How long we have been using it?

In history, roots had been traced from engineering design sketches, complicated to understand, of
Leonardo-da-Vinci to the cave of ancient humans in form of paintings, as simple as child’s sketch, on
cave’s wall. We can think about lot of examples as few stated below:
•• Painted walls of churches and temples; telling stories of ancient times,
•• Sacred books with storytelling old paintings.
Sculptures engraved on stones can also be considered in this discussion as it conveys message with
principle of drawing. A record recognized by archaeological science around the world concluded that
drawing language is most ancient language found in human history.
1.2.3 What noteworthy about engineering is in discussion of human history?

Sometimes we have heard that some ‘xyz’ language was spoken few centuries ago but now it vanished
almost, it hasn’t been happened to drawing. Till now all drawing object discovered by archeologist,
convey same message as it conveyed few centuries ago. Although the use of drawing increases with new
technology; Television, Advertisements, Hoardings, Mobile phones, Smart phones, Laptops, Internet,
Video calling, Video games, Images, Movies, and many more are examples of use of drawing.
1.2.4 Why drawing intimately related to humans?

Yes, of course! The reasons are found in body of humans by medical science:
•• Our visual memory is the strongest memory recorded in human psychiatry
•• Pictures can directly have connected to our emotions, colours etc.
•• According to medical science, our brain has about 55% reserve of neurons and vast network for
processing visuals only.
•• Our brain is 60,000 times faster in processing visual than texts.
•• 90% of total bioelectric signals transmitted in our brain are for visual only.
•• Our 70% of sensory receptors are found in our eyes.
•• We can get an idea about visual sensation in just 1 millisecond.
We are good at processing, understanding, reacting and memorizing visuals, so that we can convey
message, idea, and emotions so easily and effectively in form of picture. A simple logical question is
enough to prove that your instinct shall reply. What we choose to get a perception about a ‘Jungle’, 1500
words essay or a colourful picture?
A Language of Engineers 3
1.3 Importance of Graphical Language in Engineering

Our education system works more on word language. One has to learn it first (to read, to write and
to speak). In word language, to describe an object for its shape and size, one has to use many words
(still lot of word if we avoid synonyms), sentences (in a proper arrangement to interpret its right
meaning) for its complete description. Large vocabulary is required to express complete description
for communication.
The problem is of higher order when communication is to be done between two persons with different
language. For such case, interpreter who knows both language is needed to translate. Still word language
is burdensome, if one tries to find a way to manage learning of word languages which are used worldwide,
to use them because languages are in more than hundreds in numbers.
In addition, with that more problem is faced when we are going to keep records for years, because
for describing one little butterfly sitting on flower needs more than 50 pages of writing, at a level for
engineering applicability, for full description. This discussion doesn’t mean that word languages are
useless, the conclusion is word languages are not suitable for engineering communication.
‘Drawing’ is a graphical language that can be used to express precisely the shape and size of an
object in compact format which is easy to transport and record. Advantages of graphical language over
word language are stated below:
1. It is independent of the country and can be understood universally in same manner.
2. It conveys lot of details (colour, size, shape, orientation, surface details, etc.) with right
interpretations.
3. Rapidness in communication with high degree of accuracy.
4. Compact to keep records as it occupies negligible space.
5. Retrieval and revision of details are fast and easy.
Probably this ability had been noticed by a genius engineering mind who applied graphics in
engineering communication.
Now come to the question, “where and how graphics comes in to picture for creating things?”
Engineering designs start as a visual in a mind of an engineer. Engineering graphics has evolved
to communicate and record these ideas on paper in two and three-dimensionally prepared images. Few
decades ago, these images are prepared manually called drawings. Thanks to the computer technology
which made it possible to automate the creation of engineering graphical objects. Finally, we can say,
Engineering drawing, is one level up to the Engineering Graphics, is a language of an engineer and every
engineering student has to learn it fundamentally.
1.4 MACHINE DRAWING

Machine drawing is the medium of communication used in the industries and mechanical research and
development sectors. It is necessary for the communication between the engineers and manufacturing
staff to understand the idea and implement it according to the drawing. It is necessary for the
Mechanical engineers to understand the Machine drawing so that they should be quite equipped
with the basic knowledge to understand and design the mechanical components in order to face the
industrial exposure.
4 Machine Drawing
1.4.1 Classification of Machine Drawing

Machine drawing is presented by the orthographic views or sometimes by isometric view or
perspective view, so that the size of the component and its shape can be fully understood. Following are
the some of the major classifications.
1.4.2 Production Drawing

A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, which shows the details of all the
dimensions, its limits, fits and tolerances with some special finishing processes such as heat treatment,
honing, lapping, surface finish, etc., to guide the craftsman on the shop floor for the production of the
component. Production drawing also includes the material used for the product and the number of parts
required for the assembled unit.
Production drawing is generally made for each component on the separate sheet.
1.4.3 Part Drawing

It is a detailed drawing of a component to understand its manufacture the drawing details along
with the various manufacturing process. The rules of engineering drawing along with the standard codes
must be followed to understand the details in the part of the drawing. It is also known as the production
drawing or the working drawing.
1.4.4 Assembly Drawing

Assembly drawing shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations and there
are several types of such drawings.
•• Design Assembly Drawing: A layout is designed for the machine which shows the clear layout
including the performance, shape and the various parts of the machine.
•• Detailed Assembly Drawing: It is usually made for simple machines, comprising of a relatively
smaller number of simple parts. All the dimensions and information necessary for the construction
of such parts and for the assembly of the parts are given directly on the assembly drawing.
Separate views of specific parts in enlargements, showing the fitting of parts together, may also
be drawn in addition to the regular assembly drawing.
•• Sub-assembly Drawing: Many assemblies are assembled with many pre-assembled components
as well as individual parts. These pre-assembled units are known as sub-assemblies.
A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts, that form a part in a
more complicated machine. Examples of such drawings are: lathe tail-stock, diesel engine fuel pump,
carburettor, etc.
•• Installation Assembly Drawing: On this drawing, the location and dimensions of few important
parts and overall dimensions of the assembled unit are indicated. This drawing provides useful
information for assembling the machine, as this drawing reveals all parts of a machine in their
correct working position.
•• Assembly Drawings for Catalogues: Special assembly drawings are prepared for company
catalogues. These drawings show only the pertinent details and dimensions that would interest
the potential buyer.
Chapter
Drawing Standard
2
Bureau of Indian Standards published ‘SP 46’ special publication module in year 1989 as a drawing
standard applicable in technical schools and engineering colleges, and revised in 2003; hence it is
mentioned as ‘BIS SP 46:2003’. This standardized document contains 20 different sections; covers all
guidelines to complete a drawing sheet as per standards, but in this chapter only few sections has been
discussed to learn fundamentals of technical drawing for beginners.
2.1 SIZES OF DRAWING SHEETS

The standards for sizes and layout of drawing sheets are included in section-1 of BIS SP 46:2003. These
standards are based on International Standards ‘IS 10711: 1983/1S0 5457:1980 and IS11665: 1985/1S0
7200: 1984’. It specifies sizes of blank and pre-printed drawing sheets for student and academic uses.
2.1.1 ISO-A series

Basic principles that define specific sizes of sheets are:
(i) x : y = 1 : 2
(ii) x * y = 1
Where x and y are the sides of sheet of which surface area is equal to 1 square meter. By this relation
the first sheet size has dimensions; x or y = 841 mm and y or x = 1189 mm. This standard is fixed by
ISO (International Standard Organization) for ISO-A series of trimmed size sheets as, adopted by BIS.
ISO-A series considered as basic format size of sheet and first preference to choose for drawing purpose.
2.1.2 Special Elongated Size

When a person needs sheets larger in size rather than basic standard sheet size, there is a provision
to used extended sized sheets, considered as second choice, called Special Elongated Sizes. These sizes
obtained by extending the shorter sides of a format of the ISO-A series to lengths that are multiples of
the shorter sides of the chosen basic format. For example, take ISO-A3 size sheet. Now shorter length
of A3 size is 297 mm, so longest side of special elongated size is equal to shorter length of ISO-A3
multiplied with 3 will give a size of 891 mm. Thus, Special elongated size will be 420 × 891 mm and
designation is ‘A3 × 3’.
5
6 Machine Drawing
Table 2.1 Special elongated size

Designation Size (in mm × mm)
A3 × 3 420 × 891
A3 × 4 420 × 1189
A4 × 3 297 × 630
A4 × 4 297 × 841
A4 × 5 297 × 1051
2.1.3 Exceptional Elongated Sizes

When a very large or extra-elongated size is required, a third choice selected, that is called Exceptional
Elongated Sizes. These sizes obtained by extending the shorter sides of a format of the ISO-A series to
lengths that are multiples of the shorter sides of the chosen basic format.
Table 2.2 Exceptional elongated sizes
Designation Size (in mm × mm)
A0 × 2* 1189 × 1682
A0 × 3 1189 × 2523**
A1 × 3 841 × 1783
A1 × 4 841 × 2378**
A2 × 3 594 × 1261
A2 × 4 594 × 1682
A2 × 5 594 × 2102
A3 × 5 420 × 1486
A3 × 6 420 × 1783
A3 × 7 420 × 2080
A4 × 6 297 × 1261
A4 × 7 297 × 1471
A4 × 8 297 × 1682
A4 × 9 297 × 1892
*this size is equal to 2 A0 of ISO-A series

**For practical reasons the use of it is not advisable.
The original drawing should be made on the smallest size sheet that permits the necessary clarity
and resolution. The choice of sizes of the original drawing and its reproduction shall be made from the
series shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
Drawing Standard 7
2.2 LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEETS

The features included usually in a typical technical drawing sheet are as shown in Fig. 2.1. It consists
of a title block, a border, a frame, different location and orientation marks, specific unit symbols, sheet
number and grid reference marks.
Fig. 2.1. Layout of drawing sheet
2.2.1 Title Block

It is a feature that contains information of identity of sheet (i.e., registration number, title, origin, etc.)
shown as a rectangular block. The position of the title block should be within the drawing space such that
the portion of the title block containing the identification of the drawing is positioned in the bottom right-
hand corner of the drawing space; both for sheets located horizontally. The direction of the viewing of the
title block should correspond, in general, with that of the drawing. Title block should preferably consist of
one or more adjoining rectangles. These may be sub-divided to include different information like scale,
prepared by, verified by, checked by, approved by, units, symbols, name of organization, drawing sheet
number, title of drawing, etc. separately. According to BIS; maximum length of title block is 170 mm
and width is 65 mm used for schools and colleges. Typical title block for student use is shown in Fig. 2.1.
2.2.2 Margin, Borders and Frames

To protect the drawing on outside edge of sheet and also offer a space for binding and punching, an
extra space called a margin of 20 mm (Max.) is provided for all sheet size on untrimmed size of sheet.
Size of sheet after providing a margin is called trimmed size of sheet. Borders enclosed by the edges
of the trimmed sheet and the frame limiting the drawing space shall be provided with all sizes. It is
recommended that these borders have the minimum width of 20 mm for sizes A0 and Al, and a minimum
width of 10 mm for size A2, A3 and A4.
8 Machine Drawing
2.2.3 Centering Marks

Four centering marks, usually extended lines towards the drawing area from border, shall be provided on
all drawings to facilitate the positioning of the drawing sheet when reproduced or microfilmed.
2.2.4 Orientation Marks

Two orientation marks may be provided to indicate the orientation of the drawing sheet on the drawing
board. These marks consist of arrows and should be placed across the frame, one at a shorter side and
one at a longer side, coinciding with the centering marks on those sides, so that one of the orientation
marks always points to the draftsman.
2.3 FOLDING OF DRAWING SHEETS

In BIS SP 46:2003, section 4 is for specifying how to fold drawing sheets or printed drawing sheets. It is
based on ‘IS 11664:1986’. This section covers two methods of folding of drawing prints. The first method
is intended for drawing prints to be filed or bound, while the second method is intended for prints to be
kept individually in filing cabinet.
2.3.1 Basic Principles

The basic principles in each of the above methods are to ensure that:
(a) All large prints of sizes higher than A4 are folded to A4 sizes;
(b) Title blocks of all the folded prints appear in topmost position; and
(c) Bottom right corner shall be outermost visible section and shall have a width not less than
190 mm.
Depending on the method of folding adopted, suitable folding marks are to be introduced in the
tracing sheets as guide. Refer Fig. 2.2 for folding marks specification applied to drawing sheets to be filed
or bound and Fig. 2.3 for specification of folding marks applied to sheets which kept in filling cabinet.
145.5 125.5 190 190 190
297
6 Fold
5 Fold
4 Fold
3 Fold
2 Fold
297
Title block
Fig. 2.2. Drawing sheet folding method 1

Drawing Standard 9
841
210 210 210
594
297
Fold 1
Fold 2
Fold 3
Title block
Fig. 2.3. Drawing sheet folding method 2
2.4 LINES
In BIS SP 46:2003, section 6 is based on ‘IS 10714 (Part 20): 2001/1S0 128-20:1996, IS 10714 (Part
21): 2001/ ISO 128-21:1997, ISO 128-22:1999, 1S0 128-23:1999 and ISO 128-24: 1999’. This section
establishes types of lines, their designations and configurations and general rules for drafting of lines
used in: (a) Technical drawings, (b) CAD systems, (c) Reference of components, (d) Construction
documentation and (e) Mechanical engineering drawings.
2.4.1 Definition of Line

It is a geometrical entity, the length of which is more than half of its width, which connects two dots
in any way. It may be straight, curved, without or with interruption. Line element is a single part of a
non-continuous line like dots, dashes, which may vary in length with certain gaps between them. Line
Segment is a group of two or more different line elements, which repeats and forms a non-continuous line.
2.4.2 Classification of Lines

Lines can be classified in two ways, (i) According to geometrical feature of line and (ii) According
to application of line.
2.4.3 According to Geometrical Feature

The basic types of lines introduced by BIS or IS are as shown in Fig. 2.4.
10 Machine Drawing
Type of line Illustration Application Remarks

Continuous line Visible (outline) Outline to be bold
(thick) and dark
Continuous (thin) Dimensions line, leader For matching, lines
lines extension lines, should be spaced
construction lines evenly to give a
outlines of adjacent part shaded effect
hatching and revolved
section
Continuous Irregular boundary lines Drawn freehand
(thin wavy) short break lines
Short dashes Hidden outlines and —

(medium) edges
Long chain (thin) Centre lines, locus lines Alternate long and
extreme positions of the short dashes
movable parts situated
in front of the cutting
plancs and pitch curcles
Long chain Cutting plane lines
(thick at ends and
thin elsewhere
Long chain To indicate surfaces
(thick) which are to receive
additional treatment
Ruled line and Long break lines
short zigzag
(thin)
Fig. 2.4. Types of line
2.4.4 According to Application of Line

The lines have description of line according to its geometric features but according to its application
at different places in drawing. Lines having different geometric feature as well dimension are used at
particular place and it has specific meaning.
2.4.5 Visible Outline

Visible outline are generally drawn wide and continuous, used to represents the outline or overall
shape of an object that’s why it is also called object outline. Every boundary or surface of an object,
which is visible, is represented by visible outlines.
2.4.6 Construction Lines

These are thin or narrow continuous lines used for projecting or transferring locations from one view
to other. Usually it is used for constructing a drawing with pencils only and erased in finished drawing,
except in geometrical drawings.
Drawing Standard 11
2.4.7 Hidden Lines

The geometrical features which cannot be seen with respect to view point or if the geometrical feature
is inside somewhere in the object and cannot be seen directly, are considered as hidden and be drawn
with dashed lines. Dashed lines are mainly used to highlight hidden features so it is named as hidden
lines. It is not necessary to include all hidden detail in views in a drawing; only essential feature’s detail
need be included to show quite clearly the exact shape of the object. Hidden lines may be omitted, when
not required, to preserve the clarity of the drawing like in sectional views.
2.4.8 Center Lines

These lines are represented by long and short dashes. The center lines are used to center the
symmetrical views of circular parts, to indicate center points, axes of symmetrical parts, axes of symmetry,
pitch circle of gears and also for giving the location dimensions. These lines are first to be drawn in any
drawing after carefully spacing the various views to be draw.
2.4.9 Dimension Lines

These lines are continuous narrow lines, be drawn parallel to the visible object outlines or any
distance mentioned on the drawing to specify its measurement after applying appropriate scale if scale
has been chosen to draw a feature. The numerals are place around the dimension lines to represent value
of measurement.
2.4.10 Extension Lines

These lines are continuous narrow line in form of long dash or short dash and majorly used in
combination with dimension lines. It limits dimension line and shows the end of measurement represented
by dimension lines in drawing. These lines are drawn perpendicular to dimension lines.
2.4.11 Leader Line

These lines are used to connect description to the drawing. It is narrow or thin line with aero head
at the end. Arrowhead is linked with geometry or drawing and other end is kept horizontal on which
description is written.
2.4.12 Reference Line

These lines are used to provide reference of feature to the characteristics which cannot be shown as
graphics or it is not convenient to show them as graphics or image. Such as strength, surface roughness,
density, mass, weight, chemical composition, etc. are shown as reference with help of reference digits
and lines. Reference lines are generally very thin and at end of it a circle inscribing a digit is placed. That
digit is referred to the values or characteristics shown in a table within drawing. This entire reference is
called item reference.
2.4.13 Cutting Plane Lines

These lines are made up of alternately a long dash and a short dash in the ratio of about 6 : 1 to 4 : 1
and are drawn as center lines but are extra thick ends and having arrows touching them. These are used
to show the edge of the cutting plane when an object is being sectioned to show the hidden details. The
arrows, attached to the ends of such lines indicate direction in which the section is to be seen.
12 Machine Drawing
2.4.14 Break Lines

Short breaks and irregular boundary lines: these are thin lines drawn free hand and are used to show a
break of an object which extends over a short length of the drawing or to indicate the irregular boundary
of an object. These will result in a saving in space and time used for drawing without loss of details.
Long breaks: these are thin ruled lines having free hand zigzags at suitable intervals and are used
when the break extends over a considerable length of drawing
2.4.15 Long Chain Lines

Composed of alternate long and short dashes are used to indicate surface which are to receive
additional treatment.
2.4.16 Line Dimensions, Line Groups and Line Configuration

Line dimension includes width of line and dimension of various line elements and segments. Line
width should be uniform though out the length of the line (deviation of width is allowed up to ± 0.1 d).
According to width there are three groups (as shown in Table 2.1) of lines established by BIS; Narrow
lines, wide lines and extra wide lines in a ratio of 1:2:4 respectively. Suppose if width of all type of line
is d, the width of lines depending up on size and type of drawing can be written in following series (This
series is based on a ratio 1: 2 i.e. 1:1.4):
0.13 mm; 0.18 mm; 0.25 mm; 0.35 mm; 0.50 mm; 0.7 mm; 1.0 mm; 1.4 mm; 2.0 mm
Table 2.3 Line groups
Line group Narrow Line Wide line Extra wide line
0.25 0.13 0.25 0.50
0.35 0.18 0.35 0.70
0.50 0.25 0.50 1.00
0.70 0.35 0.70 1.40
1.00 0.50 1.00 2.00
All dimensions are in mm
While drafting a line some precautions should be taken like two parallel lines having offset between
them at least 0.7 mm unless this rule is contrary with other rules stated by Indian Standards. In place of
junction of two non-continuous lines’ intersection should preferably meet at a dash rather than gap or
dot. Configuration of line elements are listed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Configuration of line
Line element Dimension of element
Dots ≤ 0.5 d
Gaps 3d
Short Dashes 6d
Dashes 12 d
Long dashes 24 d
Spaces* 18 d
*Application in case of dashed spaced line
Drawing Standard 13
2.5 TECHNICAL LETTERING

In Section 7, of BIS SP 46:2006 specification and standards are mentioned for technical lettering on
drawing sheet. This was established based on international standard ‘IS 9609 (Part O):2001/ISO 3098-
0: 1997’. No doubt graphical language is sufficient for conveying message or information, though as
engineering gives always weight on ease with efficiency. Hence, a graphical object comes with some texts
like notes, legends, schedules, material lists and dimensions gives speed to a person in comprehension
of drawing. Technical lettering also subjected to specific size and shape. In this section of book, basic
conventions and rules are included for lettering using techniques only for beginners like free hand lettering
(with and without using gridlines) and lettering with templates. Lettering includes not only alphabets but
also numerals, punctuation marks, diacritical marks, etc. called as Graphical Character Sets.
2.5.1 Classification of Lettering

According to nature of stroke
(a) Single stroke letters: letters drawn with single stroke of writing,
(b) Double stroke letters: letters drawn with double strokes of writing
According to orientation of letter
(a) Vertical letters: letters are drawn such that stems of letters are perfectly vertical.
(b) Inclined (Sloped) letters: letters are drawn such that stems of letters are inclined at certain angle
with vertical axis.
According to case
(a) Upper case letters: letters are drawn in capital form only
(b) Lower case letters: letters are drawn in small form only
(c) Combination of both cases: first letter is capital and then after rest of the letters of word are in
small form.
According to BIS
(a) Type A, Vertical, (V) (b) Type A, Sloped, (S)
(c) Type B, Vertical, (V) (d) Type B, Sloped, (S)
(e) Type CA, Vertical, (V) (f) Type CA, Sloped, (S)
(g) Type CB, Vertical, (V) (h) Type CB, Sloped, (S)
Type A and B both vertical and sloped are practiced by hand sketching, while type CA and CB are
used in computer aided drafting. These categories are based on dimension of letters and its application
in technical drawing.
2.5.2 Dimensions
Size of lettering is based on the height ‘h’ of upper case letters. Dimensions are shown in Fig. 2.5;
‘h’ is called nominal size. For lower case letters, both ascenders and decenders stems are of same size.
Capital or upper case letters shall maintain height vs. width, i.e. h:w; ratio equal to 7:5 means height
should be of 7 units while width should have 5 units. For lower case letters shall maintain h:w is equal
to 5:4. Range of nominal standardized size for height of letters is specified in BIS as follow:
1.8 mm; 2.5 mm; 3 mm; 5 mm; 7 mm; 10 mm; 14 mm; 20 mm
In above range the multiples of 2 are derived from standardized progression of dimension of
chosen sheet paper size.
14 Machine Drawing
ISO 91 g
h
c2
a e d
f
b1
E
ep M5
c1
Rh K3
c3
b3
b1
Fig. 2.5. Size of letters
Table 2.5 Dimensioning of lettering Type A
Characteristic Multiple of h Dimensions
Lettering height h (14/14) h 1.8 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Height of lower-case letters c1 (10/14) h 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14

x-height
Tail of lower-case letters c2 (4/14) h 0.52 0.72 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6
Stem of lower-case letters c3 (4/14) h 0.52 0.72 1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6
Area of diacritical marks f (5/14) h 0.65 0.9 1.25 1.75 2.5 3.5 5 7
(upper case letters)
Spacing between characters a (2/14) h 0.26 0.36 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8
Minimum spacing between b1 (25/14) h 3.25 4.5 6.25 8.75 12.5 17.5 25 35
baselines1
Minimum spacing between b2 (21/14) h 2.73 3.78 5.25 7.35 10.5 14.7 21 29.4
baselines2
Minimum spacing between b3 (17/14) h 2.21 3.06 4.25 5.95 8.5 11.9 17 23.8
baselines3
Spacing between words e (6/14) h 0.78 1.08 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4
Line width d (1/14) h 0.134 0.184 0.25 0.354 0.5 0.74 1 1.44
All dimensions in millimetres

Drawing Standard 15
2.5.3 Guidelines for Lettering

General guidelines
•• Letters should be such that they are readable and can be made quickly.
•• Patterned, flourish or decorative letters should not be used.
•• Single stroke letters should be first choice as rapidness and legibility obtained is high.
•• Thickness of letter’s line should be uniform though out.
•• Upper case and lower case letters are used in appropriate place. Usually capital letters are used;
in exception small letters are used where specified by standards.
•• Draw vertical and sloped guide lines along direction of writing at random to provide reference
for writing letters so that uniformity in size and appearance of letters maintained.
•• Draw letters first with light and thin strokes of pencils so that in case of mistake lines can be erased.
•• Maintain same distance between consecutive words to provide appearance of uniform space.
•• Type B letters are generally broad, solid and darker than Type A letters.
2.6 ENGINEERING SCALE

In section 5 of BIS SP 46:2003 technical scales are specified for engineering application, it is based on
‘IS 10713: 1983/ISO 5455: 1979’. If we look at the essentiality of scale; we can conclude that without
introducing a scale, drawing has no use for engineering purpose. It is a ‘scale’ that relates the drawing
with original object. It gives an idea of comparison to a person to percept actual picture of particular
thing. This section specifies recommended scales and their designation for use on all technical drawings
in any field of engineering. Drawing, an idea that is manifested on a piece of paper with exact and specific
dimensions, is a vital part of a creation process in engineering. This process of manifestation has one
hurdle, as we know any real life object is either bigger or smaller than a piece of paper on which drawing
is being commenced. If we draw a technical drawing with such measurement either a drawing area seems
too limited or a drawing does not take any legible form. To overcome this problem a key rule is applied
is called a ‘SCALE’. Scale can be understood as a factor or ratio if we apply to actual measurement of
an object; we get a dimension of object of concern in reasonable drawing range. Scale is defined as, “A
ratio of dimension of a feature of an object within a drawing to the measurement of a feature of an object
in real”. The ratio is called representative fraction or representative factor of a scale.
2.6.1 Representative Fraction

It is the ratio of the length of the drawing to the actual length of the object. It is abbreviated as R.F.
mathematically it can be written as:
Size of an element in the drawing
RF =
Size of same element in actual
Length in the drawing

Or RF =
Actual length
16 Machine Drawing
Area in the drawing

Or RF =
Actual Area
Volume as per drawing

Or RF = s
Actual volume
2.6.2 Scales for Technical Drawings

In exceptional cases where for functional reasons the recommended scales cannot be applied,
intermediate scales may be chosen. The scale to be chosen for a drawing will depend upon the complexity
of the object to be depicted and the purpose of the representation. In all cases, the selected scale shall be
large enough to permit easy and clear interpretation of the information depicted. Details that is too small
for complete dimensioning in the main representation shall be shown adjacent to the main representation in
a separate detail view (or section) which is drawn to a large scale. It is recommended that, for information
a full size view be added to the large-scale representation of a small object. In this case, the full size view
may be simplified by showing the outlines of the object only.
Table 2.6 Scales for technical drawing
Category of scale Recommended value
Enlargement scale 50:1, 5:1 20:1, 2:1 10:1

Full scale N.A. N.A. 1:1
Reduction scale 1:2, 1:20, 1:5, 1:50, 1:10, 1:100,
1:200, 1:500, 1:1000, 1:10000,
1:2000 1:5000 1:100000
2.7 DIMENSIONING
Technical drawing conveys details about object or product in terms of shape and size, idea of shape can be
represented by drawing but details related to size found very convenient via mentioning digits according
to applied unit. The process of describing size of the object of concern is called process of dimensioning.
Dimensioning can be defined in several ways like,
•• “It is a means of defining the exact amount of material remaining after a series of manufacturing
operations have taken place over unfinished or raw material.”
•• “It is a process of representation of quantified measurement of feature in respective drawing in
terms of digits.”
•• “It is a way of describing size and location of item in expressions of relative or absolute quantity
of length in drawing using measuring units with numerical.”
•• “A numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and indicated graphically on
technical drawings with lines, symbols and notes.”
In section 12 of BIS SP 46:2003, “General Principles of Dimensioning on Technical Drawing” are
specified for engineering application, it is based on ‘IS11669: 1986/ISO 129: 1985’.
Drawing Standard 17
2.7.1 Dimensions
Dimensions are classified according to the following types:
(a) Functional dimension: A dimension that is essential to the function of the piece or space.
(b) Non-functional dimension: A dimension that is not essential to the function of the piece or space.
(c) Auxiliary dimension: A dimension given for information purposes only. It does not govern
production or inspection operations and is derived from other values shown on the drawing or
in related documents. An auxiliary dimension is given in parenthesis and no tolerance applies to
it.
F F
NF
F
NF
NF
(AUX)
Fig. 2.6. Basic dimensions of object
In National Standards, dimensioning represented in various sections depends upon the application
of represented view. Dimensions, an outcome of dimensioning process, have several elements by which
we can represent values of measurement in specific way.
2.7.2 Elements of Dimension

The elements of dimensioning include the projection line, dimension line, leader line, dimension
line termination, the origin indication, and the dimension itself. Please refer Fig. 2.7.
Lamdar line
Projection
2 × 45° line
Value of
the dimention
1500
3500
4500
Termination
Origin indication Dimension
(Arrow head)
line
Fig. 2.7. Elements of dimensions
Dimension line
The line, length of which shows measurement of feature, which is thin continuous and parallel to
feature to be dimensioned.
18 Machine Drawing
Extension line
The lines, perpendicular to feature to be dimensioned and dimension line, are thin continuous lines
but shorter in length compared to dimension line.
Termination and origin indicator
Arrow heads are used to terminate dimension lines, whenever arrow head touches extension line
dimension line is considered as limited or constrained up to that extension line. Arrow head has length
three times than the width of arrow along dimension line. Thickness of arrow head also depends up on
type and thickness of line.
Origin indicator is used where all dimension lines are shown to be originated from one single point
or datum.
Feature Indicator
The following indications are used with dimensions to show applicable shape identification and to
improve drawing interpretation. The diameter and square symbols may be omitted where the shape is
clearly indicated. The applicable indication (symbol) shall precede the value for dimension (These are
used to represent specific features like circle diameter or radius, arc length, radius or diameter of sphere,
etc. with dimension digits on a dimension line. Please refer Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Feature indicators in drawing
Name of feature Indicating symbol
Radius R
Spherical radius SR
Diameter Φ
Spherical diameter SΦ
Square or Sq
Pitch circle diameter PCD
Equi-spaced EQSP
Counter sunk CSK
Counter Bore C’BORE
Metric M
Dimension digits
A numerical that indicates value of measurement of feature on drawing is called dimension digits.
In most of the case dimension digit is integral part of dimension line. Generally, dimension digit is place
over the dimension line in middle.
Chapter
Orthographic Projection
3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
When the projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the reference plane then the projection
is known as Orthographic Projection. For any object, there are three dimensions to be considered i.e.
length, width and height and these dimensions to be converted in the two with the help of the methods
of orthographic projection depending upon the viewing of the object. Orthographic projection is to be
followed by the four angle of projection. These angles are first, second, third and four. Depending on
the imaginary placement of the object, angle method is adopted. As per the Bureau of Indian Standard
(SP-46:1988), It is recommended to follow the first angle of method.
Orthographic Projections are very effective in technical representation of the object. Orthographic
projections are further subdivided into axonometric projection and multi-view projections.
Fig. 3.1. Orthographic projection
19
20 Machine Drawing
Front view
x y
Top view
Fig. 3.2. Representation of 3D in orthographic view
3.1.1 Axonometric Projection

It is a sub type of orthographic projection which is used for creating a pictorial drawing of an object,
where the lines of sight are perpendicular to the plane of projection and the object is rotated around one
or more of its axes to reveal multiple sides.
n
z
N D
S A E
Z M D
x
D C
B y
E
N
A
M D=K y
x C
B
Fig. 3.3. Axonometric projection
3.1.2 Multiview Projection

It is technical drawing and computer graphics which is the illustration by which a standardized
series of orthographic two or three dimensional pictures is constructed to represent the form of a three-
dimensional object as shown in the figure 3.4.
Orthographic Projection 21
Fig. 3.4. Multi view projection
The multi view projection, six view of the object can be observed as shown in figure 3.5.
Fig. 3.5. Six view of object

22 Machine Drawing
The orthographic projection can be easily represented in two dimensional from the three dimensional
object as shown in figure 3.6.
Top
Top view
Fr
on
t
iew
tv
gh
Ri
Front view RHSV
3D Representation 2D Orthographic Projection
Fig. 3.6. Representation of three dimensional object in two dimensions
The six principal views of the three dimensional object is represented as shown in figure 3.7 and the
symbols used in the projection is as shown in figure 3.8.
Top
Le
ft s
ide
ar
Re
nt
Fro Rig
ht
sid
e
Bottom
Fig. 3.7. Representation of six principal views

Fig. 3.8. Symbolic representation of 1st and 3rd angle method of projection
3.2 FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

When the object is placed in first quadrant and object is in between the plane and observer then the
projection is known as first angle method of projection.
T.V.
V.P
T F H
FH
F F.V. L
Front view
X Y
TH
.P
eH
o tat 90° e T B
R hro is
t kw
c
P clo Top view
H.
(b)
Fig. 3.9. First angle projection
The above angle of projection can be easily understand by the figure 3.10 given below where the
object is placed in between the observer and the reference plane. The three views can be obtained by
observing the object from Front, top and left hand side view.
24 Machine Drawing
For T.V.
S.V
. .
F.V
For F.V.
For S.V.
Fig. 3.10. Representation of object in first angle projection
The pictorial view is given and its orthographic views are shown in figure 3.11 by first angle method
of projection.
FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW
x y
TOP VIEW
Fig. 3.11. Orthographic representation of object in first angle projection
In first angle method of projection Front view is drawn above reference line (XY) and top view is
drawn below the reference line (XY). The left hand side view is drawn right of front view and Right
hand side is drawn to the left of front view. The front view shows the length and height of the object
while top view shows the length and width of the object. The symbol used for the first angle projection
is as shown in fig. 3.12.
Projection Symbol
First angle
Fig. 3.12. Symbol of first angle projection
The method of drawing the plan i.e. top view and elevation i.e. front view can be easily drawing
by putting the object between the observer and the plane. The representation of the same can be easily
understand by the two dimensional figure and by drawing the reference line.
Vertical
Elevation plane Elevation
Object in space Ground

between principle lines
plane
Projectors
Ground
lines
Plan
First quadrant Plan
Horizontal plane
Fig. 3.13. Orthographic view with projected lines
3.3 THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

When the object is placed in third quadrant, below horizontal plane and behind the vertical
plane and plane is in between the object and observer then the projection is known as third
angle method of projection.
26 Machine Drawing
Pr
ofi
le
pla
ne
ne
l pla
ta
on or lane
Fr p
al
Se e rtic
V
qu con
ad d
ran
t
F
qu irst
ad
ra
nt e
T plan
qu hird n tal
ad zo
ran ri
t Ho
F
quourth
ad
ra
nt
Fig. 3.14. Quadrant method
For T.V.
P.
H.
V
T
P.
P. .
jee
ct V.P
Ob
S.V .
. F.V
nd
ou
Gr
. Fo
S .V rF
.V.
For
Fig. 3.15. Third angle method

The planes being transparent and the pattern of orthographic projection is as shown in figure 3.16.
TV
X Y
LSV FV
Fig. 3.16. Pattern of third angle method
The standard symbol used for the third angle method is as shown in figure 3.17.
Third angle
Fig. 3.17. Symbol of third angle projection
In third angle method of projection Front view is drawn below reference line (XY) and top view is
drawn above the reference line (XY). The left hand side view is drawn left of front view and Right hand
side is drawn to the right of front view. The object is placed in the third quadrant and the plane is located
in between the observer and the object.
To draw the elevation (front view) and the plan (top view) in third angle method of projection it is
assumed that the projection planes are transparent and the objects are viewed through them.
Plan Horizontal
plane
S
HP
Plan
Third
quadrant
Vertical
plane X Y
Object in space Elevation

between Elevation
principal planes
VP
Horizontal plane opened out
in direction of arrow S
Fig. 3.18. Orthographic view with projected lines

28 Machine Drawing
Similarly the end or side view is to be drawn and it is to be noted that the left hand side view is to
be drawn to the left of front and right hand side view is to the right of front view.
Plan
a
a X Y
b
b
End view Elevation
Fig. 3.19. Orthographic view with side view
The width (a) in a plan i.e. top view is equal to the width in the side view. The height (b) in a elevation
i.e. front view and side view are equal. Additional auxillary views can be drawn in third angle projection
in the same way as first angle method.
Top view
Isometric view
Front view Right view Real part

Third angle projection
Fig. 3.20. Orthographic view with isometric view and real part
3.4 GLASS BOX METHOD

To understand the six principal views, a glass box method is initiated where the object is placed in the
glass box and the sides of the box represent the six principal planes. The image of the object is projected
on the side of the glass. It can be understand easily from the figure mention below that how the projectors
are placed and the part A and B are projected in two dimensional view.
Fig. 3.21. The sides of the box represent the 6 principal planes.
Fig. 3.22. Projected image
Figure 3.23 shows the projection plane along with the projectors and it is clearly observed in the top
view that the representation of part A and part B.
30 Machine Drawing
Projection planes
(Sides of the box) True shape of
surface A.
Forehanded shape of
surface B.
A
B
A
Projector
B
Fro
nt v view
iew ht side
Rig
Fig. 3.23. Projected image
When the glass is unfolded, it shows the creation of six principal views as shown in figure 3.24 and
its representation in two dimension is as shown in figure 3.25.
Fig. 3.24. Unfold position of glass box Fig. 3.25. Representation of six views
3.5 EXAMPLES
A three dimensional object as shown in the figure 3.26, where the location of the observer is marked
from front, top and side is shown. Using the first angle method of projection, its orthographic views are
to be drawn which is shown in figure 3.27.
Plan
Front
Side
Fig. 3.26. Three dimensional object Fig. 3.27. Orthographic views
A three dimensional object as shown in the figure 3.28, where the location of the observer is marked
from front, top and side is shown. Using the third angle method of projection, its orthographic views are
to be drawn which is shown in figure 3.29.
Fig. 3.28. Three dimensional object

32 Machine Drawing
Fig. 3.29. Orthographic views
From the examples 3.5.1 and 3.5.2, it is easily understand to know the difference of the problem to
be solved by first and third angle of projection.
A three dimensional object as shown in the figure 3.30, where the object is marked by the letters to
understand the lines in the views and its representation in the orthographic projection.
H
Top
D
G
F
E
C A
X
Front Right side
Fig. 3.30. Three dimensional object to orthographic views
The different view representation can be understand by the figure 3.31.
Fig. 3.31. Views in three dimensional object
3.6 EXERCISE
The pictorial view of the object is given in Fig. 3.32. Draw the orthographic view and state the method
of projection.
34 Machine Drawing
A B C D E
F G H I J
Fig. 3.32. Pictorial view of objects

Chapter
Development of Surfaces
4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Development of surfaces represents the actual shape of all the surfaces which are folded at the edges
would form the solid. Every line of the development must be the true length of the corresponding edges
of the surfaces. Hence, the development of solid represents the actual shape of its surfaces which, when
folded at the edges would form the solid. It has an application mostly in the fabrication industries and
sheet metal work. For the purpose of design in the manufacturing of product, furniture, models and other
creative work, development of surface plays a major role to understand the basics of the product.
4.2 APPLICATION
It is majorly applied in the fabrication industries and sheet metal works. The major industries use the
development of surfaces in the manufacturing for chimneys, containers, cupboard, lamp shades, boiler
construction, electrical panels, funnels, pipe work, metal furniture, car and ship body manufacturing,
model making etc.
4.3 METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Mainly there are two methods of development of surfaces adopted.
4.3.1 Parallel Line Method

It is mainly used for the development of prism and cylinder. The two base lines of the solid are
parallel to each other in the development, hence the method named as parallel line method. Figure 4.1
shows the development of a square prism which can be easily understand by a four rectangle of equal
base and height. Similarly, the Fig. 4.2 shows the development of cylinder with diameter D and height
H, development of a cylinder is a rectangle with height (H) and length equal to the circumference of the
cylinder.
36 Machine Drawing
Fig. 4.1. Development of rectangular prism
Fig. 4.2. Development of cylinder

Development of Surfaces 37
nk
nk
Bla
Bla
me
Sa
me
Sa
Fig. 4.3. Rectangular prism
a a1 d1 d
A D
40
b b1 c1 c
a b c d A B C D A
60
a1 b1 c1 d1 A1 B1 C1 D1 A1
A1 D1
Fig. 4.4. Development of prism
To understand the development of a prism in a simple way, Figs. 4.3 and 4.4 shows the development
of prism in three dimension and its representation in two dimensions.
4.3.2 Radial Line Method

The radial line method is used to draw the development of pyramid and cone. The development of
a square pyramid is as shown in Fig. 4.5 where four triangles represents the development of a square
pyramid whose height is equal to the true length and base edge of pyramid is equal to the base of the
triangle. The true length can be obtained by the slant edge of the pyramid which will be parallel to the
reference plane in either H.P. or V.P.
38 Machine Drawing
The development of cone as shown in Fig. 4.6 where the height is equal to the generator parallel
to either reference plane and angle (q) subtended by an arc at the centre is calculated as radius of base
circle by slant height and whole is multiply by 360°.
Fig. 4.5. Development of pyramid
Fig. 4.6. Development of cone
4.4 PROBLEMS
4.4.1 Prism
The prisms are made by the regular polygons of n sides at their two ends and the number of surfaces
are n connecting to these polygons. When the prism surfaces are unfolded in a single plane, we get n
numbers of rectangles having sides of bases as one side and length of the vertical edge or height of the
prism as another side. Moreover, we get two polygons of n sides for two bases.
Problem 1: A square prism of base side 50 mm and height 80 mm, the base edges are equally inclined
to Vertical Plane (V.P.). Draw the development of part P as shown in fig. 4.7.
P 80
40
X Y
50
Fig. 4.7. Problem 1
Solution:
1. Draw the front and top view of a square prim of 50 mm side and 80 mm height.
2. Mark the mid-point on a′ 1′ as p′ shown in Fig. 4.8.
3. Project the cutting plane on the top view to get the point p, q, and r.
4. Draw a parallel line through a′– c′ and 1 – 3.
Fig. 4.8. Solution Problem 1

40 Machine Drawing
5. Draw a line a″ – 1″ normal to the line.

6. Take the distance equal to the base of prism as 50 mm and mark the points b″, c″, d″ and a″
similarly 1″, 2″, 3″, and 4″.
7. Draw the line from a” to 1” which represents the edge of the prism.
8. Project the point p on the development and draw the line from q″ to p″ and p″ to r″ to complete
the development as the points p, q and r are the intersection point on slant edge.
Problem 2: Draw the development of part A of a hexagonal prism as shown in Fig. 4.9.
30
10
80
A
20
Fig. 4.9. Problem 2
Solution:
1. Name the corners of the prism and the intersection point where the edges are cut.
2. Draw the development of the prism which length will be equal to 30 × 6 = 180 mm. (length of
side base x(n) sides of the polygon).
3. Draw six equal rectangles of vertical faces.
4. Draw the horizontal lines through cutting points 1′, 2′, 3′, etc., and locate the points on the
corresponding edge like 1 on AA1, 2 on BB1 etc.
5. Mark the points 4 and 5 such that 4D = 4d (in T.V.) (as 4-d is the true length) and 5 = d5.
6. Draw the lines joining the points 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 1 in correct sequence as shown in
Fig. 4.10.
30
f
5
a d
4
b c 10
b1 c1 4 5 d1 A1 B1 C1 4 D1 5 E1 F1 A
a1 3 6
6 3
P
P
80
2 2 7
7 1
20
a bf ce d A B C D E F A
Fig. 4.10. Solution Problem 2
Problem 3: Draw the development of the lateral surface of the square prism of 50 mm side of base
with a circular hole drilled in it as shown in the Fig. 4.11.
50
R30
100
Fig. 4.11. Problem 3

Solution:
1. Draw Front view and top view of square as shown in Fig. 4.12. Name as a, b, c, d.
2. For the development, take height equal to the height of prism and total length is taken four times
the edge of the base of the prism.
3. Mark the points p1, p2,.. on the front view and project the same on top view.
42 Machine Drawing
4. Project the points p1, p2, p3… in the development to get the desired points and draw a smooth
curve from all these points.
50 d
P2 4 P3
P4
a 1 3 C
P1
2 P3
P2 b
a b c d a
P3 P2 P3 P3
P2 P2
P4 P4
P1
100
P1 P1
P4 P4
P2
P3 P2 P3 P3 P2
a b c d a
8
Fig. 4.12. Solution of Problem 3
Problem 4: A triangular prism with one of its rectangular face perpendicular to V.P. The base edge
is 40 mm and height of the prism is 70 mm. It is cut by two parallel plane inclined 30 degree to HP and
perpendicular to V.P. passing through the corner the corner of the top base and another passing through
the bottom base to cut the prism. Draw the development of the surface of the portion of the prism between
two cutting plane.
Solution:
1. Draw Front view and top view of triangular prism with cutting planes.
2. Draw the development of lateral surface of the prism as shown in Fig. 4.13.
3. Obtain the points 1, 2 and 3 on it and draw the line 1 - 2 - c1 - 1 and A - B - 3 - A as shown in
Fig. 4.13.
c1 A1 B1 C1 A1
a1b1
30º
12 1
1 2
80
3 3
30º
a1 1
F.V. C A B C A
a
a1
50
c1 c
b1
b T.V.
Problem 5: A square prism of base side 40 mm and height 70 mm with all the faces equally inclined
to V.P. In the centre of the prism a hole is drilled of diameter 50 mm so that axis of hole bisects the axis
of prism at right angle. Draw the development.
Solution:
1. Draw Front view and top view of prism with hole as per given in the problem.
2. Draw the development of the prism.
3. Divide the hole in front view in 12 equal parts and project the lines in top view as shown in
Fig. 4.14.
4. Draw the development of these points as obtained in top view and draw the vertical lines in the
development through these points.
a1 b1d1 c1 A1 B1 C1 D1
A1
10 10 10
11 11 9 9 11
9
12 8 12 8 8 12
1 7 1 1
80
7 7
6
2 2 6 6 2
5
3 3 5 5 3
4 4 4
A
a bd c A 1 2,12 3,11 B 5,9 6,8 7 C 7 6,8 5,9 D 3,11 2,12 1
d
d1
50
a1 c c1
1 7
2, 6,8
12
3,11 5,9
b1
b 4 10

44 Machine Drawing
5. Draw the parallel lines through the points of holes from the front view and the intersection of
these lines will locate the position of points in the development.
6. Join all the points through a smooth curve to complete the development.
Problem 6: A pentagonal prism of base side 35 mm and height 65 mm with a side of base parallel
to V.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined 45 degrees H.P. and perpendicular to V.P. bisects the axis of
the prism. Draw the development along with front and top view.
Solution:
1. Draw Front view and top view of prism with hole as per given in the problem and name a, b, c,
d and e.
2. Taking the height of the prism and base side as 35 mm multiply by 5 surfaces, draw the development
of surface.
3. Mark the points P1, P2, P3 and P4 in front view. Project all the points in the development and
draw a curve passing through these points.
1 2 3 4 5 1
P4 P4
P3 P3
45º
P5 P5
65
P2 P2
P1 P1 P1
e a b c d e a
a d
b c
35
Problem 7: Draw the development of part P of a square prism as shown in figure 4.16.
45º
P
80
30
R
Solution:
1. Draw Front view and top view of a square prism with diagonal as 60 mm and height as 80 mm.
2. Mark the point a, b, c, d on top view and project these points in the front view as a′ a1′ etc.
3. Cut the prism as per the problem and project the cutting plane in top view and mark the points
as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on the edge bc and cd.
4. Draw the development of prism as height 80 mm and four rectangles with each base side.
5. Project the intersection point on front view on the development and similarly mark the points 1
to 6 on the development taking the distance from the top view as shown in Fig. 4.17. and draw
the dark line which shows the development of part P.
b1d1 c1 A1 B1 C1 D1 A1
a1
45º
P P
1 1 1
80
4 4
35 5
2 3 6
2
6
30
R
X X
a bd c A B 2 3 C 5 6 D A
d
d1 6
5
4
60
a a1 c1 c
X
3
b1
2
b
Fig. 4.17. Solution to Problem 7
Problem 8: A hexagonal prism of base side 40 mm and 75 mm length of axis perpendicular to HP

with two base sides perpendicular to HP. A thin wire is stretched from a corner of the base along the
lateral surface and brought back to the starting point. The starting and finishing point of the wire is
nearer to the observer while the top corner is farthest to the observer. Find the shortest length of wire
graphically and show the wire in front and top view of the prism.
Solution:
1. Draw top view of a hexagonal prism of base side 40 mm with two sides perpendicular to XY.
2. Mark the points a, b, c, d, e, f and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 representing the base corners.
3. Project the lines to obtain the front view of height 75 mm.
4. Draw the development of prism taking height as 75 mm and total length 6 times the base edge.
5. As per the problem, wire stretched from the near point of observer i.e. c and reaches to top base
corner f as shown in the Fig. 4.18.
6. Mark the points on the developments as P1, P2, P3 and P4.
7. Represents the all points P1 - P4 in front view and top view. Dotted lines shows the back side of
the prism.
46 Machine Drawing
P4
P4
P4
P3 P3
P3 P3
ire
W
P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1
ab cf de f a b c d e f
X Y
f
a e
40
b d
Problem 9: A square prism of base side 40 mm and 75 mm height with its axis perpendicular to
HP and base sides are equally inclined to VP. A wire is stretched from the centre of bottom base of the
prism to the centre of top base of opposite side of prism by shortest distance. Draw the position of wire
in front and top view.
Solution:
1. Draw top view of a square prism of base side 40 mm with two sides equally inclined to XY.
2. Mark the points a, b, c, d, and 1, 2, 3, 4 representing the base corners.
3. Project the points in front view taking the height of prism as 75 mm.
4. Draw the development of prism by parallel line method with height 75 mm and length equals to
40 × 4 = 160 mm.
5. Mark the point p1 at the centre of bottom base side b – c and opposite to the top base will be
4 – 1, mark the point p4.
6. Join the line between p1 to p4 to obtain the points p2 and p3.
7. Project these points on front and top view as shown in Fig. 4.19.
P4 4 2 1 2 n 3 4 P4 1
1 3
P3
P3
75
P2
P2
a bd c
P1 a b P1 c d m a
d
40 4
m
a 1 3 c
2 n
b
Problem 10: A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and 65 mm length of axis inclined at 60° to
HP and parallel to VP is resting on its base perpendicular to VP. A section plane inclined 30° to HP and
perpendicular to VP cuts the prism and passes through a point on the axis at a distance of 15 mm from
the top end of the axis. Draw its sectional front view, true shape of the section and the development of
the cut prism.
Solution:
1. Draw top view of a hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm with two sides perpendicular to XY.
2. Mark the points a, b, c, d, e, f and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 representing the base corners.
3. Project the lines to obtain the front view of height 65 mm.
4. Inclined the prism in front view by 60° and project the points in the top view as shown in
Fig. 4.20.
5. Draw the cutting plane passing through a point on the axis at a distance of 15 mm from the top
end of the inclined prism.
6. Mark the points on top view and draw the true shape of section on x1y1 parallel to the cutting
plane.
7. Draw the development of prism with height 65 mm and 180 mm length.
8. Mark the points 1, 2, 3, 4, M, N by taking the distance from front view to the development.
48 Machine Drawing
3 n
True shape
m
1
ab Y1
4 c1 m
ab cf ed
o 2 3 A B C N D E MF A
n ed
4 3 4
X1 1
65
2 2
1 1
1:
2: 3:
6: 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
1 60º Development
X 1
2 3 6 4 5 5: 4: 150
f 6 4
m
a e a 5
1 1
o P
25
O
o
2 2 b
b d 4
n
c 3 3 c
Problem 11: An equilateral triangular prism of base side 50 mm and 80 mm height with one base
side perpendicular to V.P. A section inclined plane cuts the prism in such a way that the true shape of
the section is a trapezium of 40 mm and 12 mm parallel sides. Draw the projection and the true shape
of the section and find the angle by which the cutting plane makes with HP also draw the development
of the lateral surface of the cut prism.
Solution:
1. Draw top view of a triangular prism of base side 50 mm with one side perpendicular to XY.
2. Project the top view in the front and draw the front view. Mark the points on front and top view.
3. As per the problem the true shape is a trapezium of parallel side 12 mm and 40 mm. Mark the
point pq = 12 mm and mn = 40 mm on top view as shown in Fig. 4.21.
4. Project the point pq on lower base and mn on the upper base and join the p q with mn which
shows the position of cutting plane.
5. Draw the new reference line x1y1 parallel to the cutting plane line and project the points p q and
mn to obtain the true shape.
6. mark the point m and n at a distance of 40 mm and similarly p and q at a distance of 12 mm.
7. The points p, q m and n shows the true shape of trapezium.
8. Draw the development of triangular prism as 80 mm height and 50 × 3 = 150 mm length.
9. Project the points p, q, m, and n on the development to obtain the required development.
10. Calculate the angle of section plane which is 75°.
40 X1
n
m f m n A N B C M A
True shape 100

trapezium
of 40 mm
& 12 mm
q p p a
parallel
side f 1 Q 2 3 P 1
12
x1 150
c
m
f2
p
50
a
q
n
b
Problem 12: A cube of side 50 mm stands vertically on the HP in such a way that its vertical faces
are equally inclined to V.P. and a section plane cuts the cube in such a way that the true shape obtained
is a rhombus of biggest diagonals. The section plane is perpendicular to V.P. and inclined to HP. Draw
the projection and the true shape of the section and find the angle by which the cutting plane makes with
HP also draw the development of the lateral surface of the cut cube.
Solution:
1. Draw the square of 50 mm with base side equally inclined to XY i.e. 45°.
2. Mark the points of corner and project it on front view.
3. As per the problem the true shape is a rhombus of biggest diagonals, hence the section plane
should pass through the point 1′ and c′.
4. Join the line with 1′ and c′ which shows the cutting plane and mark the points on top view.
5. Draw a new reference line x1y1 parallel to the cutting plane and project the points on new reference
line to obtain the true shape.
6. Draw the development of cube taking height as 50 mm and length 50 × 4 = 200 mm.
7. Mark the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the development as shown in Fig. 4.22. which will be the required
development.
8. Measure the angle of section plane with reference to xy line which will be the required inclination
of section plane with HP.
50 Machine Drawing
4.4.2 Cylinder
Cylinders have two bases of circles at their ends and the curved surface connecting these two circles.
If the surface of the cylinder is unrolled on a single plane and we get a rectangle of length equal to the
circumference of the circle and height equal to the length of the axis.
Problem 13: A vertical cylinder of diameter 50 mm and height 80 mm resting on HP on its base.
Draw the development of the curved surface of the cylinder.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of the cylinder and divide the circle in 12 equal parts, name
the points as a, b, c, etc, as shown in Fig. 4.23.
2. Project all the division of points from top view to front view and draw the generators of the
cylinder.
3. Draw the development of cylinder by parallel line method as a rectangle of length equals to the
circumference of the cylinder and height of the cylinder.
4. Divide the length in twelve equals parts. Here, one can choose accurate method or approximate
method. In accurate method the total length is divided in twelve equal parts but in approximate
method the distance of cord ab is taken in compass and same is marked in the development which
is easier and faster method for the development of cylinder.
5. This rectangle shows the development of the cylinder.

A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1 J1 K1 L1 A1
a1 f 1 g1
b 1 c 1 d 1
80
a g
b1 c k d j e i f h A B C D E F G H I J K L A
j
k i xD
l h
50
a g
b
c f
e
d
Problem 14: A vertical cylinder of diameter 50 mm and height 70 mm resting on HP on its base. It
is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined 45° to HP and passes from the distance of
20 mm from the top. Draw the development of the cylinder.
Solution:
1. Draw the circle of 50 mm diameter which shows the top view of the cylinder. Divide the circle
in parts and name the points. Project the generators for front view of the cylinder.
2. Draw a rectangle of 70 mm height and length 50 mm as projected from top view which shows
the front view of the cylinder.
3. Draw the development of the cylinder taking height equals to 70 mm and length equals to the
circumference of the circle and divide it in 12 equals parts.
4. Draw the section plane inclined 45° to HP (XY) passes through a point 20 mm from the top base
on the axis.
5. Mark the points on the section plane which cuts the generator of the cylinder and project these
points in the development.
6. The intersection of these points with the generators will give the points of intersection in the
development as shown in Fig. 4.24.
7. Draw a smooth curve from these points which shows the development of the cylinder.
52 Machine Drawing
P6 P7 P7 P8
P5 P8 P5 P6 P9
20
P4 P9
P3
P4 P10
P2 P10 P3 P11
P11 P2 P12
70
P1
P12 P1 P1
ab c d e f g a b c d e f g h i j k l a
j
k i
l h
50
a g
b f
c e
d
Problem 15: A vertical cylinder of diameter 60 mm and height 80 mm resting on HP on its base.
It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined 30° to HP and passes from the top base
point. Draw the development of the cylinder.
Solution:
1. Draw the circle of 60 mm diameter which shows the top view of the cylinder. Divide the circle
in parts and name the points. Project the generators for front view of the cylinder.
2. Draw a rectangle of 80 mm height and length 50 mm as projected from top view which shows
the front view of the cylinder.
circumference of the circle and divide it in 12 equals parts.
4. Draw the section plane inclined 30° to HP (XY) passes through a point on the top base.
5. Mark the points on the section plane which cuts the generator of the cylinder and project these
points in the development.
6. The intersection of these points with the generators will give the points of intersection in the
7. Draw a smooth curve from these points which shows the development of the cylinder.
j
k i
l h
60
a g
b
f
c e
d
7 A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1 J1 k1 L1 A1
6 7 8
30º
8
6 5 9
5
9
4 4 10
10
P
80
3 3 11
11
2 2 12
12
1 1 1
a b c d e f g A B C D E F G H I J k L A
l k j i h
Problem 16: A vertical cylinder of diameter 50 mm and height 70 mm is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to V.P. and inclined 45° to HP passes from the point on the axis 15 mm from the top. Draw
the development of the cylinder.
Solution:
1. Draw the development of the cylinder taking height equals to 70 mm and follow the procedure
as explained in the problem 14 and 15.
2. Draw the section plane inclined 45° to HP (XY) passes through a point on the axis at a 15 mm
from top.
3. Mark the points on the section plane which cuts the generator of the cylinder and top base.
4. Locate the point 6 in top view from the front view which cut the upper base of the cylinder as
shown in Fig. 4.26.
5. Mark the point 6 in the development between the points E1 and F1 and H1 and I1 in such a way
that distance between F1 – 6 = f – 6 and H1 – 6 = h – 6.
6. Mark the intersection points on the development and draw a smooth curve from these points
which shows the development of the cylinder.
54 Machine Drawing
E1 I1
f1 A1 B1 C1 D1 6 F1 G1 H1 6 J1 K1 L1 A1
a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 6 g1
l1 k1 j1 5 i1 h1
15 5 5
4 4 4
3
3 3
2 45° 2 2
1
1 1
l k j i h g
a
b c d e f A B C D E F G H I J K L A
j
k i 6
l h
a g
b f
c e6
d
Fig. 4.26 Solution to Problem 16
Problem 17: Draw the development of the lateral surface cylinder with 80 mm diameter and
100 mm height with a square hole of 30 mm side cut through it with all the sides are equally inclined to
HP and axis of hole is perpendicular to V.P. The axis of hole is 45 mm above the base of the cylinder.
Solution:
circumference of the base circle.
2. Draw a square of 30 mm side with the axis 45 mm from the axis of the cylinder measures from
the base of the cylinder.
3. Mark the points on the square which cuts the generators of the cylinder and project these points
on the development.
b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1 J1 K1 L1 A1
a1 g1
l1 k1 j1 i1 h1
4 4 4
C E I K
100
1 3 1 3 3 1
30
45
SQ 2 C E I K
2 2
a g
l h A B 1 C D E 3 F G H 3 I J K 1 L A
b 1 i f
k j 3
c e
d
80

4. Intersection of projected points of square and generators will show the development of square.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through the points which will be the required development.
Problem 18: Draw the development of the lateral surface of part A of the cylinder as shown in
Fig. 4.28.
10
30º
A
100
5
R4
60
Solution:
2. Divide the top view of circle in 12 equal parts and project the same in front view.
10
11 9
p
12 8
60
1
7
2
q 6
3 5
4
10
P q
r 30º r z
s s t x y
A t
u v u v w
a
100
b a b h a
a
c d c d g
5
R4 f
12 11 10 e 9 8 e e
1
2 3 4 5 67 1 2 p 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 q 12 1

56 Machine Drawing
3. Draw the cutting plane as per the problem and mark the points on the cutting plane and project
it to the development.
4. Locate the intersection points on the development and obtain the required points as shown in
Fig. 4.29.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through all these points which will be required development.
Problem 19: Draw the development of the lateral surface of part A of the cylinder as shown in
Fig. 4.30.
70
45º
105
A
30º 60º

Solution:
g a g
h a
a
l 45º i f b f h
e i l
b k j e c k
c
d P7 d P7 j
P6 P8
A
P8 P6
105
P5 P5 P9
P9 P1 P1
P1
P2 P3 P2 P11 P12
3 60º 5 6 7 P3
1 2 3 0º 4 P4 P10
12 11 10 9 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
10
11 9
12 8
1 7
70
2 6
3 5
4

2. Divide the top view of circle in 12 equal parts and project the same in front view.
3. Draw the cutting plane as per the problem and mark the points on the cutting plane and project
it to the development.
4. Locate the intersection points on the development and obtain the required points as shown in
Fig. 4.31.
5. Draw a smooth curve passing through all these points which will be required development.
Problem 20: Draw the development of the
lateral surface of part A of the cylinder as shown in
Fig. 4.32.
Solution:
1. Draw the development of the cylinder taking height equals to
120
A
120 mm and length equals to the circumference of the base
circle.
2. Repeat the procedure as stated in Problem 19.
60
70

58 Machine Drawing
Problem 21: Development of the lateral surface of cylinder with largest semicircle line is as shown
in Fig. 4.34. Draw the projection of semicircle on the cylinder showing the front and top view.
100
80
80
R
Solution:
1. Draw the rectangle of 80 mm × 160 mm which shows the development of the cylinder.
2. Draw a semicircle taking the midpoint of rectangle and radius equals to 80 mm.
3. Divide the line AA in twelve equal parts and draw the vertical line through it which shows the
generator of the cylinder.
4. Mark the points 1, 2, 3, … 11, 12 on the development which cuts the semicircle and generator
of the cylinder.
5. The height of the cylinder will be 80 mm and the diameter of the cylinder will be equals to the
length of development divided by p which comes 57.3 mm. Hence, diameter of the circle will
be 57.3 mm.

6. Draw a circle with diameter 57.3 mm and height equals to 80 mm. Mark the points on the top
view as generator a to l and project the same in front view.
7. Draw the horizontal lines from development to front view and project it in top view as shown in
Fig. 4.35 which will be the required projection in front and top view.
Problem 22: Development of the lateral surface of part A and part B of right angle elbow as shown
in Fig. 4.36.
70
110
Solution:
1. Draw the rectangle of height 110 mm × 220 mm which shows the development of the cylinder.
2. Draw a circle taking the midpoint of axis with radius equals to 35 mm and divide it in 12 equals
parts and project it on the cutting line as p1, p2, p3, …p12.
3. Mark the points 1 to 12 on the development and project the points p1 to p12 on the development
to get the desired intersection.
4. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points on the development which will be required
development of part A.
5. Similar procedure can be obtained for the part B and the curve generated will be almost similar.
P1 P1
P1
P12 P2 P2 P12
P11 P3 P3 P11
B
P4
70
P10 P4 P10
P5
110
P9 P6 P5 P6 P9
A P8 P8
P7 P7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 12 11 10 9 8 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
6 D
12 2
5 8
3 4
11 9 Development of A = Development of B
10
Fig. 4.37. Solution to Problem 22.

60 Machine Drawing
Problem 23: Development of the lateral surface of part A, B and C of the pipe as shown in Fig. 4.38.
S 60
P
C
B
q
r
60
Solution:
1. To find the axis of the middle part B, draw a square p,q,r,s of side equal to the diameter of pipe
60 mm.
2. Bisect angle q, r, p and s, r, p by a line m, r and n, r.
3. Mark the points X and Y on line pq and rs respectively. XY is the axis of middle part B and Xq
is the axis part A and Xs is the axis of part C.
4. Complete the front view as shown in Fig. 4.39.
5. The part A and C are similar part and truncated at one end only.
6. Mark the 12 generators on all the three parts through a circle drawn at the top view and mark the
intersection points on the front view and draw the lines.
7. Develop the either point A or C as it will be the same and truncated at one end only. The part B
is truncated at the both end and developed as shown in the Fig. 4.39.
A
L
K
J
I
H
G
A F
L E
K D
J C
I B
A
H
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
A
60
G
A L K J I H G F E D C B A A
L H
A and C - Development I F
B K J
C D E
Problem 24: A solid cylinder of 50 mm base diameter and 80 mm height resting on its base on HP.
It is cut by a section plane such that the true shape obtained is an ellipse with major axis 70 mm and
minor axis as 50 mm. Draw the development of remaining part of the cylinder along with the sectional
top view and true shape.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the cylinder as a circle of 50 mm diameter and divide the circle in 12 equal parts.
2. Draw the front view of the cylinder as a rectangle of 50 mm × 80 mm and mark the projectors
on the top and bottom base of the cylinder.
3. Draw the section plane in front view such that length of section plane is 70 mm equals to the
major axis of the ellipse.
4. Mark the points on top view for the section plane and project all these points to get the true
shape of the section as an ellipse of major axis 70 mm and minor axis as 50 mm as shown in the
Fig. 4.40.
5. Draw the development of the required cylinder as per the procedure explained in the previous
problems.
62 Machine Drawing
True shape of section is ellipse of

major axis 70 mm & minor axis 50 mm.
4
4 7 6 Y1
70 3 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
1 2 3 4 5
5 6
2, 5
6 4 5 4 6
8 80 3 7
50 7 3 7
2 2 8
1 8
1
1
X Y
1 2 8 3 7 4 6 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
X1 8 6 Development
7
1 5 50
2 4
3
4.4.3 Pyramid
The base of the pyramid is a regular polygon of n sides and have n numbers of the isosceles triangular
faces connecting the regular polygon to the vertex or apex. In the development we get the n numbers of
isosceles triangles.
o
O L
o True True length
length O
L

bc a1 ad bc A
True X Y
d
length C x
a
d
a
D
B o A
a1 B
Parallel to A x D
vertical plane C
a b
Fig. 4.41. Development of pyramid
The true length can be obtained by making the slant edge oa parallel to the reference plane as shown
in the Fig. 4.41. Now taking the length equals to o′ a1′ in front view draw the arc and mark the any point
A and length equals to the base side mark the other point B,C,D and A in the development. Join all the
points with O which shows the slant edge of the pyramid.
Problem 25: Draw the development o

of a triangular pyramid with base side
40 mm resting on HP on its base with
axis length 70 mm.
70
O1
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the
pyramid as a equilateral triangle ac b
c
of side 40 mm perpendicular A 40 A
to the reference line as the
pyramid is resting on its base o B C
40
b
side. 40
2. Find the midpoint of the
a
triangle which represents the
apex or vertex of the pyramid
and name all the corners and apex as o.
3. Draw the front view of the pyramid taking 70 mm as a height of the pyramid.
4. The slant edge ob in top view is parallel to the reference line which will be the true length in the
front view.
5. Draw an arc with radius equals to the length o′ b′ in front view. Mark any point A on the arc
and take a distance equals to base side as 40 mm and mark other points as B and C on the arc as
shown in Fig. 4.42
6. Join all the points A, B, C and A with O which shows the slant edge of the pyramid and required
development of the pyramid.
Problem 26: Draw the development of lateral surface part P of a square pyramid as shown in the
Fig. 4.43.
d c
a b
40
O
70
45°
40

64 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the pyramid as a square of side 40 mm with two sides perpendicular to
the reference line and rest two parallel to the reference line and name all the corners. Join all the
corners to get the midpoint apex or vertex as o as per the problem.
2. Determine the true length of the slant edge of the pyramid as follows:
(a) With O as centre and radius equals to the oa in top view draw an arc till it becomes parallel
to the reference line to get the point oa1.
(b) Draw the projector from a1 to meet the horizontal line through the base of the pyramid in the
front view at a1′.
(c) Join the line o′a1′ which represents the true length of slant edge OA.
3. With any point O as a centre and radius equals to the true length of slant edge o′a1′ , draw an arc
and mark any point A on the arc with a distance equals to the base side of the pyramid mark the
points B, C, D and A.
4. Draw the cutting plane as per the condition in the problem. Mark the points 1′, 2′, 3′ and 4′ on
the slant edge oa′, ob′, oc′ and od′ respectively.
5. For transferring cutting points of slant edges on the development, draw parallel lines to base on
true length in front view from points 1′, 2′, 3′ and 4′.
6. Mark the points on the development 1, 2, 3, 4 on OA, OB, OC, OD respectively.
7. Join the points 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1 and complete the development of prism as shown in Fig. 4.44.
the lower part of the pyramid is to be drawn dark as it belongs to the part P.
d c O 1
A
4
o 3
2 4
a1 3
o
2 1 D
1
a b
40 A C
B
O O
23 23 3
2
o
70 14 45°
14 4 C
40
P 1
D B
a1 ad cb A
Problem 27: Draw the development of lateral surface of the square pyramid with all the base edges
are equally inclined to the V.P. as shown in the Fig. 4.45.
25
45°
65
P
30°
A B C
50
Solution:
1. Draw the front view of the pyramid as per the problem taking 50 mm as base diagonal and
65 mm as height.
2. Project the points from vertex and corner of the pyramid on the top view so that the base side
will be equally inclined to the reference plane.
3. Mark the points o, a, b, c, and d on the top which represents the apex and the corner of the
pyramid.
d A
6 m
4
2
1 c D
a O
P7
3 P1
5 P3 m
7 n
b P4
O O
C
25
P5
P1
P2 n
45° P1 P6
65
P3
P2 P5
P4 B
P6
P7
30° D
A P4 B e f C A
50

66 Machine Drawing
4. Mark the points on the front view and draw the section as per the problem and mark the points
p1 to p6 as shown in Fig. 4.46.
5. Join all the points from p1 to p6 which will be required development.
Problem 28: A frustum of a square pyramid has its base 50 mm side, top 25 mm side and height
65 mm resting on its base side on HP with side of base parallel to V.P. Draw the development of lateral
surface of the frustum and draw the projection of the frustum showing the line joining the midpoint of
top edge of one face with the midpoint of the bottom edge of the opposite face by the shortest distance.
Solution:
1. Draw the front view and top view of the pyramid.
2. Mark the points o, a, b, c, and ob1 on the top which represents the apex and the corner of the
pyramid.
3. Project the points from vertex and corner of the pyramid on the top view so that the base side
will be equally inclined to the reference plane.
4. Take a distance of 65 mm as a height of frustum from the base of the pyramid and mark the points
on the front view and top view as shown in Fig. 4.47.
5. Obtained the true length of the pyramid as per the procedure adopted in the problem 27.
6. Draw the development of frustum taking the true length.
7. Mark the point M as a midpoint on the bottom base of side AB and N as a midpoint of top base
opposite to bottom base on 3, 4.
A
1
O O
4
N D
3 P2
2
1 4 2 3 1
N
C
P1
65
P1
T.L
B
M
ad M bc b1 A
d c
P2
N
4 3
25
50
O b1
1 2
P1
a M b

8. Join the line MN which shows the shortest distance between the mid points of top and bottom
base in opposite direction.
9. Mark the points p1 and p2 on the slant edge OB and OC and project the points p1, p2 m and n
on front and top view which will show the required projection of line.
Problem 29: A pentagonal pyramid has its base 30 mm and height 70 mm resting on HP such that
one of its base side is parallel to V.P. A sectional plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined 45° to HP
bisect the axis of the pyramid. Draw the development of lateral surface of the pyramid along with the
projection on front and top view.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the pyramid in such a way that one of its base side will be parallel to
reference line and mark the points as A, B, C, D, E and O.
2. Project the front view of the pyramid taking 70 mm axis length and mark the points of the corner
and apex as shown in the Fig. 4.48.
3. Take the midpoint of the axis in the front view and draw a section plane inclined at 45° to reference
line and mark the points p1, p2, p3, p4 and p5.
4. Obtain the true length of the slant edge as per the procedure explained in the previous problems.
5. Draw an arc taking the centre at any point and radius equals to the true length and mark any point
on the arc as a and taking the base side length mark the points A, B, C, D and E.
6. Join all these points with the vertex which shows the development of the pyramid.
7. Project the points p1 to p5 on the true length and mark it on the development.
8. Join all the points which shows the development of the pyramid.
A
P1 P5
P4 D
O
P1 P3 C
°
P1
45
P5 P2
70
P2
P4 B
P3
a e b c A
30
e d
5 4
O
1
a 3 c
2
b

68 Machine Drawing
Problem 30: A pentagonal pyramid has its base 35 mm and height 60 mm resting on one of its base
side on HP and away from the observer being parallel to V.P. The axis of the pyramid is perpendicular to
HP. Draw the projection of the pyramid and show on it the path of a point, which starts from the corner
of base nearest to observer and moves along the lateral surface of the pyramid and comes back to its
original position by shortest path.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of the pyramid in such a way that one of its base side will be
parallel to reference line and away from it.
3. Draw an arc taking the centre at any point and radius equals to the true length and mark any point
on the arc as B and taking the base side length mark the points C, D, E, A and B.
4. Join all these points with the vertex which shows the development of the pyramid.
5. Join the line from B to B in the development which shows the path of a point by shortest distance.
6. Mark the points from p1 to p5 and project the points p1 to p5 on the true length and on the front
view of the pyramid and to the top view of the pyramid as shown in the Fig. 4.49.
35
e d P5
B
5 4
o c1 A
1 3
a
c
P1
2 b E
X Y P2
P3
D
P2 P3 P4
60
P1
P4
C
P5
a e bP5 d c B
Problem 31: A rectangular pyramid of base side 60 × 75 mm and height 80 mm resting on one
of its base on HP in such a way that 60 mm side are inclined at 15° to V.P. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to V.P. and inclined 45° to HP through a point on the axis 30 mm away from the vertex.
Draw the development of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of the pyramid in such a way that 60 mm base side will be
inclined to 15° to XY.
3. Draw the section plane as per the condition mention in the problem.
4. Mark the points on the slant edges as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
5. Draw the development of the pyramid taking true length and base side of the pyramid and mark
the point 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the development by transferring it on the true length.
6. Join all the points as shown in the Fig. 4.50 which will be the required development of the pyramid.
D
A
60
75
C
1
4
60
2 3 O
B
3
30
45°
4
75
2
80
1 45°
P 1
A d
X c Y
b1 a b
d
15°
a
4 75
1
b1 o 3
2 c
b 60

Problem 32: A pentagonal pyramid of base side 35 mm and height 70 mm has its triangular face on
the HP with its axis parallel to V.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined 30° to V.P. and passes through the
midpoint of the axis so that apex is removed. Draw the top view, sectional front view and development
of the lateral surface of the reaming portion of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of the pyramid with one of its triangular face on HP.
2. The true length can be obtained in FV and mark the points.
3. Draw the section line inclined 30° to XY.
4. Locate the points in the front view where the section plane cuts and project these points on the
true length.
5. Take all the points and draw the development of the pyramid.
70 Machine Drawing
Problem 33: A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and height 70 mm is resting on HP on its
base and base side is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined 45° to HP and perpendicular
to V.P. bisecting the axis. Draw the top view, sectional top view and development of the lateral surface
of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view with a base side parallel to XY and front view of the pyramid.
30
f e A
P6 P5
F
P1 O P4
a d
P2 P1 E
P3 P6
c P5
b
O O D
P4
35 P1 P1
P3
P2 P2
P6 C
70
T.
P3
L
P5
P4
B
°
L
45
C
a b f e c d A

2. The true length can be obtained in FV and as per the problem one of its slant edge is parallel to
XY.
3. Draw the section line inclined 45° to XY and bisect the pyramid.
4. Locate the points in the front view where the section plane cuts the slant edge.
5. Project these points on the true length.
Problem 34: A square pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on its base on HP
such that all the base side are equally inclined to VP. It is cut by a section plane inclined 45° to HP and
passes through the point of the axis 10 mm from the base. Draw the top view, sectional front view, true
shape and development of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the square with all side equally inclined to XY in top view and project the points in front
view .
2. The true length can be a slant edge which is parallel to XY.
3. Draw the section plane inclined 45° to XY and passes through a point on the axis 10 mm from
the base.
4. Mark the different points in the front view where the section plane cuts and project these points
on the true length of front view.
5. Take all the points and draw the development of the pyramid and draw the true shape by drawing
x1y1 new reference line parallel to the cutting plane.
True shape
3
2 Y1
o
n
4
T
m
3 60
2
45°
4
10 m 45° O
X n b d c Y
E
a
d
V
M
4 4
m 3
X1
o 2 D
a 3 c A N
p
B C
n
30 2
b

72 Machine Drawing
Problem 35: A pentagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on its base on
HP on one of its corner of its base in such a way that slant edge containing that corner makes an angle
of 60° with the HP and parallel V.P. It is cut by a section plane inclined 45° to VP and perpendicular
to HP and passing through the point of the axis 10 mm from the base. Draw the top view, sectional front
view, true shape and development of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the pentagon in top view and project the points in front view.
2. Tilt the front view as shown in Fig. 4.53 such that slant edge will be inclined 60° to XY. And the
corner will be on XY.
3. The true length can be a slant edge which is parallel to XY.
4. Draw the section plane inclined 45° to XY and passes through a point on the axis 10 mm from
the base.
Problem 36: A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 70 mm is resting on its base on
HP on one of its edge of its base in such a way that the edge is perpendicular to the VP. The axis of the
pyramid makes an angle of 30° with the HP. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to HP and VP
passing through the midpoint of the axis. Draw the top view, front view, true shape and development of
the surface of the cut pyramid containing apex.
Solution:
1. Draw the hexagon in top view such that one of its side is perpendicular to XY and project the
points in front view.
2. Tilt the front view in such a way that axis is inclined 30° to XY and the base will be on XY.
3. The true length can be obtained by making one of the slant edge parallel to XY.
4. Draw the section plane which is perpendicular to HP and VP, hence it will be a line in FV and
TV.
5. Draw the cutting plane in FV perpendicular to XY and passing through the midpoint. Obtain the
points as shown in the Fig. 4.54.
6. Project these points in TV.
o'
T
X1
b2 2 1 o 1 2
True length
a1
b11 6 6
3
70 3
d1
c1
5 4 5 4
True shape of section
a 30º Y 1 A
X Y
b c f e d d1 e1
f f 1 F
H 6
a O 5
e a e E
6 4
15 2 3
o 1
30 a D
p 24 O
b 3 C
b d d
A B
c c
Development
Problem 37: A hexagonal pyramid having base side 35 mm and axis 70 mm is resting on its base
parallel to triangular face in front view on HP. It is cut by a vertical section plane and passing through
the midpoint of the axis. Draw the sectional top view and development of the truncated pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the hexagon in top view below XY such that one of its base side is perpendicular to XY
and project the points in front view.
2. The true length can be obtained by making a slant edge parallel to XY.
74 Machine Drawing
Problem 38: A square pyramid of base side 50 mm and axis 70 mm is resting on its base on HP
such that two base side is parallel to HP. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to
HP in such a way that true shape of the section is a trapezium with one of the parallel sides 20 mm and
opposite side is as largest possible. Draw the projection, show the true shape of section and determine
inclination of cutting plane with HP. Also draw the development of lower retained portion.
Solution:
1. Draw the square in top view below XY such that two base side is parallel to XY and project the
points in front view.
2. Mark the line 1 – 2 in TV equal to 20 mm and 3 – 4 on the corner for largest possible length.
Project in front view and obtain 1′, 2′ with 3′ and 4′ which will be the section plane.
3. Join 1, 2, 3 and 4 in TV which will be the required sectional top view.
4. Join 1′ and 3′ in front view which will show the section plane inclination.
5. Draw new reference line x1y1 parallel to reference plane for obtaining the true shape.
20 2 True shape Trapezium

of parallel side 20 & 50 mm
o 1
T.L.
c
1 m
70 2 T.L.
50
o
d 1 1
n A
48° A
X Y
b: b/a c/d 34 2
a d
4
1
20 50 B 4
o D
2 3
3
C
b c
Inclination of section place with HP=48°
Problem 39: A hexagonal pyramid of base side 40 mm and axis 80 mm is resting on its triangular
face with its axis parallel to VP. A vertical section plane makes an angle of 30° with the reference line
passes through the centre of the base and cuts the pyramid, the apex being retained. Draw the top view,
sectional front view, true shape and the section and draw the development of the surface of the cut pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the hexagon in top view below XY such that two base side is perpendicular to XY and
project the points in front view.
2. Tilt the FV in such a way that triangular face is on XY line and project the TV.
3. Draw the cutting plane passing through centre of the base as shown in the Fig. 4.57.
4. Obtain the cutting points and project it in FV to obtain the sectional FV.
5. Draw new reference line x1y1 parallel to reference plane for obtaining the true shape.
76 Machine Drawing
o O
True length
of slant edge a1 b1
A 2
m 1
A
80 1 3 M 3
c1 2 B
f1 F
C
D N E
a c e e1 ,d1 2 o:
X Y
b f d n 3
f f
a e e a
o n m
40 o
n 3
b 1
d o b 2
c c 3
2
m 1
Problem 40: The inside of the hopper of a flour mill is to be lined with tin sheet and the top and
bottom of the hopper are regular pentagons with each side equal to 450 mm and 300 mm respectively
( internally). The height of the hopper is 450 mm. Draw the shape to which the tin sheet is to be cut so
as to fit in the hopper. Use Scale 1 : 10.
Solution:
1. Draw the pentagon of side 45 mm in top view below XY such that one of its side is parallel to
XY and find the apex point on the top view.
2. Join all the points with apex which shows the slant edge of the pyramid.
3. Draw another pentagon of side 30 mm and mark the points as shown in Fig. 4.58.
4. Project the points in front view.
5. The height of the hopper is given as 450 mm, hence mark the top base at a distance of 45 mm
from bottom base.
7. Draw the development of pyramid by taking the true length and mark the points on the
development.
8. Take all the points and draw the development of the required hopper.
e
30 e1
a a1 d1 d A
2 B
o
45
C
b1 c1
b c
a2 a b e c d A1
B1
D
45
C1
45
a1 d1 D1
b1e 1 c1
E
E1
O1 A1
A
O O a2 = OA = True Length
(a) Scale 1:10 (b)
Problem 41: A frustum of a square pyramid of base side 50 mm, top 25 mm and height 75 mm. It is
resting on its base such that two side is parallel to VP. Draw the development of its lateral surface. Also
draw the projection of a frustum showing the line joining the mid-point of top edge of one face with the
midpoint of bottom edge of the opposite face by the shortest distance.
Solution:
1. Draw the square in top view below XY such that two base side is parallel to XY and join the
corner to find the apex point.
2. Draw a second square in it with base side 25 mm as shown in Fig. 4.59 and project these points
in front view.
3. The height of the frustum is n 75 mm.
5. Draw the development of a square pyramid by taking the true length.
6. Mark the points of top base on the true length and project all these points in the development.
7. Mark the point 1 on the midpoint of top base side c1d1 and join with the point on opposite side
bottom edge ab as 4. Join the point 1 to 4 which shows the shortest distance.
8. Transfer the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the true length of front view and then on the slant edge which
will be required projection in FV.
78 Machine Drawing
9. Transfer these points on the top view and draw a line with all these points which will be the
required projection in TV.
d c
d1 1 c1
2
50 25 o bt
a1
b1 3
a 4 O
o b
A1
D1
A
C1 1
1 b1c1 B1
a1d1 2
21 A1
2
D
3
75 3 31
C
4
B
ad 4 bc bt A
Problem 42: An equilateral triangular pyramid of base side 50 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on its
base on HP with one side of base parallel to VP. It has a square slot of 20 mm side made through it in such
a way that the axis of slot is perpendicular to VP and intersects the axis of the pyramid at 20 mm from its
base. All rectangular faces of slot are equally inclined to HP. Develop the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the projection of the pyramid with square slot in it as shown in Fig. 4.60.
2. Draw the development of the pyramid by taking the true length.
3. The points 1 to 4 will show the corners of the square slot.
4. The points 1 and 3 lie on the slant edge while the points 2 and 4 are not on the slant edge.
5. Join the point 2 and 4 to the apex and extend the line to meet at the base and project these points
on top view.
6. Mark the points on the top view and project it on the development to obtain the points 2 and 4.
7. Transfer the distance on true length and mark it on the development to get the required points.
8. Join all these points in the development which will be the required development of the pyramid.
A
4 3
C
2
1 M
2
O
1
3
1 B
60
4
4
2 N
20
r 3
c m b n a A
p b1
r p a
c
m
n b1
o
50
Problem 43: A square pyramid of base side 60 mm and axis 85 mm is resting on its base on HP with
all sides are equally inclined to V.P. and axis perpendicular to HP and parallel to V.P. A square slot of
30 mm side is cut through the pyramid such that the axis of slot is perpendicular to V.P. and intersects
the axis of the pyramid at 25 mm from its base. All rectangular faces of slot are equally inclined to HP.
Develop the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Solution:
1. Draw the projection of the pyramid with square slot in it as shown in Fig. 4.61.
2. Draw the development of the pyramid by taking the true length and the slant edge o1 and o3 is
parallel to V.P., hence it will act as true length.
3. The same procedure should be followed as explained in the Problem 42.
80 Machine Drawing
1
Q
4
D
C
P
A B
3
O
B
A
N
a C
85
2
b D
d
25
c
M
3 p n 4 2 m m1 1
1
2
n a
b m
o d m
3
b d 1
p a q
4.4.4. Cone
Cone has its base circle and curved surface connecting to base circle to the vertex by the infinite
generators and the development of cone is a sector of a circle which is having the radius equals to the
length of the generator and length of arc is equal to the circumference of the base circle.
The angle of sector will be equals to
Diameter of base circle
q = 180 ×
Length of generator
where q = Angle of sector
D = Diameter of base circle
L = True length of generator
D r
Hence, q = 180 × or 360 ×
L L
Problem 44: Draw the development of a cone of base diameter 50 mm and height of the axis as
60 mm. It is cut by a section plane inclined 30° to HP and perpendicular to V.P. bisects the axis of cone.
Solution:
1. Draw the circle of 50 mm diameter below XY and divide it in 12 equal parts.
2. Mark the points on the circle and project the points in FV. Join all these points with vertex which
shows the generators of the cone.
3. The generator o1′ and o7′ shows the true length as it is parallel to XY.
4. Draw a arc of the circle taking radius equals to the true length of the generator and calculate the
angle of sector q.
5. q is calculated as q = 180 × D/L where L is calculated from the geometry of the front view of
cone.
6. Divide the angle of sector in 12 equal parts which shows the generator in the development.
7. Draw the section plane and mark the points on it where it touchs the generator and project the
same on true length.
8. Take the distance from the vertex and project it on the true length which shows the required
10
11 9
12 8
9 8
10 7
11o
1 1 6 7
2
3 5 6
2 4
=180 × 50
3 5 L P1 A
4 1
50 L B
A C
O B
1 12
C D
D
25
a 2 E 11
b E F
bc c
F
50
d 3 G
10
L
d e
e
fg 4 9
5 8
30° 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 11 10 9 8
(a) (b)
Problem 45: A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 80 mm resting on its base on HP. It is cut by a
section plane perpendicular to HP and VP and passing through 5 mm away from the axis of cone. Draw
the development of a cut cone. The cutting plane is parallel to the axis of the cone.
Solution:
82 Machine Drawing
4. Draw a arc of the circle taking radius equals to the true length of the generator and calculate the
angle of sector q.
5. Draw a cutting plane parallel to and 5 mm from the axis and mark the points on the cutting plane
where the generators are cutting.
6. Project the points of the section plane on the base to the top view to obtain the base points.
7. Transfer all these points on the true length generator and mark the same on the development.
8. The point on the base are transferred to development by taking the distance between two points.
9. Join all these points on the development which shows the required development of cone as shown
in Fig. 4.64.
15
O 1
a 12
g b A
G 11
P F
f c
80
E
10
A
B 9
5
e d C
8
1 7
7
2 6
12 8 6
3 d e 1
4 5 2 5
11
10 9 3 D 4
50
Problem 46: Draw the development of truncated cone as shown in Fig. 4.64.
20
80
25
50

Solution:
4. Draw an arc of the circle taking radius equals to the true length of the generator and calculate
the angle of sector q.
5. Draw a cutting plane as per the problem.
6. Project the points of the section plane on the base to the top view to obtain the base points.
7. Transfer all these points on the true length generator and mark the same on the development as
shown in Fig. 4.65.
O O
1
L1 L1
20
12
11
G F
H
K 10
A
B
a 9
hbk C
c 8
25
d 9 D 7
1 12 11 10 45° 9 8 7 6
1 2 3 f 5 6 7 1 5
2 3 E 4
2 6
12 e 8
3 5
f 4
11 10 9
50
Problem 47: Draw the development of truncated cone as shown in Fig. 4.67.
100
40
40
10
40
80

84 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. Self-explanatory sketch as shown in Fig. 4.68.
A L 2 K
J
I
1
H
F
O 2
E
C
1
B
g a A
f b
h e c l
d
i k
j
Problem 48: Draw the projection of a cone of base diameter 65 mm and axis 75 mm resting on its base
on HP and show on that the shortest path by which a point P starting from a point on the circumference
of the base and moving around the cone will return to same point.
Solution:
4. Draw an arc of the circle taking radius equals to the true length of the generator and calculate
the angle of sector q.
5. Join the line between the points 7 to 7 by straight line which will be the shortest path of a point.
6. Mark the points p1 to p12 on the cutting generators as shown in the Fig. 4.68.
7. Transfer the distance of all points from o to p1, p2…p12 to the true length o7.
8. Project these true lengths on the corresponding generators on TV and FV. Which shows the
shortest path of a point.
10
11 9
p9 8
12 p10
p11
p12 p8
1 7
p1 p7
p2 p6
p4
2 p3 6
p5
3 5
4 7
p7 6
5
4
p6
3
p5
p4 2
p3
p2
p1 1
o p12
p11
p10 12
p1 p9
p2 p3 11
75 p4
p5 p8
10
p6
9
p7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 11 10 9 8
65
Problem 49: Draw the development of part P of a cone as shown in Fig. 4.69.
20
20
P
90
80

86 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. Self-explanatory sketch as shown in Fig. 4.70.
20 L1 1
12
20
P 11
N
90
a b L1 O
B 10
9
P
1 4 7
1 2 12 3 1 1 5 9 6 8 7 8
A
10 7
2
6 6
12 8
3 5
4 9 1 5
11 4
10 2 3M
80
Problem 50: A cone of base diameter 100 mm and axis 100 mm resting on its base on HP. A
semicircular hole of 56 mm diameter is cut through it. The axis of hole is perpendicular to VP and
intersects the axis of cone 32 mm above the base. The flat face of hole contains the axis of cone and
perpendicular to VP. Develop the lateral surface of cone.
Solution:
1. Draw the circle of 100 mm diameter in top view and divide it in 12 equal parts.
2. Draw the front view of the cone and project the generators in front view.
4. Draw the development of cone.
5. Draw a semicircle in front view as shown in Fig. 4.71 as per the condition of the problem.
6. Mark the points a, b, on the generators and c, on the tangent line of the semicircle. The one end
of the lone is the vertex and other will be the point c which is extended to obtain the points m
and n on the base.
7. The points m and n is to be projected in development and joined with the vertex.
8. Transfer all the points a, b, c, d and e on the development through true length and draw a smooth
curve through the obtained points which will be the required development.
1 12 N
11
10
D
E 9
C
8
B
A 7
6
o
A 5
B
a E
C
100
b D 4
56 c
3
d
32
e 2M
8 9 10 11 12 1
7 6 5 4 3 mn 2 1
10
9
11
m 12
8 a b
c
7 1
d
e f 2
6 n
5 3
4
100
Problem 51: A right circular cone of base diameter 70 mm and axis 80 mm resting on its base on
HP and axis vertical. A circular hole of 30 mm diameter is drilled horizontally through the cone such
that axis of hole intersects the axis of the cone at 25 mm from the base and perpendicular to V.P. Develop
the lateral surface of cone with hole.
Solution:
2. Draw the front view of the cone and project the generators in front view.
3. Draw a circle in front view as shown in Fig. 4.72 as per the condition of the problem.
6. In addition to above 12 generators, from apex o′, draw two lines tangent to the hole circle
representing 4 generators, A, B, C and D. Hence, total generators will be 16.
7. The generators A, B, C and D are drawn to get the extreme points (Pa, Pb, Pc and Pd) of the hole.
8. Develop the cone as per the previous procedure.
88 Machine Drawing
70
10
11 9 1
c
b
12
12 8
B
O 11
1 7 pb p11
10
p11 p10
2 6
a d p10 9
3 p9 C
5 o p9 pc
4
o 8
p5 7
p4 pd
p4 p5
p3 p3 6
p5
80
p10
pa p11 p9 pd' pa D
pb pc p4 5
p11 p3
p3 p9
p10 p5 4
p4 3
2 A
1 2 ab 3 4 5 cd 6 7 1
12 11 10 9 8
Problem 52: Draw a semicircle of 75 mm radius, it shows the development of a cone. In the semicircle
draw a largest possible square. Draw projection of the cone showing square in it.
Solution:
1. Draw a semicircle of 75 mm radius which shows the development of cone.
2. The true length of the generator will be the radius of the semicircle i.e. 75 mm.
3. The angle of sector q will be 180°.
4. The diameter of the circle can be calculated as
q = 180 × (D/L)
L = 75 mm and q = 180°
Hence D = 75 mm.
5. Draw the circle of 75 mm diameter in top view and divide it in 12 equal parts which shows the
generator of the cone.
6. Draw the front view of the cone taking 75 mm true length of the generator which will be an
equilateral triangle of 75 mm side and project the generators in front view.
7. Now in the development join o′ and 7′ as a largest possible diagonal of a square and at the centre
of square draw another diagonal of same length then join all the corners which shows the largest
possible square in the development as shown in Fig. 4.74.
8. Transfer the square in front and top view as per the procedure adopted in the previous problems.
12 11 10
1 9
G 8
F
E
7
D
75
C 6
O B
5
A
75 ga
b 3
c
e f 2
d
7 8 6 9 5 10 4 11 3 122 1
X Y
4
5 3
b a
2
6 c
7 d 75 o 1
8 e
f 12
g
9 11
10
75

Problem 53: Figure 4.74 shows the elevation and plan of a half cone (cut by a vertical plane parallel
to V.P. and perpendicular to HP passes through the apex) having its triangular face parallel to V.P. The
base of the cone is 60 mm diameter and axis 70 mm long. An equilateral triangular slot of 35 mm side is
cut through it as shown in the figure. Draw the development of lateral surface of half cone.
70
35
60

90 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. Draw the given front and top view.
2. The development of cone will be in two parts , one will be the isosceles triangle of base side
equal to the diameter of cone and the other will be an arc of sector by an angle q/2.
3. The true length of the generator will be the generator parallel to V.P. in TV. i.e. o′, 1′.
4. Draw more generators e′, d′ and g′, b′ to get more accurate curve.
5. Develop the half cone as per the procedure adopted in the previous problems.
6. Another development will be an isosceles triangle as shown in the Fig. 4.76.
1
2
M
3
4
B A 5
D C
6
G 7
N
F
/2 E 8
o
Q
70
R
e 35 d
f' c' (a)
g b P
q a p
9 8 n 7 6 5 4 3 m2 1
60
q ro p
9 1
8 2
n m
7 3 (b)
6 5 4
Problem 54: Draw the development of lateral surface of a cone as shown in the Fig. 4.76.
30
30°
80
45°
60

Solution:
1. Draw the given front and top view.
2. The development of cone as per the procedure adopted.
3. Name the points on the section and generators and project these points on true length.
4. Mark all these points on the development and draw a smooth curve which will be the required
development of lateral surface of cone as shown in Fig. 4.78.
10 1
11 9 12
12 8 11
7 11 10
1
60
9
2 6
3 5 8
4
o o
7
30
30°
5
80
3
4
3
45°
2 3 4 5 6 2
1 12 11 10 9 87 1
Problem 55: A right circular cone of base diameter 90 mm and axis 100 mm long resting on its
base on HP and axis vertical has a semi-circular hole of 30 mm radius cut through it. The axis of hole
is horizontal and intersects the axis of the cone and is 33 mm above the base. The flat face of the hole
contains the axis of the cone and is perpendicular to VP. Develop the lateral surface of cone with hole
also project the hole in the top view.
Solution:
2. Draw the front view of the cone with 100 mm height and project the generators in front view.
3. Draw a circle in front view as shown in Fig. 4.79 as per the condition of the problem.
6. Mark the points on the generator which cuts the circle and transfer it on the true length.
7. Transfer the distance of the points of true length on the development as per the procedure adopted.
8. Draw a smooth curve passing through all these points which will be the required development
of cone.
92 Machine Drawing
Problem 56: Draw a development of a lateral surface of as shown in Fig. 4.79.

Solution:
1. Problem is self-explanatory.
10
11 9
1
12 12
8
11
90
10
1 7
O
9
2
6 8
3 5
4
7
o O
6
5
100
4
35
3
30
2 3 4 5 6 2
1 12 11 10 9 87 1
Problem 57: A right circular cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 65 mm long resting on its base
on HP and axis vertical cut by an Auxiliary Vertical plane inclined 45° and 10 mm away from the axis.
Draw sectional front view, true shape of the section and development of remaining portion of cone.
Solution:
3. As a cone is cut by AVP inclined at 45° and 10 mm away from the axis hence mark a circle in
top view with a centre o and radius 10 mm and mark the tangent to the circle inclined at 45° to
XY.
4. Mark the points 4, 5, 6, 7, m and n in top view and project these points in front view.
5. Draw new reference line x1y1 parallel to cutting plane to obtain the true shape as shown in
Fig. 4.81.
6. Draw the development as per the procedure adopted in the previous problems.
94 Machine Drawing
O
O
1
5 7 5 6 7 12
65 4 4
11
10
1 9
2
3 M N8
4 5 6 7
X Y
1 212 311 4 10 5 9 6 8 7 45°
10
11 9
12 8
X
50
1 10 7
7 m
6
2 5 6
4
3 5
4
Y n
True shape of section
Problem 58: A point P starting from the base circle of a cone and reaches to vertex while moving
around the axis through two complete turns. Assuming the movement of P towards the apex (measuring
parallel to the axis) to be uniform with its movement around the axis, draw the projections and development
of the surface of the cone showing the path of P in each. Diameter of the base circle of the cone is
75 mm and axis 100 mm long.
Solution:
1. Draw the circle of 75 mm diameter in top view and divide it in 12 equal parts and mark the
division as 1, 2, 3, …, 24.
3. Divide the axis length in front view in 24 equal parts and mark the points as 1′, 2′, 3′, … ,24′ as
shown in Fig. 4.82.
4. Mark the horizontal lines from 1′, 2′, 3′, …, 24′ such that they are cutting respectively generators
and obtain the points p1′, p2′, p3′, … , p24′.
5. Project these points on top view on the respective generators to obtain p1, p2, p3, …., p24.
6. Draw smooth curve from all these points in top view and front view as required. The dotted lines
in front view shows the back side movements of the point P.
24
22
20 p19
18
16
14
100
p13
12
10
8 p7
6 p5
p3
p2 4
2
X Y
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 12 11 10 22 9 8
23 10 21
11 9
24 12 P10
P8 8 20
P1
75
13 1 7 19
P18
2 6
14 P3 P5 18
3 5
15 4 17
16
Problem 59: A hollow right circular cone made of paper is opened out of the development is a
semicircle of 50 mm radius. A full circle of largest possible size is drawn in ink inside the semicircle
and paper is folded back to its shape of cone. Draw the top view and front view of the cone keeping it in
simple position and show the ink lines in the top and front views.
Solution:
1. Draw the semicircle of 50 mm radius and inscribe a circle in it as shown in the figure 4.83.
2. The semicircle shows the development of a cone.
3. We have to calculate the diameter of cone as follows q = 180 × ( D/L)
4. Where q – 180°, L – 50 mm, hence Diameter (D ) – 50 mm.
5. Draw the top view circle of 50 mm diameter below XY and divide in 12 equal parts.
6. The front view of the cone will be an equilateral triangle of side 50 mm.
7. Project the generators of top view in front view.
96 Machine Drawing
8. Mark the points 1, 2, 3, … 12. On the development where the generators cut the circle and project
these points in top and front view as per the procedure adopted in previous problems.
9. Draw smooth curve from all these points in top view and front view as required.
O
100
2
O 12 50
1 2 12 1 3
11
3 11
2 12 4
10 5
4 10 6
3 9 8
11 X
9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7'
4 5 10 12 11 10 9 8
6 8 11 10
5 7 9 9
6 7 8
12
8
r
= 360 × 1 1 7
r
180° = 360 × 1
2 6
r = 25 mm
3 5
4
50
4.4.5. Miscellaneous
Problem 60: Draw the development of a cube of base side 40 mm resting on its base on HP with axis
perpendicular to HP and parallel to V.P. A section plane cuts the cube from the midpoint of top base side
to the midpoint of face side, inclined 45° to V.P. As shown in Fig. 4.85. Draw the development of cube.

Solution:
1. Draw a square of 40 mm side with two sides parallel to XY in top view and name the points.
2. Draw front view of cube and mark the points on the corners.
3. Draw a section plane passing through the mid point of one side with an angle of 45° to XY and
mark the points at which edges are cut.
4. Draw the development of a square with four square having vertical faces aa1, bb1, cc1, and dd1.
5. Draw one square for top base and another for bottom base as shown in Fig. 4.85.
6. Draw the horizontal line through 1′, to 4′ to cut the face side aa1, bb1, cc1, and dd1.
7. Mark the points 2 and 3 on the base side of cube.
8. Join all these points which gives the required development of cube.
Problem 61: A tetrahedron of 60 mm long edges rests with one of its faces on HP and an edge is
perpendicular to V.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P. cuts the tetrahedron such that true shape of
section is an isosceles triangle of base 50 mm and altitude 36 mm. Draw the front and top view and true
shape of section. Find the inclination of section plane with HP and draw the development.
98 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. Draw the front and top view of tetrahedron.
2. Mark the line m, n in top view of 50 mm (base of isosceles triangle) and project the m, n in front
view.
3. Take a distance of 36 mm (altitude of isosceles triangle) in compass and from m′, n′ mark 1′ on
oc. Project 1′ in top view and obtain 1 on 1 – c.
4. Join m′, n′ – 1 which is the cutting plane. Complete the sectional top view by joining mn 1.
5. Project the true shape by drawing x1y1 parallel to the section plane.
6. Draw the development as shown in the Fig. 4.87.
36 1
Y1
o
60
n
50 1
m
50°
a
X Y
b m p c
n
X1
a
A O A m
M
1
o 1 c
60 50 p
N
B C
n
b
Problem 62: A tetrahedron of side 40 mm is placed on HP with one side of base in V.P. It is cut by a
perpendicular section plane such that the true shape of the section is a trapezium with opposite parallel
sides 10 mm and 30 mm in length. Determine the position of section plane and draw sectional front and
top view. Also draw the development of cut tetrahedron.
Solution:
1. Draw the front and top view of tetrahedron.
2. Mark the line r, s = 10 mm and p, q = 30 mm in top view.
3. Project these points in front view. Join p′ q′ – r′ s′ which is the cutting plane.
4. Draw the true shape by drawing a new reference line x1y1 parallel to cutting plane.
q
True shape
trapezium of
parallel sides 30 mm
r
10 mm & 30 mm
10
p X1 p s
o
A D
b
q R Y1
s
B C
p/q
p/q
ab 18° s/r c
X Y
a
q
r
40 30 10 o c
s
p
b
Problem 63: A cube of 50 mm long sides is resting on HP on one of its faces with vertical faces
equally inclined to V.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined to HP cuts the solid in such a
way that the true shape of the section is an equilateral triangle of side 50 mm. Determine the inclination
of section plane with HP and draw the sectional top view and true shape of section. Draw the development
of cut solid.
Solution:
1. Draw the front and top view of cube.
2. Draw an equilateral triangle of 50 mm side as shown in Fig. 4.88 and measure its altitude equals
to 42 mm.
3. Mark the points m and n in top view equal to 50 mm and project it on the front view.
4. Take a distance of 42 mm in compass and with m′ and n′ as centre mark 3′ on c′ 3′.
5. Project 3′ in top view and complete the sectional top view.
6. Draw the true shape and also draw the development.
100 Machine Drawing
Problem 64: A solid composed of a half cone and half hexagonal pyramid resting on its base on HP
with one side of hexagonal base parallel to V.P. An inextensible thread is wound round the solid from the
corner point of the base on the periphery and brought back to the same point by shortest path. Show the
projection of thread in top and front view. Take base diameter of cone as 50 mm and side of hexagon as
25 mm with axis 75 mm long.
Solution:
1. Draw the base of solid in top view as half hexagon and half circle so that one side of hexagon is
parallel to XY. Project the points of the solid on front view.
3. Join the straight line a – a which will be the shortest path of the thread and mark the points on
the thread.
4. Transfer the points of development on front and top view.
Exercises
Problem 65: Draw the development of part C of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.91.
Problem 66: A cylinder of 50 mm diameter is cut by three planes as shown in Fig. 4.92. Draw the
development of the cylinder.
102 Machine Drawing
30°
30°
20
50
60
20
45° 45°
C
C
80
70
0
R2 R2
0
Fig. 4.93. Problem 67 Fig. 4.94. Problem 68
Problem 69: A pentagonal hole of 25 mm side is cut through a cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.95. Draw
the development of remaining part of the cylinder.
60
80
25

Problem 70: A half hexagonal hole is cut through a cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.96. Draw the
development of remaining part of the cylinder.
60
30
40
30
30
40
Problem 71: Figure 4.97 show square prism cut by number of planes. Draw the development of
remaining part P of the prism.
30
30
30°
60
10
20
Problem 72: Figure 4.98 show square prism cut by number of planes. Draw the development of
remaining part P of the prism.
104 Machine Drawing
Problem 73: Draw the development of part P of pentagonal prism shown in Fig. 4.99.
30
45°
80
Problem 74: Draw the development of part P of pentagonal prism shown in Fig. 4.100.
Problem 75: Draw the development of part A of hexagonal prism shown in Fig. 4.101.
30
30
A
40
20
80
90° 90°
A
40
45° 45°
Problem 76: Draw the development of part A of hexagonal prism shown in Fig. 4.102.
Problem 77: Draw the development of part A, B and C of the composite object as shown in Fig. 4.103.
20
20
A
25
B
50
C
60
40

Chapter
Intersection of Solids
5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
When two solids of same or different dimensions and cross section come in contact to each other and
their surfaces are in contact with each other known as the intersection of surfaces. The line of intersection
will be the line form by the intersection of surfaces. Depending upon the nature of intersecting surfaces
the line may be straight or curved.
When two solids penetrate each other, there will be two lines formed one will be visible lines as to
be viewed from front view and another will be a dotted line viewed from the rear view.
5.2 METHODS OF DETERMINING LINES OF INTERSECTION

Generally, two methods are used for the determination of lines of intersection:
1. Line Method
2. Cutting Plane method
12
2
q1
q2 3
q1
2 q2
q3
11
2
10
3
9
4
8 5
7 6
Fig. 5.1. Intersection of two cylinders
106
Intersection of Solids 107
Lines are drawn on the lateral surface of one of the solid and these lines are drawn with the surface of
one of the solid. The lines are drawn in the correct sequence through the points of contact. This method
of intersection is known as line method.
In cutting plane method, two solids assumed to be cut by number of planes in the region of intersection.
Selected cutting plane cuts the surface of solids in straight line and circles depending upon the type of
solid. Usually, the cutting plane is taken perpendicular to the vertical plane.
5.3 INTERSECTION OF TWO PRISMS

The intersection of two prism problems can be solved by locating the points on the face edges and joining
these points in the form of line to get the closed figure.
Problem 1: A vertical square prism of base side 50 mm and axis 60 mm long with faces equally
inclined to VP and axis perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP is completely penetrated by another
square prism of base side 30 mm side with the axis parallel to HP and VP and bisect the axis of horizontal
prism at right angle. The faces of the horizontal prism are equally inclined to VP. Draw the projection
of solid showing the lines of intersection. The length of horizontal prism is 80 mm.
Solution:
1. Draw a square of 50 mm side with two sides equally inclined to VP below XY which shows the
top view of a vertical square prism.
s
m
m
50
d
d
4 4
p 1, 3 1, 3 r a, c
a, c
b 2 2 b
q
X Y
p q s r q P r
s
1 a
a
1 1 1
60 mm
2, 4 b 2
2, 4 b
b, d 4 d
d
m
m
30
3 3 c 3
c c
p q s r q p r s
Fig. 5.2. Solution to Problem 1.

108 Machine Drawing
2. Name the corners as p, q, r, s for top base and p1, q1, r1 and s1 for bottom base.
3. Project the top view in the front so that bottom base will be on XY and axis equals to 60 mm and
name the corners.
4. Draw the side view just side of front view and mark the points as shown in Fig. 5.2.
5. Draw a horizontal square prism, starting from the side view as a square of two side equally inclined
to HP and centre of square will bisect the axis of vertical prism. (you can draw a square of equally
inclined side outside the problem and can be projected on side view.)
6. Name the square as a, b, c, d for left hand base and a1, b1, c1 and d1 for right hand base.
7. Project the horizontal square on the top view of vertical prism and measure the axis length. The
dotted lines show the hidden edges of horizontal prism.
8. Mark the intersection points of horizontal and vertical points and project these points on front
view.
9. Draw the projection of horizontal square prism from side view to front view.
10. Draw the projection of top view points to front view.
11. Mark the intersection of top view points and side view points in front view which locate the points
in front view.
12. Join the lines in front view as per the sequence of points from side view of horizontal square prism
which will be the required line of intersection.
Problem 2: A vertical square prism of base side 50 mm has its faces equally inclined to VP. It is
completely penetrated by another square prism of base side 30 mm side with the axis parallel to HP and
VP and 6 mm away from the axis of vertical prism. The faces of the horizontal prism are also equally
inclined to VP. Draw the projection of solid showing the lines of intersection. Assume suitable length of axis.
Solution:
1. Let’s assume the length of axis of both the prism as 100 mm.
2. Starting with top view, draw three views of vertical prism and mark it p-p, q-q, r-r and s-s.
3. Starting with side view, draw three views of horizontal prism such that its axis is 6 mm away from
the axis of vertical prism as shown in Fig 5.3. Let the face edge corners be a-a, b-b, c-c and d-d.
4. From the side view, it can be seen that all four edges of the horizontal prism are intersecting the
vertical prism and the edges p-p and r-r of vertical prism intersects the faces of horizontal prism
at two points. Hence, six points are located as shown in the Fig 5.3.
5. Locate all six points in TV with two sets of points.
6. Transfer all the points in front view by projection and join in sequence by straight line to get line
of intersection.
7. The visible lines of intersection are made dark while the hidden lines are made dotted. To decide
the dark and dotted line, the position of observer in top and side view which is nearer to the
observer will be dark and rest will be dotted lines.
b b
3 3
p
2.4 2.4 r
a c 1.5 1.5 a c
d 6 6
d
q
X Y
Observer
p 6 r q p s q
s r
a a 1 1
a
1 2
2 2
d
b 3 d
b 3 6
d 6 6 3 b
4 4 4
5 c+
c c 5 5
s p r q p s q r
6 mm
8. The portion of horizontal prism inside the vertical prism can be obtained from the top view. i.e.,
edge 3-3, 1-1, 5-5 and 6-6 will not be visible.
9. The portion 2-4 of long edge p-p and r-r of vertical prism do not exist, hence drawn faint.
Problem 3: A vertical square prism of base side 50 mm and height 100 mm has a face inclined at
30° VP. It is completely penetrated by another square prism of base side 35 mm side and axis 100 mm
long, faces of which are equally inclined to the VP. The axis of two prisms are parallel to VP and bisect
each other at right angle. Draw the projection showing the line of intersection.
Solution:
1. Starting with top view, draw three views of vertical prism such that one face qr is inclined at 30°
to VP and mark it p-p, q-q, r-r and s-s.
2. Starting with side view, draw three views of horizontal prism such that its axis is bisecting each
other. Let the face edge corners be a-a, b-b, c-c and d-d.
110 Machine Drawing
3. From the side view, it can be seen that all four edges of the horizontal prism are intersecting the
vertical prism and the edges p-p and r-r of vertical prism intersects the faces of horizontal prism
at two points. Mark all these eight points 1, 2, 3, ......... 8 in side view as shown in Fig. 5.4.
4. Locate all six points in TV and care should be taken as the point 2 and 4 are on edge p-p only and
points 6 and 8 are on r-r only. We get two sets of six points in top view 1-2-3-4-5-7 on left hand
side and 1-3-5-6-7-8 on right hand side.
5. Transfer all the points in front view by projection and again care should be taken that points 2′ and
4′ will come on edge p′-p′ and 6′ and 8′ will be come on edge r′-r′. Join all the points in sequence
by straight line to get line of intersection in left hand side will be 1′-2′-3′-4′-5′-7′-1′ and that on
right hand side will be 1′-3′-5′-6′-7′-8′-1′.
6. Since the faces of vertical prism are not equally inclined to VP, the dotted and dark lines of
intersection on left hand side and right hand side will be different. Lines 1′-7′ and 7′-5′ on left
hand side and 6′-7′ and 7′-8′ of right hand side are dark.
Problem 4: A vertical square prism of base side 50 mm and height 100 mm has a face equally
inclined to VP. It is completely penetrated by another square prism of base side 35 mm side and axis 100
mm long, faces of which are equally inclined to the VP. The axis of two prisms are parallel to VP and 20
mm apart. Draw the projection showing the line of intersection.
Solution: Adopt the same method as explained in Problem 3.

100
d
50
4 p4 q4 4
a c
1 3 p1 q1 1
3
p3 q3
b
2 2
X Y
a b a d b
d c
1 1 p1 q1
35
1
g
e g e j
100
j 2 p4 p4 4
4 2 2
k
h k f 4 h f
20 3 3 p3 q3 3
d
a b
Problem 5: A square pipe of 40 mm side has a similar branch of 30 mm side. The axis of main pipe
is vertical and that of branch pipe is parallel to VP and inclined at 45° to HP. The axis branch pipe is
5 mm apart from the axis of vertical main pipe. Draw the projection showing the lines of intersection if
all the faces of both the pipes are equally inclined to VP.
Solution:
1. Starting with top view and front view of vertical prism. Project the auxiliary top view of the
vertical prism on new reference line x1y1 inclined 45° to xy as shown in the Fig 5.6.
2. In the auxiliary view, draw a square of 30 mm side with all the sides equally inclined to x1y1 such
that its centre is 5 mm away from the axis of vertical prism.
3. The square shows auxiliary view of the branch pipe.
4. Draw front and top view of the branch pipe.
5. In auxiliary view, locate the points of intersection as – 1″-2″-3″-4″-5″-6″ also locate these points
in top view.
6. Transfer all these points in front view and join in sequence to get line of intersection. From top
view or auxiliary view, it can be noted that in front view. Only lines 1′-2′ and 2′-3′ will be visible.
112 Machine Drawing
40
5
p o
r
6 4
5
a c 1
3
2
c b q
5 r 4
3 X Y
45° 1
Y
6 0
30 p p, s
1 2 b r
5 a c
p
q
b 3
d 4
X1
a
5
45°
6
2
1
p s q
Problem 6: Figure 5.7 shows the end view of a square prism of 50 mm side of base and 70 mm height
resting on its base on HP with its rectangular faces equally inclined to VP.
35
70
20
60
5
Fig. 5.7. Problem 6

Solution:
1. Starting with top view, front view and side view of vertical prism. Mark the corners as a, b, c,
and d.
2. Draw side view, front view and top view of a horizontal square prism and name the points as 1,
2, and 3.
3. Take the extra point on the square in side view as m, n where the edges of the square prism cuts
the triangular prism.
4. Locate the points p1, p2, p3, m and n in the front view.
5. Draw the visible line mp3 and np3 dark and draw the dotted line mp2, p2 p3 and p1, p2.
6. Other side of the lines are obtained in the same procedure as discussed in the previous problems.
Problem 7: Figure 5.9 shows the side view of a square prism of 50 mm side of base and 70 mm height
resting on its base on HP with its rectangular faces equally inclined to VP is completely penetrated by
a triangular prism of 40 mm side. Draw front and top view showing the lines of penetration.
114 Machine Drawing
p
70
q
30
40
Fig. 5.9. Problem 7
Solution:
1. Draw top view first and then front view and side view of vertical prism with all the faces equally
inclined to VP. Mark the corners as a, b, c, and d.
d
50
q
q 3 3 2
a 2 c
4 2
1 0 10 p
p 4
r 5 5
r
b
Y
X 40
a c d b
d b a c
p 1 1
1 p p
2 2
70
2
80
q r
3 4 5 q 4 3 5 5 3 4 q
7
d a c b a b d c
(a) (b)
2. Draw side view, front view and top view of a horizontal triangular prism such that the axis of two
prisms are 7 mm apart and name the points as 1, 2 and 3.
3. All the edges of the triangular prism are intersecting the vertical square prism and also the two
edges of vertical prism a-a and c-c intersects the triangular prism at the points 2 and 4.
4. Locate all these points in top view by observation. There will be the two sets of points.
5. Transfer all the points in front view and join in sequence as 1′-2′-3′-4′-5′ to get the line of
intersection. Note that only line 1′-5′ and 4′-5′ will be visible and remaining all the lines will be
dotted.
Problem 8: A square prism of base side 50 mm and axis 80 mm long resting on its base on HP with
faces equally inclined to VP is completely penetrated by a horizontal triangular prism of base side 30
mm such that their axes are intersecting. One of the faces of the triangular prism is inclined 40° HP.
Draw the projection showing the lines of intersection.
Solution:
inclined to VP. Mark the corners as a, b, c, and d.
2. Draw side view of a triangular prism with one edge inclined 40° HP and project the front view
and top view of a horizontal triangular prism.
3. All the edges of the triangular prism are intersecting the vertical square prism and also the two
edges of vertical prism a-a and c-c intersects the triangular prism at the points m and n.
X1
a b d c d a c b
1 p1 q1 1 1
m
3 m p3 q3 m 3
n n 3
70 2 n
p2 p2 2 30
2
40°
X Y
a b d c d a b
c
d
p1 q1 1
1
q2 2
2 p2
a
c
p3 q3
3
3
50
b
Y1
4. Locate all these points in top view by observation. There will be the two sets of points.
5. Mark the points p1, p2, ......... and q1, q2, ......... in top view and project these points in front view
and draw the line of intersection.
116 Machine Drawing
Problem 9: A square prism of base side 45 mm stands vertically with all the faces equally inclined to
VP. It is completely penetrated by a horizontal triangular prism of base side 35 mm such that their axes
are bisecting each other at right angles. Draw the projection showing the lines of intersection when the
rectangular face of the triangular prism is parallel to VP and away from the observer.
Solution:
inclined to VP. Mark the corners as p, q, r, and s.
2. Draw side view of a triangular prism as shown in the Fig. 5.12 and project the front view and top
view of a horizontal triangular prism.
3. Locate the points of intersection in side view and top view by observation then project all the
points in front view and join in sequence. It should be noted that only lines 2′-3′ and 3′-4″ will
be visible and remaining all the lines will be dotted.
s
45
a,c 1.5 1.5 a,c
2,4 2,4 r
g p g
0
3 3
d b
p s q r q p r s
1 1 a 1a
a
1
2 2 2
3 3 b b
b 3 35
g
4
4
4 5
c C
5 5 c h h/3
5.4 INTERSECTION OF TWO CYLINDERS

The intersection of two cylinder’s problems can be solved by locating the points on the generators on
the lateral surface and obtaining the curve of intersection by joining these points. To obtain the accurate
curve of intersection, more points is to be added at which the curve changes its direction. The extra points
are that points at which the outmost or extreme generators of each cylinder intersects the other cylinder.
1
2
3 1
10
4
4
7
Fig. 5.13. 3-dimensional view of intersection of two cylinders
Problem 10: A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter is completely penetrated by another horizontal

cylinder of 45 mm diameter with its axis parallel to VP and their axes are bisecting each other at right
angle. Draw the projection showing the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw a circle of diameter 60 mm in top view and assume the height of cylinder as 100 mm and
draw its front and side view.
2. Divide the circle in 12 equal parts which shows the generators of the cylinder and project these
generators in front and side view.
3. Draw a circle of 45 mm diameter in the side view of vertical cylinder and so that the axis of both
the cylinder are bisecting each other at right angle.
4. Divide the horizontal cylinder in 12 equal parts and project these generators in front and side
view. As the length of axis is not mention in the problem, hence it can be assumed as 100 mm.
5. Locate the points of intersection in top view by observation. The points where the lines drawn on
horizontal cylinder, penetrate the circle for vertical cylinder are the required points of intersection.
There will be two sets of the points.
6. Transfer all these points in the front view on respective generator and join by a smooth curve.
There will be two curves of intersection as shown in the Fig. 5.14.
118 Machine Drawing
100
10
10
11 9
12 8
o 45
o 1 7 O1 1,7
6
2 5
3
4 4
O1
1 2 O1 1
1
12 212
3
11 311
410 4
o 100
10 4 o 10
o
59
9 5
69
8 6
7 7 7
O1 O1
60
Problem 11: A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter is completely penetrated by another horizontal

cylinder of 60 mm diameter with its axis parallel to VP and their axes are bisecting each other at right
angle. Draw the projection showing the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw a circle of diameter 60 mm in top view and assume the height of cylinder as 100 mm and
draw its front and side view.
2. Divide the circle in 12 equal parts which shows the generators of the cylinder and project these
generators in front and side view.
3. Draw a circle of 60 mm diameter in the side view of vertical cylinder and so that the axis of both
the cylinder are bisecting each other at right angle.
4. Divide the horizontal cylinder in 12 equal parts and project these generators in front and side
view. As the length of axis is not mention in the problem, hence it can be assumed as 100 mm.
6. Transfer all these points in the front view on respective generator and join by a smooth curve
which will be a straight line as shown in the Fig. 5.15.
100
10
11 9
9 10 11
12 8
8 12
o 1 7 o1 1,7
o
6 2
2 6
5 3
3 4 5
o1 o 1
1 2 1
1 12
12 2 12 3 11 2
4
11 3 11 3
60
100 10 4 10 o
o o
9 5 9 5
8 5 9 6
8 6
7 6 8
7 7
o1 o 1
60 60
Problem 12: A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter and 80 mm long is completely penetrated

by another horizontal cylinder of 40 mm diameter and 80 mm long. The axis of horizontal cylinder is
parallel to both the reference planes and is 5 mm away from the axis of vertical cylinder. Draw the curve
of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw three views of a vertical cylinders as per the dimensions’ mention in the problem.
2. Draw a circle of 40 mm diameter in the side view of vertical cylinder and so that the axis of
horizontal cylinder will be 5 mm away from the axis of the vertical cylinder.
3. Divide the horizontal cylinder in 12 equal parts and in addition to this, two more points are to be
mark as m and n at which axis of vertical cylinder cuts the horizontal cylinder. Project all these
14 points in top and front view.
5. Transfer all these points in the front view on respective generator and join by a smooth curve.
The curve 1′-2′, ......... 7′ will be dark and 7′-n′, ......... 10′, ......... m′-1′ will be dotted.
120 Machine Drawing
Problem 13: A vertical cylinder of 75 mm diameter and 125 mm height stands vertically on its base
such that axis is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. It is completely penetrated centrally by another
cylinder of 50 mm diameter and 125 mm long of which axis is parallel to HP and inclined 30° to VP.
Draw the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of a vertical cylinders as per the dimensions’ mention in the
problem with base on HP.
2. Draw the front and top view of the cylinder which penetrating the vertical cylinder with axis
inclined at 30° to the VP as shown in the Fig. 5.17 and axis parallel to the HP.
3. Divide the horizontal cylinder in 12 equal parts and project all these points in top and front view.
4. Locate the points of intersection in top view by observation. There will be two sets of the points.
5. Project the points p1, p2, p3, ......... etc. and q1, q2, q3, ......... etc.
6. Join the points by smooth curve to obtain the curve of intersection.
4 p5 p3 4
3,5 p2 3,5
2,6 p6
2,6
1,7 p7 p1 1,7
8,12 p8 p12 8,12
9,11 p9 9,11
p11 10
10
X Y
1 2 3
4
12
1 5
11
2,12
p1 3,11,10 10 6
p2 4
p12 p3 9 7
p11 5,0 8
6,8
q1 p10 p4
q2 30° p5 7
1 q11 q3 p9
q10 p8 p7 p6
2,12 q4 q5
3,11 q9 q
q8 6
4,10 9 q7
5,
6,8 7
Problem 14: A hole of 50 mm diameter is drilled through a vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter and
80 mm height stands vertically on its base such that axis is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. The
axis of hole is parallel to both the reference plane and 10 mm away from the axis of vertical cylinder.
Draw the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the vertical cylinder as per the dimensions’ mention in the problem with
base on HP.
2. Draw a circle of 50 mm diameter on the side view of the vertical cylinder with its axis 10 mm
away from the axis of the vertical cylinder.
3. Divide the horizontal circular hole in 12 equal parts. The three divisions of the hole are going
outside the vertical cylinder; hence it should not be considered.
4. In addition to above 9 divisions take 4 more points at which the extreme generators of vertical
cylinder intersect the hole i.e. points 1 and 13, 4 and 10.
5. Locate the points of intersection in top view by observation. There will be two sets of the points.
6. Join the points in sequence by smooth curve to obtain the curve of intersection.
7. It should be noted that the left and right curves will be meeting at points 1′ and 13′.
8. Since the hole is drilled through the vertical cylinder, the complete curve will be dark lines as
shown in the Fig. 5.18.
122 Machine Drawing
7 7
6
6
8 8
5 9 9
5
4 10 10 4
10
11 11
3 3
0
12 12
2 2
13
1
X Y
o o1
10 11 11 11

9 12 10 10
12 12
13 9 9
8 8
10 8 13
o 0 7 7 0
7
6 1 6
1
6
5 5
5 2 2 2 4
4 3 4 3 3
01 01
Problem 15: Incomplete the front view of a thin cylindrical vertical pipe A with a cylindrical branch
pipe B as shown in the Fig. 5.19. The axes of A and B intersect. Complete the front view by adding curve
of intersection.
50
A
50
105
60°

50
40

Solution:
1. Redraw the given front view.
2. Draw a line CL parallel to the base of pipe B and project the centre line of the pipe on C-L to meet
at o″. with centre o″, draw a circle of 50 mm diameter and divide it in 12 equal parts.
3. Project all divisions on the pipe B to meet at its base 1′, 2′, …., 12′. As shown in the Fig. 5.20.
4. Draw the top view of a vertical cylinder A which will be a circle, through the centre of this circle
draw c1 | 1 parallel to XY reference line.
5. Project all the points 1″, 2′, ........., 12′ in top view and locate these points such that distances of
all the points in top view from c1|1 will be equal to their respective distance from c1 in auxiliary
view. Draw a smooth curve through the obtained points.
6. Draw horizontal lines parallel to x-y through points 1, 2, 3, …, 12 in top view to meet the vertical
cylinder at points p1, p2, p3, ........., p12 respectively.
p4 4
3 5
2 6
p1
1 7 L1
c1 p7
12 8
9
p10 10
X Y
C 2
1 3
50
12
4
O 5
1
11
p1 2
10 6
3
10 8 7
A 4 9
L
B 5
6
105
60° 7
p4
p10
50
p7
50

124 Machine Drawing
7. These are the points of intersection.

8. Transfer the points of intersection in front view on respective generators of pipe B to get points
p1, p2, ........., p12.
9. Join all the points in sequence to get the curve of intersections shown in Fig. 5.20. The curve of
intersection will be two straight line p1 to p4 and p4 to p7 meeting point is p4.
5.5 INTERSECTION OF PRISM AND CYLINDER

Problem 16: A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter and 100 mm long is completely penetrated by
a horizontal triangular prism of base sides 40 mm and axis 100 mm long having one of its rectangular
faces parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP. The axis of prism is parallel to both the reference planes
and bisecting the axis of cylinder. Draw the projection showing curve of intersection when the faces of
prism parallel to HP and 25 mm above the lower base of the cylinder.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cylinder as per the dimension’s mention in the problem.
2. Draw an equilateral triangle in the side view of the cylinder so that the axis of the both solid bisect
at right angle as shown in Fig. 5.21.
3. Name the corners of the prism and its edges will be A-A, B-B and C-C. Project the prism in front
and top view of the cylinder.
4. In order to obtain a smooth curve of intersection, more points should be located on the prism as
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Project these points in front and top view.
5 5
c c
6
7
a 1 a
1
2 3
b b
4 4
90
X Y
a
1 a 1 1 a
7 2 7
2
90
6 3 6
3
c b bc bc
5 40 4 4,5 4,5
25
60

5. Locate the points in top view of the cylinder by observation where the projection of these points
intersects the circle. There will be two sets of the points.
6. Transfer all these points in front view on respective edges and draw a smooth curve passing
through all these points will be required curve of intersection.
Problem 17: A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter and 100 mm long is completely penetrated by a
horizontal square prism of base sides 40 mm and axis 100 mm long having all the faces equally inclined
to VP. The axis of prism is 6 mm away from the axis of cylinder. Draw the projection showing curve of
intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cylinder and draw a square equally inclined to VP and axis 6 mm
away from the axis of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.22.
2. One of the edge of the prism is outside the cylinder, hence it should not be considered. More
points are to be obtain in order to draw a smooth curve.
3. Project the points of prism in front and top view of the cylinder.
4. Locate the points in top view of the cylinder by observation where the projection of these points
intersects the circle. There will be two sets of the points.
90
d 8
8 d
9
10 7
6
11 5
c
c 12 4 4 12 a
a
3
13
2
14 15 1
b b
6
12 a 12 12
a
40
5
11 a 13 13 11

11

14 8
14
10 10
15 bd 8 15
9 9 b
b
90
8 d 7 d
7 1
6'
6 1 2
2 5
5 c 3 3 5
4 c 4 4 c
60

126 Machine Drawing
Problem 18: A vertical square prism of 60 mm side and axis 90 mm long having its all the faces equally
inclined to VP has a horizontal hole of 60 mm diameter. The axis of hole is parallel to both the reference
plane and is 8 mm away from the axis of the prism. Draw the projection showing curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the prism as per the condition and dimensions mention in the problem.
2. Draw a circle of 60 mm diameter with its centre being 8 mm away from the axis of prism.
3. Divide the circle in 12 equal parts, in addition to these 12 division, take two more points where
the edge intersects the circle as shown in Fig. 5.23.
5. Locate the points in top view of the prism by observation where the projection of these points
intersects the prism. There will be two sets of the points.
7. The curve of intersection will be completely visible and the penetration of hole in front and top
view can be shown by dotted lines.
a
11
11
12 10
13
d 9
8 14,8
14 7 b
1
7
1,
6
8 2
5
3
4 4
c
X Y
b d ac b
a c d
14 1 1
13 2 14 14
2
12 13
3 3
12
90
4 4 11
11 60 11
10
10 5 5
9
6 8 6 8
9
8 7 7 7
a bd c d a c b

Problem 19: A vertical cylinder of 70 mm diameter resting on its base on HP and axis 90 mm long
is penetrated by a horizontal square prism of 40 mm side, the axis of which is parallel to VP and 5 mm
away from the axis of the cylinder. The prism has all its faces equally inclined to HP. Draw the projection
showing curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cylinder as per the condition and dimensions mention in the problem.
2. Draw a square prism with base sides equally inclined to reference line and its axis is 5 mm away
from the axis of the cylinder.
3. Name 1, 2, 3 and 4 to the corners of the prism and mark two extra points which cuts the axis of
the cylinder and the edge of the prism as shown in Fig. 5.24.
5. Locate the points in top view of the prism by observation where the projection of these points
intersects the cylinder. There will be two sets of the points.
d
p4 p4
c c
p3 p1 p1 p3
p2 p2
b
X Y
1 p1 p1
g
g g
2
p4
4 p4 p2 p2
90
40 f
3 p3 p3
a a c b c b d c
5
70

128 Machine Drawing
Problem 20: A vertical cylinder of 60 mm diameter resting on its base on HP and axis 90 mm long
is penetrated by a horizontal square prism of 40 mm side, the axis of which is parallel to VP and 10
mm away from the axis of the cylinder. A face of the prism makes an angle of 30° with the HP. Draw the
projection showing curve of intersection.
Solution:
Adopt the same method as explained in the Problem 19.
d
1
p1 p1
a c
p2 p2 2
p4 p4
4
3
b
X Y
p4 p4
10 4
n
n n
1
p1 p1
q q
3 90
40 p
p
m m
m 30°
2 p2 p2
d a c d a b d c
10 60
Problem 21: Figure 5.26 shows the top view of the cylinder which penetrates the triangular prism.
The axis of cylinder is parallel to HP and VP and the axis of prism is vertical. The height of prism is 100
mm and prism projects equally on either side of the cylinder. Draw the given top view and project the
front view and side view. Represent the curve of intersection.
60 60
30 30
15
60
60

Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the vertical triangular prism and name it as shown in Fig. 5.27.
2. Draw the horizontal cylinder side, top and front view and name the generators.
3. Take distance of 15 mm in top view as per the problem.
4. Locate all the points.
5. Draw a curve p1, p2, p3, ........., p7 as dark and p7-p8, p1-p12 as dotted.
6. Other side of the curve can be obtained in the same way.
120
p8 p12
a c
15
p1
60
p7
60
p2
p6
p5 p3
p4
b
X Y
1 p1
12 1
p2
2 p12 12 2
11 p3 3
3 11
4 p4 10 4
10
5 p5 9 5
9
6 p8 8
p6 6
8 7
7 p7
a, c b a b c
Problem 22: A vertical square prism of base side 50 mm with its base side equally inclined to VP is
completely penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of base diameter 40 mm with its axis parallel to VP and
7 mm away from the axis of the prism. Draw the projection showing the curve of intersection. Assume
the length of two solid as 100 mm.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the vertical prism and name the corners.
2. Draw a circle of 40 mm diameter with axis 7 mm away from the axis of the prism and project the
top and front view of the cylinder.
3. Name the generators 1, 2, 3 ......... 12 as shown in Fig. 5.28.
130 Machine Drawing
4. Locate the points in top view of the prism of the cylinder by observation where the projection of
these points intersects the prism. There will be two sets of the points.
6. The curve p1, p2, p3, ........., p7 will be dark and p7, p8, ........., p12-p1 will be dotted.
100
d
50
p10 p9
10
p11 11,9
p12 p8 12,8
a p1 c
p7 1,7
p2
p6 p3 2,6
p5 3,5
4
p4
b
X Y
1 2 m p1
12 p2
m p12
11 3 p3
p11
40
10 4
p10
100 p4
5 p9
9 p5
p p8
8 p6
7 6 n p7
d ac d a bd c
Problem 23: A vertical square prism of 50 mm side and axis 90 mm long having a face inclined
30° to VP. It has a horizontal hole of 65 mm diameter. The axis of hole is parallel to both the reference
plane and is 5 mm away from the axis of the prism. Draw the projection showing curve of intersection.
Solution:
Adopt the same method as explained in Problem 18.

d 50
1 1
2 2,12
12
3 11 3 11
c
4 10 4
10
a
9 9
5 5
30° 6,8
8,8 b
X Y
10 p 10 10
p 9 9 x
11 9
11 1
12 8 12
12
m m
65
1 1
90
1
n n
2
2 6 2 6
3 5
y
3 5 5
4 q 4 4
5
d a c b a d b c
Problem 24: A vertical square prism of base side 50 mm and height 125 mm stands vertically on
HP with a side of its base side inclined 30° to VP is completely penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of
base diameter 50 mm and axis 125 mm long with its axis parallel to both the reference plane. The axis
of cylinder bisects the axis of prism. Draw the projection showing the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the vertical prism and name the corners.
2. Draw a circle of 50 mm diameter with axis bisecting the axis of the prism in side view and project
the top and front view of the cylinder.
3. Name the generators 1, 2, 3, ........., 12 as shown in Fig. 5.30.
4. Locate the points in top view of the prism of the cylinder by observation where the projection of
these points intersects the prism. There will be two sets of the points.
132 Machine Drawing
a b d d d a c b
1 q 1 p 1 m
2
2,12 q m 12
2,12
11 3
3,11 3,11
10
4,10 q4 4
4,10
125 5,9
5,9 9 5
p n 6,8
6,8 6
8
7 q7 7 q 7 n
X Y
a b d 30° c d a c b
10 q10 10
9,11 p9 q9 9,11
p8 q9
8,12 q8 8,12
p1 q1
1,7 1,7
q7
2,6 p2 q2 2,6
p q5
5,3 p3 5 q3 5,3
4 p4 q4 4
50
Problem 25: A vertical cylinder of 50 mm diameter and 70 mm long is resting on its base on HP is
cut by a horizontal triangular prism of base sides 35 mm and axis 100 mm. The axis of prism is parallel to
both the reference planes and it is offset by 5 mm from the axis of cylinder. Draw the projection showing
curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cylinder as per the dimension’s mention in the problem.
2. Draw an equilateral triangle in the side view of the cylinder so that the axis of the triangular prism
is offset by 5 mm.
3. Name the corners of the prism and its edges and project the prism in front and top view of the
cylinder.
4. Mark the points p1, p2, p3 and q1, q2, q3 in top view and project it in front view.
5. Obtain the key points m″, n″ in side view and project it in front view. There will be two sets of
the points.
a b d c d a c b
p’3 q3 3 3
3
m m m
35
70 0
0
12 n p1 p2 q2 q1 n 12 1 n 2

5
a b d c b
d a c
d
p1 q3
1
a 50 c

p3 q3 3
2
p2
b q2
5.6 INTERSECTION OF CONE AND PRISM

Problem 26: Draw a top view and side view of the cone with triangular hole cut through it as shown
in Fig. 5.32 and show the curve of intersection.
80
525
60
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cone as per the dimension’s mention in the problem.
2. Draw five cutting planes through 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 at equal distance on front view.
3. Draw circles for all cutting planes in top view and let the cutting plane meet true length generator
at m′.
134 Machine Drawing
4. Project m′ on o-a to get m and now with o as centre and o-m as radius draw a circle. Similarly
draw other circles.
5. Project all the points in top view on respective circles. There will be two sets of points.
6. Join all the points in sequence to get two curves. Also draw line 5-5,1-1 and 3-3 as shown in
Fig. 5.33.
7. Transfer all the points in side view from front and top view and draw the curve of intersection.
8. As a hole is cut through the cone, full curve will be in top view and side view will be visible.
5
1
a 0
m
2 3
1
X o’ o’’ Y
m’ 1' 1'’
2' 2'’
3' 3'’ 3'’

4' 4'’ 5'’
a’ 5'
5'’
Problem 27: A vertical cone of base diameter 80 mm and height 80 mm is penetrated by a vertical
triangular prism as shown in Fig. 5.34. The axis of triangular prism is parallel to VP. Draw the projection
along with the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Redraw the top and front view of the cone along with the side view.
2. Divide the top view of the cone in 12 equal parts and also add two more generators through the
corners of the triangle and project these generators in front and side view.
3. Project all these points of top view in front view on respective generators by transferring on true
length generators (o-7) and draw a smooth curve through the points obtained in sequence.
4. The points pn′-ps′, p6′,p7′, p8′, p9′and pm′ lie on straight line.
5. The part p7′-o′ of the generator 7′-o′ and p1′-o′ of the generator 1′-o′ will not exit.
6. Transfer all these points in side view and draw a smooth curve as shown in Fig. 5.35.
80
60

X Y
G L
10
n
9 11
pn
c p10
8 12
p7 o p1
1
7 a
6 b p4 2
pm
5 m 3
4
X Y
b c a b a c
o o
p7
p2
p6 p8
p10 p11
p4 p12 p4 p10
p5 p9 p2
pn pn
pm pm
p1 p1
7 6 5 m 4 3 2 1 4m3 2 1,7 8 9n 10L
8 9 10 11 12 5 6 12 11
136 Machine Drawing
Problem 28: A vertical cone of base diameter 80 mm and height 70 mm is penetrated by a square
prism as shown in Fig. 5.36. Draw the front view showing the curve of intersection.
0
8
45°
Solution:
1. Redraw the top and project the front view of the cone as shown in Fig. 5.37.
2. Draw the few generators in the region of intersection and let the generators cut the prism at points
p1, p2, …., p8.
3. Transfer all these points in front view on respective generators and draw a smooth curve through
the points obtained.
4. The part p2′-p3′-p5′ of the curve is visible while the p1′-p2′ and p1′-p8′ is hidden.
5. P8’′p1′ and p1′-p2′ are straight line.
6. Edges b′-b, d′-d will not be visible beyond the points p2′ and p8′ respectively.
p1
9 1
a
p8 d b p2
2
8 p5
7 3
6 c 5 4
X Y
a p1
d b
c
70
p8 p 2
p5
d b
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Problem 29: A vertical cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 70 mm long is penetrated by a vertical
square prism of 20 mm side and axis 70 mm. The axis of the prism is parallel to and 10 mm away from
that of the cone. The faces of the prism are equally inclined to VP. Draw its projection showing the curve
of intersection when the plane containing both the axes is parallel to VP.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the cone and divide the circle in 12 equal parts.
2. Mark a centre o1 as centre of prism 10 mm away from the centre of cone o on the generator o-7.
3. Draw the square prism of 20 mm side and face equally inclined to VP.
4. Draw two more generators o-m and o-n through points pm and pn.
5. Let the generators cut prism at points p1, p2, p3, ......... p12, pm and pn.
6. Project all points in front view on respective generators and draw a smooth curve as shown in
Fig. 5.38.
4
3 5m
20
m
m
2 p5 pm 6
p4
1
p1 7
1 p7 50
50
p1
12 0 pn 8
n
10
11 9
10
X Y
4 P10
p1
70 mm
p5
p’m
pn p6
m n p7
1 2 12 3 11 4 10 5' 9 6 8 7
Problem 30: A cone of base diameter 45 mm and axis 60 mm long resting on its base on HP is
penetrated by a horizontal square prism of 20 mm side and axis 70 mm. The axis of the prism intersects
the axis of cone at right angle. The base side is equally inclined to HP. The axis of square prism is 25
mm from the base of the cone. Draw its projection showing the curve of intersection.
138 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the cone and divide the circle in 12 equal parts.
2. Mark a centre o1 as centre of prism in side view of cone on the generator o-7.
3. Draw the square prism of 20 mm side and face equally inclined to XY.
4. Project all points in top view and in front view on respective generators and draw a smooth curve
as shown in Fig. 5.39.
d d d
60 c
ac ac a
25
b
b b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 9 8 1 2 3 4
12 11 10 9 8 11 12 7 6 5
X Y
10
45
11 9
a a
12 8
7 b,d
b,d
1
2 6
c c
3 5
4
5.7 INTERSECTION OF CONE AND CYLINDER

The intersection of cone with the cylinder problems can be solved either by line method or cutting plane
method. In the cutting plane method, the cone is assumed to be cut by a number of cutting planes parallel
to the bases. The cutting planes are drawn in the region of intersection; the section of the cone is cut by
the cutting plane will be a circle while the cutting of the cylinder will be a rectangle. The points of the
intersection will lie on the circles as well as on the rectangle. In the line method, three views of the solid
is to be drawn and points are located in top and front view of the solid and finally transfer to the front view
to observe the curve of intersection. In this section, a vertical cone is penetrated by the horizontal cylinder.
Problem 31: A vertical cone of base diameter 80 mm and axis 100 mm long resting on its base on
HP is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm long axis. The axis of the
cylinder is parallel to both the planes and intersects the axis of the cone at 30 mm above the base of the
cone. Draw its projection showing the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cone.
2. In the side view of the cone draw two tangents to the circle which will be the generators of the
cone.
3. Draw few more generators and name all the generators.
4. Project all the generators in top view and then in the front view.
5. Transfer all the points from side view to the front view.
6. Draw a smooth curve as shown in Fig. 5.40.
11 11 11
12 12
10 10,13
9 14 9,14
1
1,8
8
2
2,7
7 3 3,6
6 4
5 5 5
X Y
1 1 1 1
2,14 14
14 2 2 13
3,13
13 3
4 12 4,12
12 4 4,12
11 5 5,11 5 5
10 6 7 6 11 11
30
6,10
9 8 7 10
7,9 9
8 8 8
Problem 32: A vertical cone of base diameter 80 mm and axis 100 mm long resting on its base on HP
is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to both the planes and is 5 mm
away from the axis of cone. The axis of cylinder is 30 mm above the base of cone. Draw its projection
showing the curve of intersection when the diameter of cylinder is 40 mm and axis 100 mm long.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the cone.
2. In the side view of the cone draw a vertical centre line 5 mm from the axis of cone and mark o1
as a centre of the cylinder at 30 mm above the base of cone.
3. With o1 as centre, draw a circle of 40 mm diameter and project it in top and front view of the
cylinder.
4. Divide the circle in eight equal parts in side view and also add two more points which will be the
critical points on the axis of cone.
140 Machine Drawing
5. Project all the points in front and top view.

6. Transfer the division of cylinder in top view where these divisions meet the respective circles, that
are the points of intersection. There will be two sets of points. Draw a smooth curve the points
obtained.
7. Transfer all the points from top view to front view on respective generators of division line and
draw a smooth curve through the points obtained. Note the dark and dotted line as shown in
Fig. 5.41.
4
8 8 8
9,7 6
10 O
10,6
1,5 1 1
5
5
2
2,4
4
3 3
5
O
O
10 1 1
10 1 2
9 2 9
o 3 8
8 3 8
a
7
6 4
5 6 4
5 5
HP is penetrated by a vertical cylinder. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to the axis of cone. Draw its
projection showing the curve of intersection when the diameter of cylinder is 50 mm and axis 100 mm
long. The plane containing both the axes is parallel to VP.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view of the cone and project the front view.
2. Divide the circle of top view in 12 equal parts and draw 12 generators.
3. The generator o-7, mark the new centre of cylinder as o1 at 10 mm away from o as centre and
draw a circle of 50 mm diameter.
4. The circle of cylinder cuts the generator of cone o-1 at p1 o-2 at p2 and similarly p12.
5. Take two more points pm and pn which will be the critical points where the centre line for cylinder
cuts the circle.
6. Join o to pm and extend to m and similarly join o to pn and extend to n on the base circle of the
cone to get two more generators.
7. Draw these generators in front view and also draw front view of the cylinder and project all points
of intersection on the respective generators. Points p4 and p10 cannot be obtained directly.
8. With o as centre and o-p4 distance cut an arc upto o-1 to get point a and project a on o′-1′ to get
a′.
9. From a′ draw a horizontal line upto o′-4′ to get the point p4. Similarly repeat for p10′.
10. Draw a smooth curve through the points obtained and note that part o′-p7′ of generator o′-7′ and
o′-p1′ of generator o′-1′ will not exists.
10
9
pn p10 12
8
p7 o p1 1
o1 a
7
6 2
pm p4
5 m 3
4
X Y
10
o1
o
p1
p10
p4 a
pm
p7
1
7 6 9 5 4 10 3 2
8 o1 11 12
Problem 34: A vertical cylinder of base diameter 80 mm and axis 100 mm long resting on its base
on HP is penetrated by a horizontal cone of 80 mm diameter and 100 mm long axis. The axis of the cone
is parallel to both the planes and bisects the axis of cylinder. Draw the projection showing the curve of
intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the top and front view of the cylinder.
2. Draw the side view of cone as half circle at the base of cone and divide in 6 equal parts to get 12
generators.
3. Transfer the division in top view and also draw generators in op view.
142 Machine Drawing
4. Let the generators cut the top view of cylinder at point p1, p2, p3, ........., p12 as shown in
Fig. 5.43.
5. There will be two sets of points.
6. Project all these points in front view on respective generators and draw a smooth curve through
the points as obtained.
10
p10
11
9
12
8
p10
p1,p7
o
1 7 o1
2
6
3 5
p4
4
o1
1
p1
12 2
11 3
p4 p1
10 4 p10 p4 o
p7
9 5
10 6
p7
7 o1
HP is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 40 mm diameter and 100 mm long axis such that the axis
of the cylinder is parallel to both the planes and 20 mm above the base of the cone and 5 mm in front of
the axis of the cone. Draw the projection showing the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the projection of the cone and cylinder in front and top view and in side view as per the
condition mention in the problem.
2. Draw the curve of intersection in front and top view as shown in Fig. 5.44.
X1
10 10 10' 10 9

70 9,11 9',11'
11 9 11
8,12 8',12' 8
12 8 12
1 7
1,7 1',7' 1
2 7
2,6 2',6' 2 6
3 6 20
3,5 3',5'
4 5 4' 3 4 5
X Y
4
1 1
2,12 1 12 12 1 2
11 2,12
3,11 11
3,11
4,10 3 3
9 4,10
5,9 4 9 4
5,9
6,8 5 88 5 6,8
6 7 6
7 7 7
64
Y1
5.8 INTERSECTION OF PYRAMID AND PRISM

Problem 36: A vertical square pyramid 60 mm side of base and axis 75 mm long is standing on HP
with all base side equally inclined to VP. The pyramid is penetrated by a horizontal square prism of 30
mm side having its axis perpendicular to VP. The axis of prism intersects the axis of pyramid at a distance
of 25 mm above its base and all the faces of the prism are equally inclined to HP. Draw the projection
showing the line of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the three views of the pyramid starting with the top view and let the corners of the pyramid
be p, q, r and s.
2. In the front view of the pyramid, locate the centre of prism on the axis of pyramid at a distance
of 25 mm above the base and draw a square with all sides equally inclined to its base.
3. Project the side view and top view of the prism.
4. The corners of the prism will be 1, 2, 3 and 4.
5. Project the true length in front view from 1, 2, 3 and 4 and obtained points are a, b and c on true
length o-p of pyramid.
6. Transfer a, b and c on o-p in top view and now with centre o draw 3 squares similar to the square
pyramid passing through the points a, b, and c.
7. Project all four points on respective squares. There will be two sets of points.
8. Join all the points in sequence by straight line as shown in Fig. 5.45.
144 Machine Drawing
9. Lines 1-2 and 1-4 will be dark and line 2-3 and 3-4 will be dotted line.
10. Transfer all points in side view and join in sequence. It is to be noted that the line 1″-3″ will not
exist.
1
4 2
a
p c,b O r
4 2
1
3
q
X Y
o o
1 1 1
a
75
4 4
b 4 2 2 2
25
c 3 3
3
G p q s r q p r s L
5.9 INTERSECTION OF CONE AND CONE

Problem 37: A vertical cone base diameter 100 mm and 125 mm height is penetrated by another
cone of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm long axis. The axis of penetrating cone is parallel to HP and VP
and 40 mm above the base and 5 mm in front of the axis of vertical cone. Draw the projection showing
the curve of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the top and front views of the cone as per the problem.
2. Draw the curve of intersection as shown in Fig. 5.46.

125
40
100
5.10 INTERSECTION OF PYRAMID AND CYLINDER

Problem 38: A pentagonal pyramid having side of base 40 mm and axis 60 mm long has its base on
HP. It is penetrated by a vertical cylinder of base diameter 40 mm and axis 100 mm long so that their
axes coincide with each other. Draw the projection showing curves of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the top and front views of the pyramid as per the problem.
2. Draw the curve of intersection in front view as shown in Fig. 5.47.

146 Machine Drawing
12 11 10 9 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
60
11 10
9
40
12 8
1 7
2 6
3 5
4
40
5.11 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

Problem 39: Figure 5.48 shows two views of a connecting rod with its forged end having a turned
radius of 40 mm. Draw the curve of intersection.
0
16

60
60
R 40

Solution:
1. A rod of 60 mm diameter is connected to a rectangular block of 60 × 160 mm. As the rod connected
to block, its diameter goes on increasing and reaches to the maximum of 140 mm (60 mm diameter
of rod + two times turned radius i.e. 40 mm). But the rod cannot be increased on the back side
due to the width of block is only 60 mm in this direction, and hence the curve of intersection will
appear.
2. Mark the points 1 to 5 in between the radius meet the block. The starting point will be 1 and
ending point will be 5 as shown in Fig. 5.49.
3. Let the turned radius points in front view will be 1′, 2′, ........., 5′.
4. Project all these points in top view on the centre line of block to get other sets of the points.
5. By taking the centre of rod as m and radius m-1, m-2, m-3 which cuts the arc meeting the block
at points p1, p2, …......, p5.
6. There will be two sets of the points.
7. Transfer the points p1, p2, ........., p4 in front view on respective projection to get p1′, p2′, p3″,
and p4′.
8. Join all these points in front view to get the required curve of intersection.
60
1
60
m
0 12 3 4 5
p4 p1 p1 p2 p3 p4
60
O o o2
R40
R
40
1
p1 p1 2
p2 3
p3 4 5
p4 p4
30
Problem 40: Figure 5.50 shows two cylinders of different diameter forged together. The fillet radius
is 30 mm draw the curve of intersection.
148 Machine Drawing
30
30
R
60
60
Solution:
1. The top point of the curve of intersection will be at the top of fillet radius and curve will end with
the radius.
2. Lets take the points 1 to 6 and select the points in between 1 to 6 and draw the curve of intersection
as shown in Fig 5.51.
1 2 3 45 6
p1 p6
p2
p3
p4
p5
1
p1
p2 2
p3 3
4
p4 5
p5
6
p6

Problem 41: Figure 5.52 shows a sketch of chimney fitted on a roof. Draw the curve of intersection
of surface of chimney and roof.
80
20
70 Chimney
30º
120º
Roof
(a)
Solution:
1. The chimney act as a cylinder and roof act as a prism, hence the problem is related to intersection
of prism to cylinder.
2. The curve of intersection can be obtained in side view.
3. Redraw the given front view and add top and side view as shown in Fig. 5.53.
12 1
2
11 3
4
10
9 5
8 6
7
8 12
8 7 9 10 11
9 12
10 11 1,7 1
6,2 6
2
5,3 3
4 5 4

150 Machine Drawing
4. The length of roof is to be assumed.

5. Divide the circle of cylinder in 12 equal parts and draw lines on the surface of the cylinder through
these points in front and side view.
6. The generators cut the front view of roof at points 1′, 2′, ........., 12′.
7. These points will lie on the curve of intersection.
8. Transfer all points in sequence in side view on respective generators and draw a smooth curve
through the points in sequence. Note that the curve 1″-4″-7″ will be dark and 7″-8″-10″-12″-1″
will be dotted.
Exercises
Problem 42: A vertical square prism of base side 40 mm and 100 mm long axis resting on its base
on HP with faces equally inclined to VP. It is completely penetrated by a horizontal square prism of base
side 40 mm and axis 100 mm long with its axis parallel to HP and VP and 5 mm away from the axis of
the vertical square prism. The faces of horizontal square prism are equally inclined to VP. Draw the
projection showing the line of intersection.
Problem 43: A vertical square prism of base side 40 mm and 90 mm long axis with faces equally
inclined to VP. It is completely penetrated by a horizontal square prism of base side 30 mm and axis 90
mm long. One of the face of horizontal square prism is inclined at 30° to VP and bisect each other at
right angle. Draw the projection showing the line of intersection.
Problem 44: A vertical square pipe 50 mm side with axis perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP
has a branch pipe of 40 mm with axis parallel to VP and inclined 45° to HP. The two axes intersect
each other and faces of both the pipes are equally inclined to VP. Draw the projection showing the line
of intersection.
Problem 45: A vertical triangular prism of 50 mm side and 90 mm long axis has one of its rectangular
face perpendicular to VP. It is penetrated by another horizontal triangular prism square prism of 40
mm side and 90 mm long axis having all its faces equally inclined to VP. The axes of both the prism are
parallel to VP and bisect each other at right angles. Show the line of intersection.
Problem 46: A vertical cylinder of base diameter of 50 mm and 90 mm long axis has its axis
perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. It is penetrated by another horizontal cylinder of 40 mm diameter
and 90 mm long axis having with axis parallel to both HP and VP. The axis of horizontal cylinder is
5 mm away from the axis of vertical cylinder. Draw the curve of intersection.
Problem 47: A vertical cylinder of base diameter of 60 mm and 100 mm long axis has its axis
perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. It is penetrated by another horizontal square prism of 30 mm
side and 90 mm long axis with all its faces equally inclined to VP. The axis of prism is parallel to and
6 mm away from the axis of cylinder. Draw the projection showing curve of intersection.
Problem 48: A vertical square prism of 60 mm side and 100 mm long axis has its axis perpendicular
to HP and parallel to VP. The square prism has one of its face inclined at 30° to VP. A hole of 60 mm
diameter is drilled in the prism. The axis of the hole is parallel to both the planes and is bisecting the
axis of prism at right angles. Draw the curve of intersection.
Problem 49: A vertical cone of 75 mm diameter and 100 mm long axis is penetrated by a horizontal
cylinder of 50 mm diameter. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to both the reference plane and is 5 mm
away from the axis of cone. The axis of cylinder is 30 mm above the base of cone. Draw the projection
showing the curve of intersection.
Problem 50: A vertical cone of 50 mm diameter and 60 mm long axis is penetrated by a horizontal
square prism of 30 mm side. The axis of the prism and cone coincide with each other. Draw the projection
showing the curve of intersection when two faces to the prism are perpendicular to VP.
Problem 51: A vertical cone of 50 mm diameter and 70 mm long axis has a square hole of 20 mm
side having one of its faces inclined at 30° to VP. The axis of the hole is parallel to HP and VP. The
axis of hole is intersecting the axis of cone at 20 mm above the base of cone at right angles. Draw the
projection showing the curve of intersection.
Chapter
6
Conventional Representation
of Machine Components
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenever we have to draw a long members of uniform cross section area, we have to represent it by
conventional break in order to fit in the drawing sheet without reducing the size. The dimension of such
break are mentioned in the drawing. Following are the some of the commonly used breaks.
Round section
Pipe or tubing
Pipe or tubing
Rectangular section
Wood (Rectangular section)
As per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), the commonly used materials are conventionally represented
as shown in the table. Moreover, names of the materials and other details also should be specified on the
drawing by the note.
152
Conventional Representation of Machine Components 153
Title Subject Material
Metals Steel, Cast iron, Copper and its

Alloys, Aluminium and its Alloys,
etc.
Lead, Zinc, Tin, White Metal, etc.
Glass Glass
Packing and Insulating Material Porcelain, Stone Ware, Marble,

State, etc.
Asbestos Fibre, Felt, Synthetic

Resin Product, Paper, Cork, Rubber,
Leather, Wax, Insulating and Filling
Materials etc.
Liquid Water, Oil, Petrol, Kerosene, etc.
Wood Wood, Plywood, etc.
Concrete Mixture of Cement, Sand and

Gravel.
The other details of the drawing conventions as represented on the drawing are as follows.
Masonry
Brickwork Blockwork Stonework
Timber
Any type sawn Softwood machined Hardwood machined

all round all round
Site-formed Materials
Mulch Concrete Asphalt macadam

154 Machine Drawing
Topsoil Granular fill Plaster render screed
Subsoil Hard fill
Manufactured Materials
Board, layer, membrane, Glass sheet Quilt – large scale

sheet – small scale
Sheet etc – large scale Blockboard Insulation board
Plywood Veneered blockboard Insulation quilt
The conventional representation of machine parts or components are as follows:

Title Subject Conventions
Interrupted views
Square of Shaft
Holes on Circular
Pitch
Bearing
External Screw
Thread
Internal Screw Thread
Screw Thread
Assembly
Spur or Helical Gear
Screw Gear
Rack and Pinion Gear
Bevel Gear
Worm and Worm

Wheel
156 Machine Drawing
The conventional representation of different machine parts or components with common features
are as follows:
Title Actual Projection/Section Convention

Slotted Head
To be Drawn at 45°
Radial ribs
Serrated Shaft
Splined Shaft
Ratchet and Pinion
Bearings
Straight Knurling
Diamond Knurling
Repeated Parts
Actual Projection
Description Convention
View Section
Compression spring with

circular section
Compression spring with

square section
Tension Spring
Semi-Elliptical Leaf Spring
Semi-Elliptical Leaf Spring with Eyes
Title Subject Conventions Representation
Cylinderical Compression
Spring
Cylinderical Tension Spring

Chapter
7
Representation of Tolerance
on Machine Components
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The Limits, Fits and Tolerances are the very important for designing and manufacturing. As we know
accuracy does not exist anywhere, the only thing we can do is to try to approach the true value as close as
possible. So, to provide a little flexibility to a manufacturer the designer makes use of tolerances and fits,
which in turn determine the kind of assembly produced. Every production process involves a combination
of 3 elements, i.e., man, material and machine. It is not possible to make any part precisely to a given
dimension. Even if by chance the part is made exact it is possible to measure it accurately enough to
prove it. If attempts are made to achieve perfect size the cost of production will increase tremendously.
Therefore, some permissible variation has to be allowed.
7.2 LIMITS, FITS and TOLERANCE
Limits:
The dimension of a manufactured part can only be made to lie between maximum and minimum limits.
Fits:
It is the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts.
Tolerance:
The permissible variation in size or dimension is tolerance. The difference between the upper limit
and lower limit of a dimension represents the margin for variation and is called as tolerance zone. Also it
is the amount by which the amount is allowed to go away from accuracy without causing any functional
trouble when assembled. Tolerance can be unilateral i.e. Dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on
one side of the basic size and Bilateral the dimension of a part is allowed to vary on both the sides of
basic size.
The following terms and definitions are important:
7.2.1. Shaft
The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but to any external dimension on a
component. The definition of shaft is shown in Fig. 7.1.
158
Representation of Tolerance on Machine Components 159
45 mm i 7
22 mm
55 mm i 7
55 mm i 7
Diameter
40 mm i 7
Fig. 7.1. Definition of shaft
7.2.2. Hole
The term hole refers not only to the diameter
35 mm H8
35 mm H8
of a circular hole but to any internal dimension of a
component. The definition of hole is shown in Fig. 7.2.
7.2.3. Size
The term size refers to the numerical value of a 25 mm H8
linear dimension in a particular unit.
Fig. 7.2. Definition of hole
7.2.4. Nominal Size
The term nominal size refers to the size of a part specified in the drawing for convenience to shop floor.
7.2.5. Basic Size

The term basic size refers to the size from which the limits of size are derived by the application of
tolerance (i.e. upper and lower deviation). The basic size or nominal size of a part is often the same and
it is termed as zero line.
Below basic size 0 Above basic size
Amout or deviation above

the basic size
Zero line = Basic size
Amount of
deviation
below the
basic size
Hole Hole Hole

above of basic below
basic size size basic size
160 Machine Drawing
Lower deviation
Upper deviation
Upper deviation
Lower deviation
Tolerance
Tolerance
Hole
Line of
zero
Maximum
Minimum
Basic size
Basic size
diameter
diameter
deviation
Maximum
Minimum
diameter
diameter
Shaft
Fig. 7.3. Basic size and zero line
7.2.6. Actual Size

The term actual size referred to the actual measured dimension of a part. The difference between the
basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit, if so; it will disturb the interchangeability
of assembly parts.
7.2.7. Limits of Size

The term limits of size referred to the two extreme permissible sizes for a dimension of a part,
between which the actual size should lie. The largest permissible size for a dimension is called upper or
high or maximum limit, whereas the smallest size is called lower or minimum limit. The limits of sizes
are as shown in Fig. 7.4.
Max clearance
Min clearance
(Allowance)
Tolerance
Tolerance
Max limit of
Min limit of
(upper limit)
Max limit
Min limit
of size
size
size
of size
Shaft
Hole
Fig. 7.4. Definition of limits of size
7.2.8. Maximum Limit of Size

The term maximum limit of size referred to the maximum or greatest permissible size of a feature.
7.2.9. Minimum Limit of Size

The term minimum limit of size referred to the minimum or smallest permissible size of a feature.
7.2.10. Allowance
The term allowance refers to the difference between the basic dimensions of mating parts. The
allowance may be positive or negative. In positive allowance the shaft size is less than the hole size, and
in negative allowance the shaft size is greater than the hole size.
Allowance tells the type of fit. Positive allowance provides clearance fit while negative allowance
provides interference fit. Sometimes it is also referred as clearance.
7.2.11. Tolerance
The term tolerance refers to the difference between the upper (maximum) limit and lower (minimum)
limit of a dimension. In other words, tolerance is the maximum permissible variation in a dimension.
The tolerance may be of two types i.e. unilateral or bilateral.
When the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g., 30+− 00..003
000
, then it is said to be
unilateral system of tolerance. ‘When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g.,
30+− 00..003
003
then it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance.
The unilateral system is widely used in practice as it permits changing the tolerance value while still
retaining the same allowance or type of fit. The two methods of providing tolerance are shown in Fig. 7.5.
Unilateral tolerance
Zero line
0
(Basic size)
Bilateral Unilateral
tolerance tolerance
Unilateral tolerance
Fig. 7.5. Definition of limits of size
7.2.12. Tolerance Zone

The term tolerance zone refers to the zone between the maximum and minimum limit size. The
definition of tolerance zone is shown in Fig. 7.6.
Upper deviation
Tolerance
Lower deviation
Tolerance Lower deviation
Tolerance
Upper deviation
zone
Max size
Min size
Zero line
Hole Shaft
Min size Basic size

Max size
Fig. 7.6. Definition of tolerance zone

162 Machine Drawing
7.2.13. Zone Line

The term zero line refers to the straight line corresponding to the basic size, to which deviations and
tolerances are referred. According to convention, the positive and negative deviations are shown above
and below the zero line respectively.
7.2.14. Deviation
The term deviation referred to the algebraic difference between a size (actual size limits of size, etc.)
and the corresponding basic size.
7.2.15. Upper-Deviation
The term upper deviation refers to the algebraic difference between the maximum limit and the basic
size. The upper deviation of a hole is demoted by a symbol ‘ES’ and of a shaft is denoted by a symbioses’.
Fundamental deviation
Tolerance
Upper
deviation
Zero line
0
Fundamental
Lower
deviation
deviation
Tolerance
Fig. 7.7. Upper deviation, lower deviation and fundamental deviation
7.2.16. Lower Deviation

The term lower deviation refers to the algebraic difference between the minimum limit and basic size.
The lower deviation of a hole is denoted by a symbol ‘EI’ and of a shaft it is denoted by a symbol ‘ei’.
7.2.17. Actual Deviation

The term actual deviation refers to the algebraic difference between an actual size and the
corresponding basic size.
7.2.18. Mean Deviation

The term mean deviation refers to the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower deviations.
7.2.19. Fundamental Deviation

The term fundamental deviation refers to the deviation, either the upper or the lower deviation, which
is nearest one to the zero line for either a hole or a shaft. Fundamental deviation provides the position of
the tolerance zone with respect to the zero line.
7.2.20. Fits
The term fits refer to the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts. Depending upon
the actual limits of the hole and shaft. There are three types of fits.
1. Clearance Fit:It is obtained when shaft is always smaller than hole. Clearance must be positive.
The clearance fit may be of different types, e.g., slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack
running fit and loose running fit, etc.
2. Interference Fit: The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft is always greater than the
maximum allowable diameter of hole. Elastic strains are developed on the mating surfaces
during the process of assembly and prevent relative measurement of the mating part. Interference
is negative clearance. The interference fit may be of different types, e.g., shrink fit, light drive
fit, heavy drive fit. Example of this type of fit are bearing bushes which are in an interference
fit in their housing of a small end of the connecting rod of an engine.
3. Transition Fit:It lies mid-way between clearance and interference fit. The transition fit may
be of different types, e.g. push fit, force fit, tight fit etc.
The types of fits are as shown in Fig. 7.8.
Max.
Min clearance interference Min interference
Max
clearance
Hole
Shaft
(a) Clearance fig. (b) Interference fits. (c) Transition fit.
Fig. 7.8. Types of fits
7.2.21. Hole Basis System

In hole basis system, the size of the hole is constant and different fits are obtained by varying the
size of shaft as shown in Fig. 7.9.
1 2 3
1 2 3
1. Clearance fit. 2. Transition fit. 3. Interference fit.
(a) Hole basis system. (b) Shaft basis system.
Fig. 7.9. Basis of limit system

164 Machine Drawing
It may be noted that, from manufacturing point of view, a hole basis system is always preferred.
Because holes are produced by standard size of drills and reamers, whose size cannot be adjusted
easily on the other hand, the size of the shaft which is to go into hole, can be easily adjusted by
turning and grinding.
7.2.22. Shaft Basic System

In shaft basic system, the size of the shaft is constant and different fits are obtained by varying the
size of the hole, as shown in Fig. 7.9. The bases of limit system.
Shaft
Shafts
Hole Hole Holes
Zero Zero line
Shaft 2 Hole line
Hole 3 Shaft
1
Shaft 2 Hole
Basic size 1 Shaft
3
1. Clearance fit. 2. Transition fit. 3. Interference fit.
(a) Hole basis system. (b) Shaft basis system.
Fig. 7.10. Basis of limit system
7.2.23. Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and Least or Minimum Metal Limit (LML) for a Shaft
The shaft shown in Fig. 7.11 has an upper and lower limit of 40.05 mm and 39.95 mm respectively.
The shaft is said to have a maximum metal limit (MML) of 40.05 mm because at this limit the shaft has
the maximum possible amount of metal.
The limit of 39.95 mm is called the minimum or least metal limit (LML) because at this limit the
shaft has minimum or least possible amount of metal.
Max metal
40.00 mm
40.05 mm
39.95 mm
Min metal
± 0.05
limit
limit
Fig. 7.11. Maximum and minimum metal limits for a shaft
7.2.24. Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and Least or Minimum Metal Limit (LML) for a Hole
The hole shown in Fig. 7.12 has an upper and lower limit of 20.05 mm and 19.95 mm respectively.
When the hole is at its upper limit the minimum amount of metal is left.
The limit of 20.05 mm is therefore called the least or minimum metal limit (LML). When the hole
is at its lower limit the maximum amount of metal is left and hence the limit of 19.95 mm is called the
maximum metal limit (MML).
Max. amount of metal left Min. amount of metal left
Max metal
19.95 mm
20.05 mm
Min metal
05 m
0. m
limit
limit
± 00
.
20
Fig. 7.12. Maximum and minimum metal limits for a hole
7.2.25. Grades of Tolerance

It is an indication of the level of accuracy.
There are 18 grades of tolerances –
IT01, IT0, IT1 to IT16 IT01 to IT4 – For production of gauges, plug gauges, measuring instruments.
IT5 to IT 7 – For fits in precision engineering applications.
IT8 to IT11 – For General Engineering.
IT12 to IT14 – For Sheet metal working or press working.
IT15 to IT16 – For processes like casting, general cutting work.
7.2.26. Standard Tolerance

Various grades of tolerances are defined using the ‘standard tolerance unit’, (i) in µ m, which is a
function of basic size.
i = 0.45 3√D + 0.001D
where, D (mm) is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters of a particular diameter step
within which the chosen the diameter D lies.
Diameter steps in I.S.I are: (a-b, where a is above and b is up to)
1-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-18, 18-30, 30-50, 50-80, 80-120, 120-180, 180-250, 250-315, 315-400 and 400-
500 mm
32. Selection of fits on hole basis system:
Table 7.1
Clearance Remark
H7 c8
H8 c9 Stock running fit.
H11 c11
H7 d8
H8 d9 Loose running fit.
H11 d11
166 Machine Drawing
H6 e7
H7 e8 Easy running fit.
H8 e8
H6 f6
H7 f7 Normal running fit.
H8 f8
H6 g5
H7 g6 Close running fit of sliding fit also spigot and location fit
H8 g7
H7 h6
H8 h7 Pricision sliding fit also spigot and location fit
H8 h8
Transition
H6 j5
Push fit for very accurate location with easy assembly and
H7 j6
dis-assambly
H8 j7
H6 k5
Light keying fit (true transition) for keyed shafts, non-running
H7 k6
locked pins etc.
H8 k7
H6 m5
H7 m6 Medium keying fit
H8 m7
H7 n6
Heavy keying fit (for tight assembly mating surfaces)
H8 n7
H8 p7 Light press fit with easy dismentling for non-ferrous parts.
H8 r7 Standard press with easy dismentling for ferrous and non-
ferrous parts ossembly.
Interference
h6 n5 Light press fit with easy dismentling for non-ferrous part.
H6 p5 Standard press with easy dismenting for ferrous and non-ferrous
H7 p6 parts assembly.
H6 r5 Medium drive fit with easy dismentling for ferrous parts
H7 r6 assembly. Light drive fit with easy dismentling for non-ferrous
parts assembly.
H6 s5
Heavy drive fit for ferrous parts permanent or semi-permanent
H7 s6
assembly standard press fit for non-ferrous parts.
H8 s7
H6 t5
H7 t6 Force fit on ferrous parts for permanent assembly.
H8 t7
H6 u5
H7 u6 Heavy force fit or shrink fit.
H8 u7
7.2.27. Taylor’s Principle of Gaging

•• The go gage should be designed to check the form
•• The no-go gage checks the individual sections
Go gage:
Plug gage for maximum material
dimension, i.e., smallest hole
Testing the function, i.e.,
shape and pairing dimension
No Go gage:
Ball gage for minimum
material dimension, biggest hole
Testing the maximum dimension
Fig. 7.13.
Example 1: Evaluate limits and fits for a pair of – Diameter 6 H7/g6

Solution: The size 6 mm lies in the diametral step of 3–6, therefore, D is given by
D = 3 × 6 = 4.24 mm
The value of fundamental tolerance unit is given by
i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D
i = 0.45 3 4.24 + 0.001 × 4.24
i = 0.7327 mm
Limits of tolerance for hole H7
The standard tolerance is
16 i = 16 × 0.7327 = 11.72 = 12 mm
The fundamental deviation H hole is = 0
Limits of tolerance for g6 shaft
The standard tolerance is
– 10 i = 10 × 0.7327 = 7.327 = – 8 mm
Fundamental deviation for g shaft
= – 2.5D0.34 = – 2.5(4.24)0.34 = – 4.085 = – 4mm
Fit
Maximum clearance = Maximum size of hole – Minimum size of shaft
= 6.012 – 6.988 = 0.024 mm = 24 mm
Minimum clearance = Minimum size of hole – Maximum size of shaft
= 6.000 – 6.996 = 0.004 mm = 4 mm
Ans: The type of fit is Clearance.
168 Machine Drawing
Example 2: Calculate the limits of sizes for f 20 P7/h6 and identify the fit.
Solution: The size 20 mm lies in the diameter steps of 18–24 mm. Hence, D is given by
D = 18 × 24 = 20.78 mm
The fundamental tolerance unit i is given by
i = 0.45 3 20.78 + 0.001 × 20.78 = 1.258 mm
Limits evaluation for P7 Hole
The fundamental deviation P7 hole = IT6 + 0 to 5 = 10 i + 5
10 × 1.258 + 5 = 17.58 = 18 mm
For grade 7 the standard tolerance is
16 i = 16 × 1.258 = 20.128 = 21 mm
Limits evaluation for h6 Shaft
The fundamental deviation for h shaft is = 0
For grade 6 the standard tolerance is = 10 i = 10 × 1.258 = 12.58 = 13 mm
20.000
18 m h6 Shaft
19.982 19.987
21 m P7 Hole
19.961
Disposition of tolerance zone around the zero line
Fit
Maximum clearance = Maximum size of hole – Minimum size of shaft
= 19.982 – 19.987 = – 0.005 = – 5 mm
Minimum Interference = Minimum size of hole – Maximum size of shaft
= 19.961 – 20.000 = – 0.039 mm = – 39 mm
The fit is Interference.
7.3 MACHINinG AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS SYMBOLS
7.3.1. Symbols for Indication of Surface Roughness

The basic symbols used for indication of surface roughness consists of two legs of unequal length inclined
at approximately 60° to the line representing the surface as shown in Fig. 7.14.
If a bar is added to the basic symbol as shown in the Fig. 7.15 then the meaning of the symbol will
the material is to be removed by machining.
60° 60°
Fig. 7.14. Basic symbol Fig. 7.15. Symbol for material

removed by marching
If a circle is added to the basic symbol as shown in the Fig. 7.16 then the meaning of the symbol
will the material removal is not permitted.
Fig. 7.16. Symbol for material Fig. 7.17. Symbol for special
removal not permitted surface characteristics
When a special surface finish characteristics have to be indicated then a line is added to the longer
leg as shown in Fig. 7.17.
The surface roughness value is added to the symbol as shown in the Figs. 7.18 to 7.20. When the
specified surface roughness value is to be obtained by any production method then the symbol used is
as shown in the Fig. 7.18 where the a represents the surface roughness value.
a a
Fig. 7.18. Symbol for specified Fig. 7.19. Symbol for specified surface
surface roughness roughness by marching
When the specified surface roughness value is to be obtained by the removal of material by marching
method then the symbol used is as shown in the Fig. 7.19.
When the specified surface roughness value is to be obtained without the removal of material then
the symbol used is as shown in the Fig. 7.20.
a a1
a2
Fig. 7.20. Symbol for specified surface Fig. 7.21. Symbol for max. and min.
roughness without removal of material specified surface roughness
170 Machine Drawing
When only one value is specified then it shows the maximum permissible value of the surface
roughness. In many cases it becomes necessary to show the maximum and minimum limits of the surface
roughness then it is represented by the limit as a1 and a2 which is to be written on the symbol as shown
in Fig. 7.21.
The roughness value in microns may be indicated by the corresponding roughness grade number as
shown in the Table 7.2.
Table 7.2
Roughness value Ra – mm 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02
Roughness grade number N12 N11 N10 N9 N8 N7 N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1
Roughness symbol*
∼ ∆ ∆∆ ∆∆∆ ∆∆∆∆
These roughness symbols indicate the practice followed in the industries and these are shown for
the guidance only. Majority of the drawing follows the same roughness symbols.
7.3.2. Specification of Surface Roughness in the Symbol

The specification relative to the symbol should be placed in the specific form as shown in the
Fig. 7.22.
Production method
Treatment or coating
b
Roughness value Ra in
micrometer (m) or Roughness c (f)
grade symbol N1 to N12
Other roughness
values
a Sampling
Machining length
allowance
in mm
e d Direction of lay
Fig. 7.22. Specification on the symbol
There are specific symbols to be used for a to e.

(a) The symbol a shows the value of surface roughness and its ranges from the grade symbol N1 to N12.
(b) The symbol b represents the production method or machining process i.e. rolling, casting, heat
treatment or coating etc.
(c) The letter c represents the sampling length of component or job.
(d) The symbol d represents the direction of lay which is different for different machining process.
(e) The letter e represents the machining allowance value depends on the type of machine being used.
(f) The other roughness value when required to be represented at the place of symbol f in bracket.
These specific symbols can be understand by the following figures
When we have to obtain the specific roughness grade of Rolling

N9 by rolling process, the method of production is to be
indicated in the Fig. 7.23.
N9
Fig. 7.23
The surface finishing method or treatment should be Electro Plated
indicated on the extension line and whenever it is necessary N7 N6
to indicate the surface treatment, it should be indicated
as shown in Fig. 7.24. If the surface roughness required
is N7 before the treatment and N6 is required after
the treatment which is to be indicated as shown in the
Fig. 7.24.
Fig. 7.24
The direction of lay can be specified at the symbol as shown
in the Fig. 7.25. The direction of lay is required to be parallel
to the plane of projection.
Fig. 7.25
If we want to show the machining allowance (say 5 mm)
it should be indicated on the left hand side of the symbol
Fig. 7.26
If it is necessary to shown the sampling length which is to
30
be selected from the Indian standard code (say 30 mm) it
should be represented as shown in the Figure 7.27.
Fig. 7.27
The direction of lay for the different production method at the symbol position d is as shown in
Table 7.3.
172 Machine Drawing
Table 7.3
Symbol Subject material
Parallel to the plane of projections of view

in which the symbol is used.
Direction of
lay
Perpendicular to the plane of projection of

view in which the symbol is used.
Direction
of lay
X
Crossed in two slant directions relative to
the plane of projection of the view in which
the symbol is used
Direction of
lay
M
Multi Directioal
Approximately circular relative to the centre
C
of the surface to which symbol is applied.
Approximately radial relative to the centre
R
of the surface to which symbol is applied
The symbol should be oriented such that they may be

read from bottom or the right hand side as shown in the
Fig. 7.28. Milled
Milled
2.5
N7
The symbol may be connected to the surface by a leader 2.5
line terminating in an arrow. The symbol or arrow should be

N7
point from outside the material of the part either to the line
representing the surface or to an extension of it.
Whenever same roughness is required on all the surface
of a part, it is specified by a note near a view of the part or
Fig. 7.28
near the title block or in the space provided for general notes
as shown in Fig. 7.29.
Whenever same surface roughness is required on the majority of the surface of a part, it is specified
similar to previous example of Fig. 7.29 with the rotation except where otherwise stated as shown in
the Fig. 7.30.
N7 All Over
N7 All Over Except Otherwise Stated
N6
N5
Fig. 7.29 Fig. 7.30
7.3.3. Geometrical Symbol

The geometrical tolerance is applied as per the ISO-1101-1983 to technical drawing. Geometrical
tolerance symbols provide a precise and brief method of indicating complete geometrical requirement
on drawing. Geometrical tolerance is used with advantage for drawing of component parts that are to be
manufactured in different locations.
The tolerance frame is connected to the tolerance feature by the leader line terminating with an arrow
of outline of feature as shown in the Fig. 7.31.
0.02 A Datum letter
Leader line
Tolerance value
Arrow Tolerance symbol
Toleranced feature
Fig. 7.31
Another second method is to extend a dimension line when the tolerance refers to the axis of median
plane of the dimensioned features as shown in Fig. 7.32.
Fig. 7.32
174 Machine Drawing
Third method is used to the axis when tolerance refers to the axis of median plane of all features
common to that axis or median plane as shown in Fig. 7.33
Fig. 7.33
The characteristics of the tolerance along with its symbol is shown in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4
Characteristics to be Tolerance Symbols
STRAIGHTNESS
FLATNESS
CIRCULARITY (Roundness)
FORM OF SINGLE FEATURES
CYLINDRICITY
PROFILE OF ANY LINE
PROFILE OF ANY SURFACE
PARALLELISM
ORIENTATION OF RELATED
FEATURES PERPENDICULARLY
ANGULARITY
POSITION
POSITION OF RELATED CONCENTRICITY

FEATURES
SYMMETRY
RUNOUT
The geometrical symbols along with its indication on drawing and tolerance zone with its interpretation
is as shown in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5
Indication of Dwg Tolerance Zone Interpretation
straightness:
0.03
0.03
The line shown on the surface must lie between
two parallel straight lines 0.03 apart.
Flatness:
0.05
0.05
The surface must lie between two parallel planes
0.05 apart
0.02 2 Circularity:
0.0 The entire periphery at the considered cross-
section perpendicular to the axis must lie in an
annular tolerances zone 0.02 wide, formed by
two concentric circles.
Circle 0.1 Concentricity:

The center of the outer circle must lie in a circle
0.1 diameter concentric with center of circle A.
Center of
A 0.1 A circle A
0.03 Squareness:
0.03 A
Datum The axis of the vertical hole must lie between
A axis two planes 0.03 apart which are perpendicular
to the common axis of the two horizontal holes.
0.05 Parallelism:
The axis of the hole must lie between two planes
0.05 apart parallel to the datum.
A 0.05 A
Datum surface
0.05 A 0.0 Angularity:

5
The axis of the hole must lie in a cylinder 0.05
diameter which is inclined at 60° to the datum
surface.
A Datum surface
Position:
50
0.03 3
0.
0 The point must lie in a circle 0.03 diameter in
the plane of the surface which has its ceneter at
the specific point of intersection. If the point has
100 to be located in three dimensions the tolerance
will be a sphere.
176 Machine Drawing
Total runout:
0.04 D Total runout not to exceed 0.1 measured at any
D point normal to the surface whilst moving the
measuring instrument along the feature when
the part is rotated through a series of revolutions
about its own axis without axial movement.
Example 3. Figure 7.34 shows the working drawing of an idler pulley. Answer the following question
with reference to the drawing.
4 Drill hole
19 .04 A 0.2
12
4
31
53

79
A
3 22 3
28
63 .1 A IDLER PULLEY
Fig. 7.34
(a) What is the deep of V groove?

Ans. 12 mm
(b) What type of section is indicated in the drawing?
Ans. Half Section
(c) What is the size of drilling hole?
Ans. 4 mm.
(d) Where is the hole located?
Ans. Hole is located 19 mm from right hand pulley.
(e) What is the diameter of hidden circle in the side view?
Ans. 31 mm.
(f) What is the meaning of the symbol ?
Ans. The symbol indicate this face is parallel in 0.1 mm with datum surface A.
(g) What is the meaning of the symbol at B?
Ans. The symbol indicate the diameter B is perpendicular with A in 0.04 mm.
(h) What is the meaning of the symbol ?
Ans. The symbol indicate the roughness value is N9 – 6.3, N8 -3.2 and N7 -1.6.
(i) What is the meaning of the Diameter 25H6?
Ans. This diameter is a hole basis with 25 mm basic size.
(j) What is the Deep of Counter Bored Hole?
Ans. 4 mm.
Example 4. Figure 7.35 shows the working drawing of a Flange. Refer to the drawing and answer
the following question.
// 0.04 A
5.6 0.01 M A BM
(c) 12, 6 HOLES
(e)
0
11
0.1 B

(d)
6.3
116 ± .04
38 ± 0.1
2.5
60
KEY WAY
6.3
10H66
16
0.1 0.02 A
+0.01 0.4
A 50–0 B
(a) (f)
(b)
Fig. 7.35
(a) What is the meaning of symbol at a?
Ans. At a the meaning of symbol is flatness of face A with 0.1 mm
(b) What is the meaning of symbol at b?
Ans. The meaning of symbol at b is the hole perpendicular with face A in 0.02 mm.
(c) What is the meaning of symbol at c?
Ans. At point c the meaning is that the face is parallel to face A with 0.04 mm.
(d) What is the meaning of the symbol at d?
Ans. The symbol at d shows the diameter is runout in 0.1 mm with B.
6.3
(e) What is the meaning of the symbol ?
Ans. The symbol indicate the roughness value is N9 .
+0.01
(f) What is the meaning of 50−0.006 ?
Ans. The meaning of the symbol is the total length of flange is 50 mm with upper limit is + 0.01 mm
and lower limit is – 0 mm.
Chapter
8
Representation of
Welded Joints
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Welding is a way of heating pieces of metal using the electricity or a flame so that they melt and
stick together. There are many kinds of welding, including arc welding, resistance welding, plasma
welding, MIG welding, TIG welding and gas welding. The most common type is arc welding. Anyone
who is near arc welding needs to wear a special helmet or goggles because the arc is so bright. Looking
at the arc without visual protection may cause permanent eye damage. It is also important to cover all
your skin because it can give you something like a sunburn. Hot sparks from the weld can burn any skin
that is showing. One kind of welding that does not use an arc is Oxy-fuel welding (OFW), sometimes
called gas welding. OFW uses a flame to heat up the metal. There are other kinds of welding that do not
use an arc. A welding is a permanent type of joint. Figure 8.1 shows the basic features of the welding.
Weld size leg
Plate 2
Throat Face
Plate 1
Weld size leg
Fig. 8.1. Basic features of welding
8.2 METHOD OF REPRESENTATION OF WELD

The Welding symbol on the drawing is represented as shown in the Fig. 8.2.
Welding symbol
Reference line 1
Arrow line
Joint Reference line 2
178
Representation of Welded Joints 179
Arrow Arrow Other

Other side
Side side
Side
Arrow line Arrow line
Weld on the arrow side Weld on the other side
Fig. 8.2. Weld symbol on drawing
The position of welding symbol on the continuous line and if the welding is on the arrow side of
the joint. If the welding is on the other side of the joint, then it is represented by the dashed line. The
symmetrical welds as the welding on the both sides are same is represented in the Fig. 8.3.
(a) To be welded on the arrow side (b) To be welded on the other side
(c) For symmetrical welds only
Fig. 8.3. Position of weld symbol
8.3 DIMENSIONING OF WELDS

The dimensions of the welds are as shown in the Fig. 8.4. The main dimension relative to the cross section
of the weld is written on the left hand side of the symbol. The longitudinal dimensions are written on the
right hand side of the symbol and the absence of any indication following the symbol means the welding
is continuous over the entire length of the work piece.
s||l s||l
s l
l
s
Where S- is the width of plate and l is the length of plate

Fig. 8.4. Principle of welding
180 Machine Drawing
In the butt welds, if any indication is not mention it means that it shall have complete penetration.
In the case of fillet welds, generally two methods are used for indication of dimensions:
1. In the form of leg length (z)
2. In the form of throat thickness (a).
Hence, the letters a and z are generally used for the representation and its value is placed after the
symbol. The Fig. 8.5 shows the detail method of dimension on fillet weld.
5
Z a
7 50
a5 50 Z7 50
OR
Fig. 8.5. Method of dimension indication for fillet weld
8.4 CONVENTION REPRESENTATION OF WELD
Table 8.1. Representation of welding symbol

S. No. Designation Explanation Symbol
1. Butt weld between plates
with raised edges
2. Square butt weld
3. Single V– butt weld
4. Single – bevel butt
5. Single V butt with broad

root face
6. Single bevel Butt with

broad root face
7. Single U butt weld
8. Single J butt
9. Backing run, back weld
10. Filled weld
11. Plug weld, slot weld
12. Spot weld
13. Seam weld
Table 8.2. Supplementary welding symbols

S. No. Designation Explanation Symbol
1. Flat single V butt weld
2. Convex double butt weld
3. Concave fillet weld
4. Flat single v butt weld flat

backing run
182 Machine Drawing
Table 8.3. Combination of welding symbols

S. Designation Explanation Representation Symbols Symbol
No.
Either Or
1. Butt weld with

raised edge and
backing run
2. Square butt weld

parallel to both
sides
3. Single V butt weld

with backing run
4. Double V butt
weld
5. Double bevel butt

weld
6. Double v butt
weld with broad
root face
7. Double bevel butt
weld with broad
root face
8. Double U butt
weld with broad
root face
9. Double J butt
weld with broad
root face
10. Single V butt weld
and single U butt
weld with broad
root face
11. Fillet weld on
both sides
12. Fillet weld on

both sides
Table 8.4. Welding symbols for plain dimensions

S. Designation Explanation Representation symbol
No.
1. Butt weld S–minimum distance
from the surface of the
part which is not greater
S
than the thickness of plate
2. Butt weld with S

S S–minimum distance
raised edges from the external surface
S
of the weld to the bottom

of penetration
3. Continuous fillet a–Throat thickness

weld z–leg length size of the a
isosceles triangle
N N N
z
a a a
4. Intermittent fillet l–Length of weld

l (e) l n l (e)
weld (e)–distance between ad- a
jacent weld elements
z n l (e)
n–number of weld
elements
5. Random intermittent l (e) l (e) l a nl (e)

fillet weld a nl (e)
z nl (c)
l (e) l z nl (c)
6. Plug or slot c–width of slot c n l (e)

c
l (e) l
184 Machine Drawing
7 Seam weld c – width of weld c n l (e)
c
l (e) l
8 Plug weld (e) – spacing d n (e)

d – diameter of hole
d
(e)
9 Spot weld (e) – spacing

d n (e)
d d – diameter of spot
d
(e)
8.5 INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDS

The various intermittent welds are shown in the Figs. 8.6 to 8.8. The intermittent welds are designed
based on the strength and surrounding requirements.
The various letters used for this welds are shown as follows:
l – Length of weld
e – Distance between adjacent weld elements
n – Number of welded elements
a – Throat thickness of the weld.
l
l
e
e
l
l
e
e
l
a n l (e) a n l (e)
a n l (e)
Fig. 8.6. Intermittent welds Fig. 8.7. Intermittent welds

l
e
e
a n l (e) (e)
a n l (e) (e)
l
e
e
l
l
Fig. 8.8. Intermittent welds
8.6 INDICATION OF ALL ROUND WELD, SITE WELD AND WELDING PROCESS
1. All-round weld: Whenever the welding of job or part is to be done on all round, it should be
indicated by a circle as shown in the Fig. 8.9.
Fig. 8.9. All-round weld Fig. 8.10. Site weld
2. Site or Field weld: There are certain parts which requires the assembly at the site only like the
assembly of boiler or major machinery at that time welding is to be done at the site only and it
should be indicated by a flag as shown in the Fig. 8.10.
3. Welding process:When welding process is to be represented, the reference line is to be branched at the end and
the index number is written between the two branches as indicated in the
141
Fig. 8.11.
The index number for the welding process is as shown in the Table
8.5. These are some of the generally used welding process for the other Fig. 8.11. Welding process
welding process can be referred from the welding handbook.
Table 8.5. Welding process index number
S. No. Process Index number
1 Arc welding 1
2 Resistance welding 2
3 Gas welding 3
4 Pressure welding 4
186 Machine Drawing
5 Metal arc welding without gas 11
6 Submerged arc welding 12
7 Spot welding 21
8 Seam welding 22
9 Oxy-fuel gas welding 31
10 Brazing 91
11 Soldering 94
12 Metal arc welding with covered electrode 111
13 MIG welding 131
14 TIG welding 141
15 Oxy-acetylene welding 311
8.7 RULES OF WELDING SYMBOLS

Following rules to be followed while indicating the welding symbols at the drawing:
1. The arrow of the symbol must point towards the joint which requires welding.
2. The symbol for the weld should be indicated in such a way that vertical portion of the symbol are
drawn on the left hand side of the symbol.
3. Unequal legs of fillet should be given on the left hand side.
4. For all round or site weld proper symbol should be drawn.
5. The dimensions of size of weld are always in mm otherwise specified.
8.8 EXAMPLES
Problem 1. Two steel plates of 6 mm thickness are to be welded by a fillet weld to have a lap joint.
Represent the weld symbols on the drawing.
Solution. The welding symbol on the drawing is as shown in the Fig. 8.12.
6
6
6
Fig. 8.12. Solution to problem 1
Problem 2. A letter H is to be prepared by welding using the three steel plates of 8 mm thickness.
The size of the letter H is 80 mm in height and 60 mm in width. Represent the welding drawing showing
the symbols.
Solution. Refer the Fig. 8.13.

12 sq.
12 sq.
80
60
8 Thick plate
Problem 3. A T joint is to be made by two plates of 60 × 30 × 10 mm by fillet weld with leg length
of 5 mm by flush finished on arrow side and convex on the other side. Show the welding symbol on the
drawing.
5 5
5
5
Problem 4. A 6 mm plate is used for preparing the rim of wheel by single V butt weld with flush
finish on outside. Four arms are used for joining the rim. Arm is having circular cross section and other
end of arm is connected to a hub of the wheel which is to be welded by fillet welds all round at both the
ends. Show the welding symbol on the drawing.
6

188 Machine Drawing
Problem 5. A hollow cylinder of 2 meter diameter is to be prepared from 28 mm thick plates. The
ends of the plate are to be welded with double V butt weld with broad root face. The depth of the weld is
12 mm from outside and 8 mm from inside of the cylinder. The weld should be flush finished on both the
sides. Show the welding symbol on the drawing.
12
8
28

20
00
Problem 6. A square butt weld with convex contour at site is used to join the two shaft of equal
diameter of 100 mm. Represent the welding symbol on the drawing.
Exercises
1. A right circular cylinder of 150 mm diameter is to be welded to a steel plate at right angle to it with
all round fillet weld of 6 mm leg length. Draw the welding symbol on the drawing.
2. Two shafts of equal diameter are to be welded end to end by a square butt weld with convex counter
at site. Prepare the welding drawing.
3. Two M.S. plates of size 60 × 30 × 10 mm are to be joined by welding the 30 mm sides with a single
bevel butt weld flush finished on the top surface by grinding. Prepare the welding drawing.
4. A T joint is to be prepared by welding two M.S. plates by fillet weld of throat thickness 5 mm. The
weld is continuous on arrow side and regular intermittent on the other side starting with a welded
length of 25 mm followed by a unwelded length of 20 mm. Total one number of weld elements is
there. Represent the welding symbol on the drawing.
5. Two M.S. plates of 30 mm are to be joined by double U butt weld with broad root face with a depth
of penetration of 8 mm on arrow side and 10 mm on the other side with the weld flush–finished on
arrow side. Prepare the welding drawing.
Chapter
Riveted Joints
9
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Often small machine components are joined together to form a larger machine part. Design of joints is
as important as that of machine components because a weak joint may spoil the utility of a carefully
designed machine part. Mechanical joints are broadly classified into two classes viz., non-permanent
joints and permanent joints. Non-permanent joints can be assembled and dissembled without damaging
the components. Examples of such joints are threaded fasteners (like screw-joints), keys and couplings
etc. Permanent joints cannot be dissembled without damaging the components. These joints can be of
two kinds depending upon the nature of force that holds the two parts. The force can be of mechanical
origin, for example, riveted joints, joints formed by press or interference fit etc., where two components
are joined by applying mechanical force. The components can also be joined by molecular force, for
example, welded joints, brazed joints, joints with adhesives etc. Not until long ago riveted joints were
very often used to join structural members permanently. However, significant improvement in welding
and bolted joints has curtained the use of these joints. Even then, rivets are used in structures, ship body,
bridge, tanks and shells, where high joint strength is required.
A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a headed integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is
known as shank or body while the lower portion of shank is known as tail as shown in Figure 9.1.
Head
Shank or
Body
Tail
Fig. 9.1. Basic feature of rivet
The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in structural work, ship
building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells. The rivet joints are generally used for joining light metals.
9.2 RIVETS AND RIVETING

A Rivet is a short cylindrical rod having a head and a tapered tail. The main body of the rivet is called
shank. According to Indian standard specifications rivet heads are of various types. Rivets heads for general
190
Riveted Joints 191
purposes are specified by Indian standards IS: 2155-1982 (below 12 mm diameter) and IS: 1929-1982
(from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter). Rivet heads used for boiler works are specified by IS: 1928-1978. Rivet
and its parts Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a rivet as shown in
figure 9.2. Adequate mechanical force is applied to make the joint strong and leak proof. Smooth holes
are drilled or punched and reamed in two plates to be joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then,
the head by means of a backing up bar necessary force is applied at the tail end with a die until the tail
deforms plastically to the required shape. Depending upon whether the rivet is initially heated or not,
the riveting operation can be of two types:
(a) Cold Riveting: It is done at ambient temperature.
(b) Hot Riveting: The rivets are initially heated before applying force. After riveting is done, the
joint is heat-treated by quenching and tempering. In order to ensure leak-proof of the joints, when
it is required, additional operation like caulking is done.
RIVETING OF SHEET METAL
Upper Force
die
Sheet Upper Sheet
Sheet Work metal Sheet Rivet metal
metal die
metal
Lower Lower
Support die Support Support die Support
Work is set in pre made holes Energy from die compression forms rivet
Fig. 9.2. Riveting process
9.3 TERMS USED IN RIVETED JOINTS

The following terms in connection with the riveted joints are important as shown in Figure 9.3.
Gauge line
Margin lap pd
distance (m) Pitch (p)
Back pitch (pt)
Fig. 9.3. Terms used in rivet

192 Machine Drawing
(a) Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single row. (usual
symbol p)
(b) Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple riveted joint.
(usual symbol pt or pb)
(c) Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of zigzag
riveted joint. (usual symbol pd)
(d) Transverse pitch: It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive rows.
It is generally denoted by (symbol pt)
(e) Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to the nearest
edge of the plate. (usual symbol m)
9.4 TYPES OF RIVET HEADS

According to Indian standard specifications, the rivet heads are classified into the following three types:
1. Rivet heads for general purposes (below 12 mm diameter) as shown in Fig. 9.4, according to
IS : 2155 – 1982.
1.6 d 1.6 d 2.25 d 2d

1.516 d 0.29 d
0.7 d 0.7 d d 0.5 d
Length
Length
Length
Length
120°
d d d d
(a) Snap head (b) Pan head (c) Mushroom head (d) Counter sunk
head 120°
2d 0.25 d
1.5 d 1.5 d
2d
0.5 d 0.433 d 1.5 dR 0.433 d
Length
Length
Length
90° 60° 60°

Length
d d d d
(e) Flat counter sunk (f) Flat counter sunk (g) Round counter sunk (h) Flat head
head 90° head 60° head 60°
Fig. 9.4. Rivet heads

Riveted Joints 193
2. Rivet heads for general purposes (From 12 mm to 48 mm diameter) as shown in Fig. 9.5,
according to IS : 1929 – 1982.
1.6 d 1.6 d 1.6 d
0.7 d 0.7 d d 0.7 d d
0.5 d
Length
Length
Length
15°
d d
d
(a) Snap head (b) Pan head (c) Pan head with tapered neck
1.5 d 1.5 dR 1.5 d

2d
0.25 d
0. 5d 0. 5d
60° 60°
Length
Length
Length
d d d
(d) Round counter (e) Flat counter (f) Flat head

sunk head 60° sunk head 60°
3. Rivet heads for boiler work (from 12 mm to 48 mm diameter, as shown in Fig. 9.6, according
to IS : 1928 – 1961.
1.6 d 1.6 d 1.6 d
0.7 d 0.125 d 0.6 d 0.7 d

1.6 d d
60° 60° 60°

0.125 d
Length
Length
Length
0.125 d
d d d
(a) Snap head (b) Ellipsoid head (c) Pan head (Type I)
1.4 d &
1.3 d 1.6 d
1.6 d 0.25 d
d
0.125 d d
0.8 d d
0.7 d 1.5
d
60° 0.5 d
60°
Length
Length
Length
15° 0.125 d
d d d
(d) Pan head (Type II) (e) Pan head with tapered neck (f) Conical head
194 Machine Drawing
2d
1.5 d
1.7 d
0.45 d 1.5 d 0.5

60° d
Length
Length
60°
Length
0.125 d
d d
d
(g) Counter-sunk head (h) Round counter sunk head

(i) Steeple head
9.5 CAULKING AND FULLERING

Caulking is the processes and material to seal the joints or seams in various structures and some types
of piping. The oldest form of caulking is used to make the seams in wooden boats or ships watertight,
by driving fibrous materials into the wedge-shaped seams between boards. In this process narrow blunt
tool called caulking tool is used. The thickness of tool is about 5 mm and the edge of the tool is ground
to an angle of 80 degree.
It is used to obtain leak proof joints. Surface finish obtained is less compared to fullering. It has more
risk of damaging the plates. The caulking tool is as shown in Figure 9.7.
Caulking tool
Caulked rivet
C
A
Fig. 9.7. Caulking tool
Fullering is more satisfactory way of making the joints staunch which has largely superseded
caulking. It is used to obtain leak proof joints. It is carried out by using fullering tools. The thickness of
tool is equal to the thickness of the plate. It is gives clean surface finish and less risk of damaging the
plates. The fullering tool is as shown in Figure 9.8.
Fullering tool
80°
Fig. 9.8. Fullering tool

Riveted Joints 195
9.6 PROPORTIONS FOR HOLE DIAMETER AND RIVET LENGTH

As per the standard the hole diameter and rivet length proportions is as shown in the Figure 9.9.
D
1.0625 D
1.5 D
Fig. 9.9. Hole diameter and rivet length proportions
The diameter of riveted hole may be determined by using the equation as d = 6 t where t is the
thickness of the plate.
The distance of centre of the rivet from edge of the plate is taken as 1.5 times the diameter and margin
should be the diameter of rivet.
Longitudinal pitch (p) is to be taken as three times the diameter of rivet.
Transverse pitch (pt) should be equal to 0.8 times the pitch for chain riveting and 0.6 times the pitch
for zig-zag riveting.
Thickness of butt strap for single cover plate should be 1.125 times the thickness of plate and for
double cover plate it should be 0.7 to 0.8 times the thickness of plate.
9.7 CLASSIFICATION OF RIVETED JOINTS AND JOINT EFFICIENCY

The classification of riveted joints can be done in following ways:
1. According to the purpose of rivets: Based on purpose the riveted joints can be classified into
three types:
1.1 Strong Joints: Strong rivet joints strength is the only criterion. These joints are used in
engineering structure such as trusses, beams and machine frames.
1.2 Tight Joints: Tight rivet joints provide strength as well as are leak proof against low pressures.
Joints in reservoirs, containers, and tanks fall under this group.
1.3 Strong Tight Joints: Strong tight rivet joints are used in boilers and pressure vessels and
ensure both strength and leak proof less.
2. According to the position of plates connected: According to the position of plates connected
riveted joints are classified into two types:
9.7.2.1. Lap joint: In a lap joint the edges of plates are simply laid over each other and riveted.

9.7.2.2. Butt joint: In Butt, joint plates lie in the same plane and joined through cover plates.

196 Machine Drawing
9.7.2.3. Lap Joints: The plates that are to be joined are brought face to face such that an overlap
exists, as shown in figure 9.10. Rivets are inserted on the overlapping portion. Single or
multiple rows of rivets are used to give strength to the joint. Depending upon the number
of rows the riveted joints may be classified as single riveted lap joint, double or triple
riveted lap joint etc. When multiple joints are used, the arrangement of rivets between two
neighbouring rows may be of two kinds. In chain riveting the adjacent rows have rivets
in the same transverse line. In zig-zag riveting, on the other hand, the adjacent rows of
rivets are staggered. Different types of lap joints are shown in the Figure 9.11 to 9.15.
Rivet
Main Plate
Main Plate
Fig. 9.10. Lap joint
Single row lap Joint

1.5D 3D 3D 3D D = river shank diameter
Pitch
Lap 3D
1.5D
Fig. 9.11. Single row lap joint
Double row (chain) lap Joint

1.5D 3D 3D 3D
Pitch
Lap 6D
Pitch
3D
1.5D
Fig. 9.12. Double row (chain) lap joint

Riveted Joints 197
Double row (zigzag) lap Joint

1.5D 3D 3D 3D
Pitch
Lap 6D
Pitch
3D
1.5D
3D 3D
Fig. 9.13. Double row (zigzag) lap joint
Triple row (chain) lap Joint
X X
Fig. 9.14. Triple row (chain) lap joint

198 Machine Drawing
Triple row (zigzag) lap Joint
Y Y
Fig. 9.15. Triple row (zigzag) lap joint
9.7.2.3. Butt Joints: In this type of joint, the plates are brought to each other without forming any
overlap. A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting (i.e. touching)
each other and a cover plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main
plates. The cover plate is then riveted together with the main plates. Depending upon the number
of cover plates the butt joints may be single strap or double strap butt joints. A single strap butt
joint is shown in figure 9.16 .
Rivet Butt strap
Main plate Main plate
Fig. 9.16. Butt joint (Single strap)
The arrangement of the rivets may be of various kinds, namely, single row, double or triple chain
or zigzag.
2.1 Single strap butt joint: In a single strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against
each other and only one cover plate is placed on one side of the main plates and then riveted
together.
2.2 Double strap butt joint: In a double strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against
each other and two cover plates are placed on both sides of the main plates and then riveted
together.
Riveted Joints 199
In addition to the above, following are the types of riveted joints depending upon the number of
rows of the rivets.
1. Single riveted joint: A single riveted joint is that in which there is a single row of rivets in a lap
joint as shown in Fig. 9.17 and there is a single row of rivets on each side in a butt joint as shown
in Fig. 9.18.
2. Double riveted joint: A double riveted joint is that in which there are two rows of rivets as shown
in Fig. 9.19. When the rivets in the various rows are opposite to each other, as shown in Fig. 9.19
then the joint is said to be chain riveted. On the other hand, if the rivets in the adjacent rows are
staggered in such a way that every rivet is in the middle of the two rivets of the opposite row as
shown in Fig. 9.22, then the joint is said to be zig-zag riveted.
Single strap chain riveted butt joint (single row)
1.5D 3D 3D 3D
Pitch
Strip width
1.5D 1.5D 1.5D
Strap or
cover plate
Fig. 9.17. Single strap single row butt joint
Double strap chain riveted butt joint (single row)
X X
t1
t2
Fig. 9.18. Double strap single row butt joint

200 Machine Drawing
Double strap chain riveted butt joint (double row)

1.5D 3D 3D 3D
Pitch
Strap or cover plate width = 12D
Pitch
3D
3D 1.5D 1.5D
Pitch
1.5D
Fig. 9.19. Double strap double row butt joint
Double strap unequal zig-zag riveted butt joint (double row)
X P X
Fig. 9.20. Double strap double row unequal butt joint

Riveted Joints 201
Double strap equal chain riveted butt joint (double row)
X X
pb
Fig. 9.21. Double strap double row equal butt joint
Double strap unequal zig-zag riveted butt joint (double row)
Z Z
Fig. 9.22. Double strap double row zig-zag butt joint
JOINT EFFICIENCY
The strength of a rivet joint is measured by its efficiency. The efficiency of a joint is defined as the ratio
between the strength of a riveted joint to the strength of an un riveted joints or a solid plate. Obviously,
the efficiency of the riveted joint not only depends upon the size and the strength of the individual rivets
202 Machine Drawing
but also on the overall arrangement and the type of joints. Usual range of the efficiencies, expressed in
percentiles of the joints are given in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Efficiencies of riveted joints (in %)
Joints Efficiencies (in %)
Lap Single riveted 50-60
Double riveted 60-72
Triple riveted 72-80
Butt (double strap) Single riveted 55-60
Double riveted 76-84
Triple riveted 80-88
9.8 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF RIVET JOINTS

The strength of a joint may be defined as the maximum force, which it can transmit, without causing it
to fail. A little consideration will show that if we go on increasing the pull on a riveted joint, it will fail
when the least of these three pulls is reached, because a higher value of the other pulls will never reach
since the joint has failed, either by tearing off the plate, shearing off the rivet or crushing off the rivet. If
the joint is continuous as in case of boilers, the strength is calculated per pitch length. But if the joint is
small, the strength is calculated for the whole length of the plate.
A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge. This can be avoided by keeping the margin,
m = 1.5d, where d is the diameter of the rivet hole.
Due to the tensile stresses in the main plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row
of rivets as shown in Fig. 9.23. In such cases, we consider only one pitch length of the plate, since every
rivet is responsible for that much length of the plate only. The resistance offered by the plate against
tearing is known as tearing resistance or tearing strength or tearing value of the plate.
p p
p–d p
Fig. 9.23. Tearing of the plate

Riveted Joints 203
The plates which are connected by the rivets exert tensile stress on the rivets, and if the rivets are
unable to resist the stress, they are sheared off as shown in Fig. 9.24 and 9.25. It may be noted that the
rivets are in single shear in a lap joint and in a single cover butt joint,
Fig. 9.24. Shearing of rivets in lap joint
P P
Fig. 9.25. Shearing of rivets in butt joint
9.9 RIVET SYMBOLS

Rivet locations are predrilled or punched and reamed. Some rivet is driven at the workshop and others
are made at the jobsite. In all the cases, one should correctly locate and identify rivet connections on the
fabrication drawings. Table 9.2 shows the description and symbol for common rivet joints.
Table 9.2. Symbols of rivets
Description Symbol (Plan) Symbol (section)
Shop Rivets two full heads
Shop Rivets Countersunk & chipped side

Shop Rivets Countersunk & chipped side
Shop Rivets countersunk & chipped both side
204 Machine Drawing
Shop Rivets Countersunk not over ¼ inch high near side

Shop Rivets Countersunk not over 2/4 inch high far side
Shop Rivets countersunk not over ¾ inch high both side
Shop Flattened to ¼ inch ¼ inch high near side

Shop Flattened to ¼ inch for ¼ inch far side
Shop Flattened to ¼ inch for ¼ and ¼ high both side
Field rivets two full heads

Fields rivets countersunk near side
Field rivets countersunk far side
Field rivets countersunk both side
The conventional representation of hole as per B.I.S. S.P. 46-1988 is shown in the table 9.3 where
number of rivets are used and gauge lines are drawn and location of rivets and holes are shown by line
symbols.
Table 9.3. Symbols for hole
Symbol for Hole

Hole Without counter Counter sunk on Counter sunk on Counter sunk on
sinking near side far side both sides
Drilled in the
workshop
Drilled on site
Riveted Joints 205
Symbol for hole

Hole Without counter Counter sunk on one Counter sunk on both
sinking side only sides
Drilled in the workshop
Drilled on site
In case of large drawings where number of rivets are used and it is not necessary to draw all the
rivets, in such cases gauge lines are drawn and location of rivets are shown by line symbol as per B.I.S.
Table 9.4 shows such cases.
Table 9.4. Symbols for line rivets
Sr. No. Object Symbol
1. Shop SNAP Headed rivets
2. Shop CSK (Near side) rivets
3. Shop CSK (Far side) rivets
4. Shop CSK (Both side) rivets
5. Site SNAP Headed rivets
6. Site CSK (Near side) rivets
7. Site CSK (Near side) rivets
8. Site CSK (Far side) rivets
9. Open HOLE
206 Machine Drawing
9.10 COMMON USE OF RIVET JOINTS

Although bolts, screws, and nails are far more common in the world of fasteners, many applications
still require the use of rivets. Rivets can support tension loads and are better suited to supporting shear
loads that are perpendicular to their axes. Riveting is ideal in situations where workers cannot access
the back of the product, such as with a walls or tubing. With riveting, there’s no need to access the rear
end of the joint.
Riveting is often a more cost-effective and superior method of fastening. Rivets are easy to install,
and thus, have a lower installation cost, while the unit cost is also often lower. They’re available in a
variety of materials, types, and sizes in order to meet the requirements of many applications, and they’re
reliable because they’re permanently fastened in order to withstand environmental conditions and even
severe vibrations. Riveting was a popular method of fastening in the past but it’s still widely used today
when a light weight and high strength are vital to the application. They can fasten wood, metal, and plastic.
Here are five common uses for rivets.
Home Building
If you look around your home, inside and out, you might see some rivets that you’ve never noticed
before. They’re probably all around you. They’re widely used in gutter construction because nails aren’t
as effective for attaching metal sheets together. Additionally, if you have fiberglass roofing, it’s probably
held together with rivets. Window blinds, hanger straps, wind guards, and even doors and windows are
often installed by riveting.
Wall and Ceiling Fittings

Because you only have access to one side of a wall or ceiling, riveting is ideal if you’re looking to
permanently attach nameplates, signs, or decorations to them. Ornamental objects, Halloween decorations,
framed paintings, photo frames, and just about any other type of decor can be efficiently and easily
attached to walls and ceilings with riveting.
Woodworking
Wooden stands and shelves, cabinets, lockers etc. just about anything made out of wood can be
held together effectively with the use of rivets. In fact, it’s often the most superior option. They’re more
durable than screws and nails, so they ensure a sturdier finished product, which allows the furniture to
be held in place for the long run. Even the hinges used on these products, as well as the drawer pulls,
handles, and doorknobs placed on them are often attached by riveting.
Jewellery
Both professional and amateur jewellery makers use riveting as a cold connection technique. It allows
them to join metal pieces together without having to resort to soldering or using heat, while also adding
depth and texture to their jewellery. With just the most basic metal forming skills, some common tools,
and some instructional videos, any jewellery maker can use riveting to make cold connections.
Aircraft
Naturally, an aircraft will have to be made from solid, strong materials. But these heavy-duty materials
would fall apart if they weren’t fastened together firmly. Though welding, bolting, and brazing are also
Riveted Joints 207
used in the construction of an aircraft, riveting is also vital to the process. The end goal is to have the
strongest union of the parts that are joined together and riveting is necessary to achieve this. It’s most
commonly used to join aluminium alloys together, because aluminium is difficult to solder. Riveting
provides neatness and strength, while also allowing for a lighter weight in an aircraft. Plus, during the
construction and repair of aircrafts, it’s not always possible to reach the rear end of the structure being
fastened, which is where riveting becomes especially useful.
9.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What should be essential qualities of a rivet and its material?
Ans. From the riveting procedure it is clear that a good rivet material must be tough and ductile. Steel
(low carbon), coppers, brass are good candidates for rivets. According to Indian standard IS: 2998-
1982 the material must have tensile strength of 40 MPa and elongation not less 20%.
2. What are the uses of snap headed, counter shank headed, conical headed and pan headed rivets?
Ans. Snap heads are used mainly for structural work and machine riveting. Counter shank heads are
employed for ship building where flush surfaces are necessary. Conical heads are used where riveting
is done by hand hammering. Pan heads are required where very high strength is needed since they
have the maximum strength, but they are very difficult to shape.
Exercises
1. What do you understand by the term riveted joint?
2. What are the various permanent and detachable fastenings?
3. Classify the rivet heads according to Indian standard specifications.
4. What is the material used for rivets?
5. Enumerate the different types of riveted joints and rivets.
6. Where does rivet find applications?
7. What is the difference between caulking and fullering? Explain with the help of neat sketches.
8. What do you understand by the term ‘efficiency of a riveted joint’?
Chapter
Screw Fasteners
10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Fasteners are defined as hardware that can be easily installed and removed with hand or power tools.
Common fasteners include screws, bolts, nuts and rivets. The terms bolt and screws do not refer to
specific types of fasteners, but rather how they are used (i.e. the application). Thus the same fastener may
be termed a bolt or a screw. Bolts are defined as headed fasteners having external threads that meet an
exacting, uniform thread specification such that they can accept a non-tapered nut. Screws are defined as
headed, externally-threaded fasteners that do not mate with a non-tapered nut and are instead threaded
into the material they will hold. As shown in Figure 10.1, a bolt joint can be defined as that which uses
a bolt and nut assembly whereas a screw joint can be defined as one in which a screw is mated into a
matching female thread in a work piece while the studs are a hybrid between a bolt and a screw, since
one end of the stud functions as a screw while the other functions as a bolt.
Bolt Screw Stud
Fig. 10.1. Bolt, screw and stud applications
Bolts are often used to make a bolted joint. This is a combination of the nut applying an axial clamping
force and also the shank of the bolt acting as a dowel, pinning the joint against sideways shear forces.
Where a fastener forms its own thread in the component being fastened, it is called a screw. This is most
obviously so when the thread is tapered (i.e. traditional wood screws), precluding the use of a nut, or
when a sheet metal screw or other thread-forming screw is used.
A screw must always be turned to assemble the joint. Many bolts are held fixed in place during
assembly, either by a tool or by a design of non-rotating bolt, such as a carriage bolt, and only the
corresponding nut is turned.
A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e. a bolt and nut. The screwed joints are widely
used where the machine parts are required to be readily connected or disconnected without damage to the
208
Screw Fasteners 209
machine or the fastening. This may be for the purpose of holding or adjustment in assembly or service
inspection, repair, or replacement or it may be for the manufacturing or assembly reasons.
10.2 FASTENERS FUNCTION

Fasteners have only one intended function to clamp parts together. Fasteners are not meant to position
parts relative to one another. The function of dowel pins as shown in Figure 10.2, locating shoulders
and piloting diameters. Additionally, fasteners are not meant to function as pivots, axles and fulcrums.
Dowel
pin
Plate
The hole of the

dowel pins
Fig. 10.2. Position of dowel pins to position parts
More importantly, the threaded portion of a fastener should never be loaded in shear for at least three
reasons. First, the threaded portion of the fastener is of slightly smaller diameter than the unthreaded shank,
allowing the fastener to quickly loosen if transverse loading is applied. Second, the threaded portion of
the bolt has much less surface area than the shank, which means it offers significantly less bearing area
to the joint and this reduces the load carrying capacity and fatigue resistance of the assembly. Third, the
relative motion between the hole and the loose fitting threaded portion of the bolt occurs, the thread will
act as a low speed file, removing material from the inside of the hole, exacerbating the problem. So good
design engineers never load fastener threads in shear.
10.3 TERMS USED IN SCREW THREADS

Screw thread is a continuous helical groove of specified cross-section produced on the external or internal
surface. A screw thread formed on a cylinder is known as straight or parallel screw thread, while screw
thread formed on a cone or frustum is known as the tapered screw thread. Following are the terms used
in screw threads.
1. Major diameter: It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The screw is
specified by this diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
2. Minor diameter: It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is also
known as core or root diameter.
3. Axis of a thread: This is an imaginary line running longitudinally through the centre of the screw.
4. Crest: Crest of the thread is the top most surface joining the two sides.
5. Root: Root of the thread is the bottom of the groove between the two flanks.
210 Machine Drawing
Angle of
Flank
thread
Slope 0.5 p
Major dia
Minor dia
Pitch dia
Nominal
Axis
dia
Crest Pitch
P
Root Depth of
thread
Fig. 10.3. Terms used in screw threads
6. Flank: Flank of thread are straight edges which connect the crest with the root of the thread.
7. Pitch: Pitch of a thread is the distance measured parallel to the axis from a point on a thread to
the corresponding points on adjacent thread forms in the same axial plane and on the same side
of the axis.
8. Pitch diameter: It is a theoretical diameter between the major and minor diameter of screw
threads.
9. Slope: It is half the pitch of the thread.
10. Lead: It is the distance between two corresponding points on the same helix. It may also be defined
as the distance which a screw thread advances axially in one rotation of the nut. Lead is equal
to the pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch in double start, thrice the pitch in
triple start and so on.
8. Depth of thread: It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.
9. Flank: It is the surface joining the crest and root.
10. Helix angle: On the straight thread, It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line
with the axis.
11. Lead angle: On the straight thread, It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line
with a plane perpendicular to the axis. Lead angle is measured in an axial plane.
12. Flank angle: Flank angle is the angle made by the flank of a thread with the perpendicular to the
axis of a thread.
13. Included angle: Included angle is the angle between the flanks or slope of the thread measured
in an axial plane.
10.4 TYPES OF SCREW

The different types of screws available today in the market, depending upon its applications. These
types can be distinguished depending upon the driving methods, job requirement, head shape, type
of threads and material used to make such metal pieces. Some of the types are mention below in the
Tables 10.1 and 10.2.
Screw Fasteners 211
Sheet Metal Screws: Usually threaded all the way to their head, these will work in wood. Most of
these screws are self-tapping in that they only require a pre-drilled hole, but some come with self-drilling
or self-tapping tips.
Drywall Screws: The coarse thread version is meant to secure drywall to wood while the fine thread
version is for attachment to metal studs commonly used in office construction. The head-to-shaft junction
is more curved than in a wood screw to prevent tearing of the dry-wall.
Slotted, Phillips and Square drives: The main drawback of slotted heads is that power driven screw
drivers easily came out. Phillips heads address this problem to a certain extent, but these were actually
designed to cause the bit to came out at a certain point to prevent over-tightening. There have been
revisions of the original Phillips head, most notably the patented Pozidriv, which does not have rounded
internal corners and won’t cause the driving bit to pop out. The square or Robertson drive is least likely
to came out and transfers the greatest amount of torque.
Carriage Bolts: These have a square shank that sinks into and grips wood when a nut is tightened.
Flat and Oval Head: The most common type of head for wood, these heads end up flush or below
the surface of the wood when installed. An oval head is similar, except that it has a decorative rounded
top that remains above the surface.
Security Heads: These screws have heads that are either impossible to reverse or require a special
driver to operate. Some even have sacrificial heads that can be broken off after installing the screw.
Hex Washer Head and Truss head: These screws have a built in washer to help distribute load to a
wider area. A truss head is a flatter and wider than a typical round or pan head and serves the same purpose.
Machine screws: Are generally stronger than wood screws, have finer threads and are made more
precisely. They’re used with nuts or tapped holes. Several examples are shown below.
Socket Screws: While many hex cap screws may be found in vehicles, socket head screws are
becoming more popular and have some space saving advantages over hex cap screws. Socket heads take
up less space themselves and don’t require side room for wrenches. They also are usually made from
stronger alloy steel vs. hex cap screws, but this depends on the grade and manufacturer.
Allen/Hex Socket: Most socket head screws accept a hex or Allen wrench (6 sided), these were
designed to prevent the driver from camming out, and can transfer more torque than a Phillips or slotted
driver.
Button Head: This head is largely decorative and somewhat similar to a round head, but flatter.
Flat head (counter sunk): These require a pre-drilled counter sink, and are typically angled at 82
degrees (Unified thread), which, by the way, is not the angle created by most drill bits (118 degrees).
Metric flat heads have 90 degree angles.
Shoulder Screws: These have precision ground shanks that remain above the head of a hole and
provide a simple way to make an axel for a wheel. They are also used when something must be secured,
but not clamped.
Set Screws: These are threaded along their entire length and are typically used to secure a shaft from
rotating. They’re used in pulleys, sprockets, collars and knobs among other things.
212 Machine Drawing
Table 10.1. Types of bolts and machine screws

American usage British usage
Hex head bolt Bolt
Set screw Hex head cap screw Setscrew
Flat head screw Countersunk head screw
Oval head screw Raised countersunk head screw
Round head screw Round head screw
Pan head screw Pan head screw
Cheese head screw Cheese head screw
Slotted set screw Grub screw Grub screw
Allen bolt Socket head bolt Internal wrenching bolt Cap head
Button head screw Button head screw
Socket head shoulder screw Shoulder screw
Socket set screw Socket set screw
Table 10.2. Types of nuts and washers

American usage British usage
Hexagon nut Full nut
Low hex nut Shear nut jam nut Lock nut
Nylon ring elastic stop nut Self-locking nut with Nylon insert
Aerotight stiff nut

Screw Fasteners 213
Castellated nut Slotted hex nut Castle nut Slotted nut
Wing nut Wing nut
Acorn nut Dome nut Dome nut
Flat washer (plain and chamfered) Stamped washer (plain and chamfered)
Lock washer (split) Spring washer (single coil)
Lock washer (double split) Spring washer (double coil)
Star washer (external teeth) Shakeproof washer (external teeth)
Star washer (internal teeth) Shakeproof washer (internal teeth)
10.5 FORMS OF SCREW THREADS

Basically when a helical groove is cut or generated over a cylindrical or conical section, threads are
formed. When a point moves parallel to the axis of a rotating cylinder or cone held between centres, a
helix is generated. Screw threads formed in this way have two functions to perform in general:
(a) To transmit power - Square. Acme, Buttress, Knuckle types of thread forms are useful for this
purpose. Square threads give higher efficiency due to a low friction.
(b) To secure one member to another- V-threads are most useful for this purpose due to they do not
shake loose due to the wedging action provided by the thread.
Some standard forms are shown in Figures 10.4 to 10.13.
1. British standard whitworth (B.S.W.) thread: This is a British standard thread profile and has
coarse pitches. It is a symmetrical V-thread in which the angle between the flankes, measured in an
axial plane, is 55°. These threads are found on bolts and screwed fastenings for special purposes.
The various proportions of B.S.W. threads are shown in Fig. 10.4.
P
r
S
55°
h
S
r = 0.14 P, h = 0.64 P, s = 0.16 P
Fig. 10.4. BSW thread profile
These threads are also used for line adjustments and where the connected parts are subjected to
increased vibrations as in aero and automobile work.
214 Machine Drawing
2. British Association (B.A.) thread: This is a B.S.W. thread with fine pitches. The proportions of
the B.A. thread are shown in Fig. 10.5. These threads are used for instruments and other precision
works.
p
47.5° h H
H = 1.13634 p ; h = 0.6 p ; r = 0.18083 p
Fig. 10.5. BA thread profile
3. American national standard thread: The American national standard or U.S. or Seller’s thread
has flat crests and roots. The flat crest can withstand more rough usage than sharp V-threads. These
threads are used for general purposes e.g. on bolts, nuts, screws and tapped holes. The various
proportions are shown in Fig. 10.6.
P
b b
60°
h
P
b= h = 0.6495 P
8
Fig. 10.6. Sellers thread profile
4. Unified standard thread: The three countries i.e., Great Britain, Canada and United States
came to an agreement for a common screw thread system with the included angle of 60°, in order
to facilitate the exchange of machinery. The thread has rounded crests and roots, as shown in
Fig. 10.7.
H p
8
H
60° p
4
H H
4 6
H = 0.866 p
Fig. 10.7. Unified thread profile
5. Square thread: The square threads, because of their high efficiency, are widely used for
transmission of power in either direction. Such type of threads are usually found on the feed
Screw Fasteners 215
mechanisms of machine tools, valves, spindles, screw jacks etc. The square threads are not so
strong as V-threads but they offer less frictional resistance to motion than Whitworth threads. The
proportions of the thread are shown in Fig. 10.8.
p b
P , P
b= h=
2 2
Square thread
Fig. 10.8. Square thread profile
6. Acme thread: It is a modification of square thread. It is much stronger than square thread and
can be easily produced. These threads are frequently used on screw cutting lathes, brass valves,
cocks and bench vices. The various proportions are shown in Fig. 10.9.
P b
29° e
h
b
c c
h = P + 0.010, b = 0.3707 P, b = b – 0.0052

2
Fig. 10.9. Acme thread profile
7. Knuckle thread: It is also a modification of square thread. It has rounded top and bottom. It can
be cast or rolled easily and can not economically be made on a machine. These threads are used
for rough and ready work. They are usually found on railway carriage couplings, hydrants, necks
of glass bottles and large moulded insulators used in electrical trade.
P P
R=
4
P
2
Fig. 10.10. Knuckle thread profile
8. Buttress thread: It is used for transmission of power in one direction only. The force is transmitted
almost parallel to the axis. This thread unit the advantage of both square and V-thread. It has a
low frictional resistance characteristics of the square thread and have the same strength as that
of V-thread. The spindles of bench vices are usually provided with buttress thread. The various
proportions of buttress thread are shown in Fig. 10.11.
216 Machine Drawing
F f
P
2
7° A H
Nominal or major dia

45° h
r 2
s
Pitch dia
H = 0.89064 p; A = 0.50286 p; f= 0.24532 p;

s = 0.13946 p; F = 0.27544 p; r = 0.12055 p.
Fig. 10.11. Buttress thread profile
8. V thread: A screw thread having a thread angle of 60 degrees with the bisector of the
angle being perpendicular to the axis of the thread and the crests and roots of the threads
being lines formed by the intersections of the sides
P
Crest
60° h
Root
h = 0.866 P
Fig. 10.12. V thread profile
9. International standard metric thread: The design principles of ISO general-purpose metric
screw threads (“M” series threads) are defined in international standard ISO 68-1. Each thread is
characterized by its major diameter, D , and its pitch, P. ISO metric threads consist of a symmetric
V-shaped thread. In the plane of the thread axis, the flanks of the V have an angle of 60° to each
other. External threads are designated by lowercase letter, g or h. Internal threads are designated
by upper case letters, G or H.
P b
60° h b
m
b = P, h = 0.7036 P, m = 0.144 P
0
Fig. 10.13. International Standard metric thread profile
10.6 COMMON TYPES OF SCREW FASTENINGS

Following are the common types of screw fastenings:
Screw Fasteners 217
1. Bolts: A through bolt is shown in Fig. 10.14. It is a cylindrical bar with threads for the nut at
one end and head at the other end. The cylindrical part of the bolt is known as shank. It is passed
through drilled holes in the two parts to be fastened together and clamped them securely to each
other as the nut is screwed on to the threaded end. The through bolts may or may not have a
machined finish and are made with either hexagonal or square heads. The through bolts according
to their usage may be known as machine bolts, carriage bolts, automobile bolts, eye bolts.
Fig. 10.14. Fastenings through bolts
2. Tap bolts: A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt. It is screwed into a tapped hole of one of the
parts to be fastened without the nut, as shown in Fig. 10.15.
Fig. 10.15. Fastenings through tap bolts
3. Studs: A stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud is screwed into a tapped
hole of the parts to be fastened, while the other end receives a nut on it, as shown in Fig. 10.16.
Studs are chiefly used instead of tap bolts for securing various kinds of covers e.g. covers of engine
and pump cylinders, valves, chests etc.
Fig. 10.16. Fastenings through studs
4. Cap screws: The cap screws are similar to tap bolts except that they are of small size and a variety
of shapes of heads are available as shown in Fig. 10.17.
218 Machine Drawing
(a) Hexagonal head (b) Fillister head

(c) Round head (d) Flat head
(e) Hexagonal socket (f) Fluted socket
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Fig. 10.17. Types of cap screws
The most common thread types are the inch-based Unified coarse/fine and metric coarse/fine. The
differences of coarse thread over fine threads are
1. Coarse threads have fewer threads per inch than fine threads.
2. Coarse threads are more common, and more shops will have coarse taps.
3. Coarse threads are less likely to cross-thread, or jam because the screw is inserted at an angle.
They’re also faster to install.
4. Screws with fine threads are slightly stronger. This is because the smaller fine threads take up less
of the available area.
5. Coarse threads are slightly stronger per length of engagement than finer threads.
6. Fine threads provide finer adjustment since they advance less per rotation than coarse threads.
10.7 TYPES OF BOLTS AND MATERIAL

Bolts use a wide variety of head designs, as do screws. These are designed to engage with the tool used
to tighten them. Some bolt heads instead lock the bolt in place, so that it does not move and a tool is only
needed for the nut end. Common bolt heads include hex, slotted hex washer, and socket cap.
The first bolts had square heads, formed by forging. These are still found, although much more
common today is the hexagonal head. These are held and turned by a spanner or wrench, of which there
are many forms. Most are held from the side, some from in-line with the bolt. Other bolts have T-heads
and slotted heads. Following are the major types of bolts
Anchor Bolt: Bolt designed to allow objects to be attached to concrete. The bolt head is usually
placed in concrete before it has cured, leaving the threaded end exposed.
Arbor bolt: Bolt with a washer permanently attached and reversed threading. Designed for use
in and other tools to auto tighten during use to prevent blade fall out.
Screw Fasteners 219
Carriage bolt: Bolt with a smooth rounded head and a square section to prevent turning followed
with a threaded section for a nut.
Elevator bolt: Bolt with a large flat head used in conveyor system setups.
Hanger bolt: Bolt that has no head, machine threaded body followed by a wood threaded screw tip.
Allow nuts to be attached to what is really a screw.
Hex bolt: Bolt with a hexagonal head and threaded body. Section immediately under head may or
may not be threaded.
J bolt: Bolt shaped like the letter J used for tie downs. Only the non-curved section is threaded for
a nut to be attached.
Lag bolt: Not a true bolt. Hex bolt head with thread screw tip for use in wood.
Rock bolt: Used in tunnel construction to stabilize walls.
Chicago bolt: Bolt that has a male and female part with interior threads and bolt heads on either
end. Commonly used in paper binding.
Shoulder bolt: Bolt with a broad smooth shoulder and small threaded end used to create a pivot or
attachment point.
U bolt: Bolt shaped like the letter U where the two straight sections are threaded. A straight metal
plate with two bolt holes is used with nuts to hold pipes or other round objects to the U-bolt.
Selection of bolt material
Regarding the requirement of the strength and circumstance, there are several types of material can
be used for the Fastener Material Selection.
•• Steel Fasteners (Grade 2,5,8) - the level of strength
•• Stainless Steel Fasteners (Martensitic Stainless Steel, Austenitic Stainless Steel),
•• Bronze and Brass Fasteners - Water proof usage
•• Nylon Fasteners - It is used for the light material and water proof usage.
•• In general Steel is the most commonly used material of all fasteners (90 %) above.
10.8 LOCKING DEVICES

Ordinary thread fastenings, generally, remain tight under static loads, but many of these fastenings become
loose under the action of variable loads or when machine is subjected to vibrations. The loosening of
fastening is very dangerous and must be prevented. In order to prevent this, a large number of locking
devices are available, some of which are discussed below:
1. Lock nut: A most common locking device is a jam, lock or check nut. It has about one-half to
two-third thickness of the standard nut. The thin lock nut is first tightened down with ordinary
force, and then the upper nut is tightened down upon it, as shown in Fig. 10.18. The upper nut is
then held tightly while the lower one is slackened back against it.
220 Machine Drawing
Lock
nut
Fig. 10.18. Lock nut
2. Castle nut: It consists of a hexagonal portion with a cylindrical upper part which is slotted in line
with the centre of each face, as shown in Fig. 10.19. The split pin passes through two slots in the
nut and a hole in the bolt, so that a positive lock is obtained unless the pin shears. It is extensively
used on jobs subjected to sudden shocks and considerable vibration such as in automobile industry.
w
0.2 d
Fig. 10.19. Castle nut
3. Sawn nut: It has a slot sawed about half way through, as shown in Fig. 10.20. After the nut is
screwed down, the small screw is tightened which produces more friction between the nut and
the bolt. This prevents the loosening of nut.
0.2 d 0.2 d
Fig. 10.20. Castle nut

Screw Fasteners 221
4. Penn, ring or grooved nut: It has a upper portion hexagonal and a lower part cylindrical as
shown in Fig. 10.21. It is largely used where bolts pass through connected pieces reasonably
near their edges such as in marine type connecting rod ends. The bottom portion is cylindrical
and is recessed to receive the tip of the locking set screw. The bolt hole requires counter-boring
to receive the cylindrical portion of the nut. In order to prevent bruising of the latter by the case
hardened tip of the set screw, it is recessed.
0.75 d
Fig. 10.21. Grooved nut
5. Locking with pin: The nuts may be locked by means of a taper pin or cotter pin passing through
the middle of the nut as shown in Fig. 10.22 and a split pin is often driven through the bolt above
the nut, as shown in Fig. 10.22.
0.4 d Split pin
Tapered pin
(0.2 d)
0.8 d 0.8 d
d d
Fig. 10.22. Locking with pin
6. Locking with plate: A form of stop plate or locking plate is shown in Fig. 10.23. The nut can be
adjusted and subsequently locked through angular intervals of 30° by using these plates.
Locking
plate
Fig. 10.23. Locking with plate
7. Spring lock washer: A spring lock washer is shown in Fig. 10.24. As the nut tightens the washer
against the piece below, one edge of the washer is caused to dig itself into that piece, thus increasing
the resistance so that the nut will not loosen so easily.
222 Machine Drawing
Spring lock
washer
Fig. 10.24. Spring lock washer
10.9 DESIGNATION OF SCREW THREADS

In general, fasteners are referred to by their shank size. Standard (inch) fasteners are referred to by
their shank size and the number of threads per inch they possess–for example 3/8″-16 or ½″-20, and are
pronounced “three-eighths sixteen” or “one-half twenty.” Standard (inch) fasteners which are ¼″ and
larger are referred to by their nominal shank size. Fasteners smaller than ¼″ are referred to by “screw
size” designations, such as “number 10 or number 6”. Metric fasteners are referred to by their shank
size and thread pitch–for example M6 × 1.0 or M10 × 1.5, and are pronounced “metric six by one” or
“M ten by one point five”.
According to Indian standards, IS: 4218, the complete designation of the screw thread shall include
size designation. The size of the screw thread is designated by the letter ‘M’ followed by the diameter
and pitch, the two being separated by the sign ×. When there is no indication of the pitch, it shall mean
that a coarse pitch is implied.
For example, A bolt thread of 6 mm size of coarse pitch and with allowance on the threads and normal
tolerance grade is designated as M6 – 8d.
Fastener Nomenclature
Design engineers are frequently tasked with selecting and specifying fasteners used in their designs.
Consequently, understanding basic fastener nomenclature is important. Figure 10.25 illustrates the different
parts of a standard threaded fastener.
Head
Thread crest
Bearing surface
Point
Shank Thread root
Pitch
Grip length Thread length
Length
Fig. 10.25. Fastener nomenclature

Screw Fasteners 223
10.10 SETSCREWS
A set screw is a type of screw generally used to secure an object within or against another object, normally
not using a nut common examples are securing a pulley or gear to a shaft. Set screws are usually headless,
meaning that the screw is fully threaded and has no head projecting past the major diameter of the screw
thread. If a set screw has a head, the thread will extend all the way to the head (whereas a bolt might
have an unthreaded shank between the head and thread). The set screw passes through a threaded hole in
the outer object and is tightened against the inner object to prevent it from moving relative to the outer
object. It exerts compressional or clamping force through the bottom tip that projects through the hole.
The different types of set screws are shown in Fig. 10.26.
Plain cup Knurled cup Flat Oval Cone Half-dog Soft-tipped
Fig. 10.26. Types of set screws
The typical type cap-screw heads are shown in Fig. 10.27 and other types of screw heads which are
commonly in use are shown in Fig. 10.28.
A A A
80 to 82°
H
H H D
D D
L L
L
I
I I
Fig. 10.27. Typical types cap-screw heads

224 Machine Drawing
80 to 82°
A D A D
H
H L L
(a) Round head (b) Flat head
80 to 82°
A D A D
H
H L L
(c) Fillister head (d) Oval head
5°±3°
A D A D
R
H L L
(e) Truss head (f) Binding head
W D W D
A A
H L H L
(g) Hex head (trimmed) (h) Hex head (upset)
Fig. 10.28. Types of screw heads
10.11 MULTIPLE THREADED SCREWS

A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface. A screw made
by cutting a single helical groove on the cylinder is known as single threaded (or single-start) screw and
if a second thread is cut in the space between the grooves of the first, a double threaded (or double-start)
screw is formed. Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e. multiple-start) threads may be formed. The helical
grooves may be cut either right hand or left hand. The multiple threaded screws are shown in Fig. 10.29.
in which (a) is single start, (b) is double start and (c) is triple start threaded screws.
Screw Fasteners 225
I I I

p p p
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.29. Multiple threaded screws
Left Hand Threads: Unless otherwise specified, screw threads are assumed to be right-handed.
This means that the direction of the thread helix is such that a clockwise rotation of the thread will cause
it to advance along its axis. Left-handed threads advance when rotated counter clockwise. Left-handed
threads are often used in situations where rotation loads would cause right-hand threads to loosen during
service. A common example is the bicycle. The pedals of a bicycle are attached to the crank arm using
screw threads. The pedal on one side of the bicycle uses right-hand threads and the other uses left-hand.
This prevents the motion of pedals and crank from unscrewing the pedal and having it fall off during
use. Left-hand threads must be indicated in the thread specification. This is accomplished by appending
“LH” to the end of the specification.
10.12 FOUNDATION BOLTS

Foundation bolts are used for fixing machines to their foundations. D
Foundation bolts are made by forging from mild steel or wrought
iron rods. The bolt size depends upon the size of the machine and
2.5 D
the magnitude of the forces that act on them when the machine is in
operation. For setting the bolts in position, their positions are marked
and then suspended in the holes made in the ground. Afterwards,
15 D
cement concrete is filled in the space around in the bolts. Once the
concrete sets; the bolts are firmly secured to the ground. There are
different types of foundation bolts are used depending on its specific
0.1 D
applications. Generally used foundation bolts are discussed below.

Eye Foundation Bolt: This is the simplest form of all foundation
bolts. In this, one end of the bolt is forged into an eye and a cross
piece is fixed in it. Figure below shows an eye foundation bolt that
is set in concrete.
Fig. 10.30. Eye foundation bolt
226 Machine Drawing
Bent Foundation Bolt: As the name implies, this bolt is forged in bent form and set in cement
concrete. When machines are to be placed on stone beds, the bolts are set in lead. Figure 10.31 shows a
bent foundation bolt that is set first in lead and then in cement concrete, resulting in a firm and stable bolt.
D
2.5 D
10 D
D
2D
Fig. 10.31. Bent foundation bolt
Rag Foundation Bolt: This bolt consists of a tapered body, square or rectangular in cross-section,
the tapered edges being grooved. Figure 10.32 shows a rag foundation bolt that is set first in lead and
then in cement concrete.
D
2.5 D
10 D
D
6D
2D
Fig. 10.32. Rag foundation bolt

Screw Fasteners 227
Lewis Foundation Bolt: This is a removable foundation bolt. The body of the bolt is tapered in
width on one side. To use this bolt, a pit is produced in cement concrete, by using a (foundation) block.
Once the concrete sets-in, the bolt is placed in it so that the tapered bolt surface, bears against the tapered
face of the pit. A key is then inserted, bearing against the straight surfaces of the pit and the bolt. This
arrangement makes the bolt firm in the bed. However, the bolt may be removed by withdrawing the key.
D
2.5 D
D
10 D
Key
Key
7.5 D
1.67 D 0.67 D
Fig. 10.33. Lewis foundation bolt

Cotter Foundation Bolt: It is used for fixing heavy machines. It has a rectangular slot at its bottom
end, to receive a cotter. For putting the bolts in position, the foundation bed is first made, providing holes
D
1.5 D
0.4 D
3D w
c
0.5 D
1.2 D
0.4 D 0.4 D
D
1.2 D
D
Thick 0.25 D
Hand hole
Fig. 10.34. Cotter foundation bolt

228 Machine Drawing
for inserting cotters. Figure 10.34 shows a cotter foundation bolt in position. A cast iron washer (W)
placed as shown, provides bearing surface for the cotter (C).
10.13 Screw Symbols

Screw symbols are used on the working drawing and these symbols provides the detailed, schematic and
simplified way on the drawing as shown in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3. Screw symbols
Screw symbols – drilling and Fitting in the workshop
M24 M27 M30
M16 M20 M22
M8 M10 M12
28
Screw symbols – drilling in the workshop fitting in the terrain

28 31
Screw symbols – drilling and fitting in the terrain

28
10.14 OVER-TIGHTENING VS. UNDER-TIGHTENING

As design engineers, each of us is ultimately responsible for the success or failure of the components
and systems we design. When it comes to fasteners, it is important to understand the consequence of
over-tightening versus under-tightening fastener joints. Un-intuitively, it is actually better to over-tighten
a bolted joint than to under-tighten.
Stress is a measure of how much tensile load is placed on the fastener and strain is a measure of the
fastener’s change in length. The yield strength denotes the point (or magnitude) above which the material
yields or permanently deforms. As additional load is placed on the fastener beyond the onset of yield, the
strength actually increases as the material undergoes strain hardening, to the maximum (or “ultimate”)
stress point. Beyond the ultimate tensile strength, the material begins to neck (which is a local reduction
of cross sectional diameter) and finally fails at the point of fracture.
10.15 APPLICATIONS OF FASTENERS

Fastener holds the joints of fixtures form holding the chairs and tables to automobile parts. Applications of
fasteners are very diverse ranging from daily use items like boxes, envelope where fasteners are used for
closing them to hi-tech gazebos and special purpose closing devices like the bread clip etc. The industry
is strongly tied to the production of automobiles, aircraft, appliances, agricultural machinery, commercial
construction, and infrastructure. These are just some of the most common uses for fasteners. When looking
for the perfect way to secure the materials used in your construction project, contact a supplier that is
not only knowledgeable but also carries an unending supply of nails, screws and specialized screws.
Chapter
Keys
11
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In mechanical engineering, a key is a machine element used to connect a rotating machine element to
a shaft. The key prevents relative rotation between the two parts and may enable torque transmission.
For a key to function, the shaft and rotating machine element must have a keyway and a key seat, which
is a slot and pocket in which the key fits. The whole system is called a keyed joint. A keyed joint may
allow relative axial movement between the parts.
Fig. 11.1. Keyway seat in shaft and sprocket
11.2 Types of Keys

There are four main types of keys: Taper keys, Parallel keys, Woodruff key, Round key and sub types of
keys are sunk, saddle, round, and spline.
11.2.1. Taper Keys
The tapered key is tapered only on the side that engages the hub. The keyway in the hub has a
taper that matches that of the tapered key. Some taper keys have a gib, or tab, for easier removal during
disassembly. The purpose of the taper is to secure the key itself, as well as, to firmly engage the shaft to
the hub without the need for a set screw. The problem with taper keys is that they can cause the centre
of the shaft rotation to be slightly off of the mating part.
Sunk Taper Keys
The sunk keys are provided half in the keyway of the shaft and half in the keyway of the hub or boss
of the pulley. The sunk keys are of the following types: rectangular, square, parallel sunk.
229
230 Machine Drawing
Square and rectangular Parallel keys: The cross section of the key is either square or rectangular
and hence the name. This is the most standardized version of keys currently being used in all applications.
The size of the key to be selected based on the shaft size is already been standardized for rectangular keys.
A rectangular sunk key usual proportions are:
Width of key, w = d/4; and thickness of key, t = 2w/3 = d/6
where d = Diameter of the shaft or diameter of the hole in the hub.
The key has taper 1 in 100 on the top side only as shown in Figure 11.2.
Square sunk key: The only difference between a rectangular sunk key and a square sunk key is that
its width and thickness are equal. i.e.,
w = t = d/4
Taper on this side
L
W
1 in 100
L
:100
p e1 W
Slo
T
T
0.5 T Parallel to axis

D
1 Shaft
W= D + 2 mm
4
2
T= W
3
Fig. 11.2. Rectangular sunk key
11.2.2. Saddle Keys

For the saddle keys keyway is not provided in the shaft. Saddle keys are generally two types: (a)
hollow saddle key and (b) flat saddle key. Saddle keys are used for light duty.
Hollow Saddle Key

Figure 11.3 shows a hollow saddle key. It has one wide face curved to fit on the curved surface of
the shaft.
W
00
e 1:1
Slop
D
T
Fig. 11.3. Hollow saddle key

Keys 231
Flat Saddle Key

Figure 11.4 shows a flat saddle key. For flat saddle key the surface of the shaft is made flat. The key
sits on this flat surface. As compared to hollow saddle key the power transmitted by flat saddle key is more.
W
00
e 1:1
S lop
D
T
L
1
W= D + 2 mm
4
1
T= W
3
Fig. 11.4. Flat saddle key
11.2.3. Gib Headed Key

It gives the facility for withdrawal of key from the keyway, the taper sunk key provided with gib-
head is called as gib headed key as shown in figure 11.5. This type of key is used in areas where frequent
removal of the key is necessary.
L
B
H
T
GIB Head
00
e 1:1
D
Slop
1
W= D + 2 mm
4
T = 0.16D
B = 1.5T
H = 1.75T
Fig. 11.5. Gib headed key
11.2.4. Parallel or Feather Keys

Parallel keys are the most widely used and have uniform cross section throughout their length. They
have a square or rectangular cross-section. Square keys are used for smaller shafts and rectangular faced
keys are used for shaft diameters over 170 mm or when the wall thickness of the mating hub is an issue.
Set screws often accompany parallel keys to lock the mating parts into place. The keyway is a longitudinal
slot in both the shaft and mating part. The various types of parallel keys are discussed below.
Parallel Sunk Key

The parallel sunk keys may be of rectangular or square section uniform in width and thickness
throughout. It may be noted that a parallel key is a taper less and is used where the pulley, gear or other
232 Machine Drawing
mating piece is required to slide along the shaft. Figure 11.6 shows a parallel sunk key fitted to the shaft
with help of set screws.
WT
L
Fig. 11.6. Parallel sunk key
Peg Key
In the peg key a projection such as a peg is provided either at the center or at one end of the key. The
peg fits into a hole in the hub as shown in the Figure 11.7.
W
T
Fig. 11.7. Peg key
Single Headed Key

It is provided with a head at one end and that head is screwed to the hub mounting as shown in the
Figure 11.8.
L
T
Fig. 11.8. Single headed key

Keys 233
Double Headed Key

It is provided with gib heads at both ends and due to this the axial movement in the hub is prevented
as shown in the Figure 11.9.
W
T
Fig. 11.9. Double headed key
Splined Shaft
It is formed by cutting the number of equally spaced uniform grooves on the surface of the shaft.
The mating hub is provided with corresponding keyways. Figure 11.10 shows the splined shaft.
b
d
D
D = 1.25 d and b = 0.25 D
Fig. 11.10. Splined shaft
11.2.5. Woodruff Key

Woodruff keys are semicircular fitting partly into a circular segment keyway with the remainder fitting
into a longitudinal slot keyway in the mating part as shown in figure 11.11. The circular segment can be
cut directly by plunge cutting with a circular Woodruff cutter without any reliefs. The main advantage
of the Woodruff key is the elimination of milling near shaft shoulders. The more exact fit of the key and
keyway also reduces play, and stress concentrations and improves the reliability of the key. Common
applications include machine tools, automotive applications and marine propellers. This type of key tends
to have a lesser shear strength than compared to that of a rectangular or square key.
234 Machine Drawing
Fig. 11.11. Woodruff key
11.2.6. Round Key or Pin Key

Here a circular pin used in the place of a key. The shaft and the hub both possess a semicircular hole
in them to accommodate the Pin key. The advantage of this type of key is that the stress concentration
induced due to the key is significantly much less. It fits in a hole drilled partly in the shaft and partly in
the mounting. The key can be of uniform cross section or tapered.
D1
D1 L
Taper 1:50
L
D
D
D1 =
6
Fig. 11.12. Round key]
Exercises
1. Draw free hand sketch of Sunk taper key for 30 mm diameter shaft.
2. Draw free hand sketch of Flat saddle key in position.
3. Draw free hand sketch of Woodruff key in position.
Chapter
Cotter and Kunckle Joints

12
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Cotter and knuckle joints are temporary fasteners used to connect two rods transmitting axial force.
A cotter is a tapered piece of flat, mild steel connecting two coaxial rods. The cotter is inserted in a
transverse direction to the rods. It is tapered on one side or on both sides so that it can be driven into the
rectangular slots provided in the rods. The cotter contacts the two rods through frictional contact force.
12.2 Cotter Joints

The taper in cotter varies from 1 in 48 to 1 in 24 and it may be increased up to 1 in 8, if a locking device
is provided. Taper is usually 1 in 24 and provides mainly two benefits: (i) cotter becomes tight in the slot
due to wedge action. This ensures tightness of the joint in operating conditions and prevents loosening of
the parts. (ii) Due to its taper shape, it is easy to remove the cotter and dismantle the joint. The locking
device may be a taper pin or a set screw used on the lower end of the cotter. The cotter is usually made
of mild steel or wrought iron.
Before going into detailed steps of cotter joint, it is necessary to understand clearly the various
components, their functions and assembly of cotter joint. The exploded and assemble view of cotter joint
is shown in figures 12.1 and 12.2.
Spigot end
Spigot Slot for cotter
collar
Rod Rod
Socket
Socket end
collar
Cottor tapered
on one side
Fig. 12.1. Exploded view of cotter joint assembly
235
236 Machine Drawing
Spigot
Cotter
Socket
Fig. 12.2. Assemble view of cotter joint assembly
Applications of cotter: Following are the major applications of cotter Joint.

1. Connection of the piston rod with the cross heads
2. Joining of tail rod with piston rod of a wet air pump
3. Foundation bolt
4. Connecting two halves of fly wheel (cotter and dowel arrangement)
Comparison between key and cotter:
1. Key is usually driven parallel to the axis of the shaft which is subjected to torsional or twisting
stress. Whereas cotter is normally driven at right angles to the axis of the connected part which
is subjected to the tensile or compressive loads along its axis.
2. A key resists shear over a longitudinal section whereas a cotter resist shear over two transverse
section.
Advantages of Cotter Joint: Followings are major advantages of cotter joints.
1. Simple to design and manufacture.
2. Simple to assemble and dismantle.
3. Very high tightening force due to wedge action, which prevents loosening of parts in service.
12.3 Types of cotter Joints

There are the three commonly used cotter joints to connect two rods by a cotter:
1. Socket and spigot cotter joint.
2. Sleeve and cotter joint, and
3. Gib or Strap and cotter joint.
12.3.1. Socket and Spigot Cotter Joint

It is used to connect two circular rods. The load is usually acting axially, but it changes its direction
and hence the cotter joint must be designed to carry both the tensile and compressive loads. In a socket
and spigot cotter joint, one end of the rods (say A) is provided with a socket type of end as shown in Fig.
12.3 and figure 12.4, the other end of the other rod (say B) is inserted into a socket. The end of the rod
which goes into a socket is also called spigot. A rectangular hole is made in the socket and spigot. A cotter
is then driven tightly through a hole in order to make the temporary connection between the two rods.
Cotter and Kunckle Joints 237
Fig. 12.3. Socket and spigot three dimensional section view
Clearance Cotter
(2 to 3 mm) Cotter
Socket coller
Socket
b C d
d
P
A B l
t1
Spigot
t
Fig. 12.4. Socket and spigot joint
12.3.2. Sleeve and Cotter Joint

It is also used to connect two circular rods. In this type of joint, a sleeve or muff is used over the
two rods and then two cotters (one on each rod end) are inserted in the holes provided for them in the
sleeve and rods. The taper of cotter is usually 1 in 24. It may be noted that the taper sides of the two
cotters should face each other as shown in Fig. 12.5. The clearance is so adjusted that when the cotters
are driven in, the two rods come closer to each other thus making the joint tight.
238 Machine Drawing
Cottoer
:2
Sleeve aft
Sh
:1
aft
Sh
Cotter Clearance
3 mm
d d
P P
Sleeve
c c
a
4.5 d t
Fig. 12.5. Sleeve and cotter joint
12.3.3. Gib or Strap and Cotter Joint

It is generally used to connect rods of rectangular or square cross section. The end of one rod is forged
to form the fork or strap end as shown in figure 12.6, in which the end of other rod fits. A gib is a wedge
like element having projection at its ends called gib heads. It is used along with the cotter to prevent the
strap end from opening while the cotter is being driven in. Both the gib and cotter are tapered on the
inside age, while their outer sides are perpendicular to the axis of rod. To form the joint, the rod end is
placed in the fork end then gib is placed in position and the cotter is driven at last.
Tapper on
this side
Parallel only
to each
other Cotter
GIB
d
en
trap
orS
rk
Fo
nd
de
Ro
t2
t B1
B
Cotter
Jib
P b d P
Strap
Fig. 12.6. Gib or Strap and cotter joint
12.4 Knuckle Joints

Knuckle joint is a type of mechanical joint used in structures, to connect two intersecting cylindrical
rods, whose axes lie on the same plane. It permits some angular movement between the cylindrical
rods (in their plane). It is specially designed to withstand tensile loads. A knuckle joint may be readily
disconnected for adjustments or repairs.
240 Machine Drawing
Its use may be found in the link of a cycle chain, tie rod joint for roof truss, valve rod joint with
eccentric rod, pump rod joint, tension link in bridge structure and lever and rod connections of various
types.
In knuckle joint, one end of one of the rods is made into an eye and the end of the other rod is formed
into a fork with an eye in each of the fork leg. The knuckle pin passes through both the eye hole and the
fork holes and may be secured by means of a collar and taper pin or spilt pin as shown in figure 12.7
and 12.8. The knuckle pin may be prevented from rotating in the fork by means of a small stop, pin,
Cottar
Taper pin
Knuckle pin Fork end

end
nd F ork
ee
Ey Eye end
Pin
Collar Taper pin
Fig. 12.7. Three dimensional disassemble and assemble view of knuckle joint
Fig. 12.8. Two dimensional view of knuckle joint

peg or snug. In order to get a better quality of joint, the sides of the fork and eye are machined, the hole
is accurately drilled and pin turned. The knuckle pin remains stationary. It does not rotate about its axis.
The material used for the joint may be steel or wrought iron.
Parts of Knuckle Joint:

A typical knuckle joint has the following parts:
1. Fork end 2. Eye end
3. Knuckle pin 4. Collar
5. Taper pin
Advantages of Knuckle Joint:

1. Knuckle joint can withstand large tensile loads.
2. It has good mechanical rigidity.
3. It is easy to manufacture and set up.
4. It can be easily dismantled and assembled.
5. Design is simple and easy.
Disadvantages of Knuckle Joint:

1. The joint cannot withstand large compressive loads.
2. It permits angular movement in only one plane.
3. It is not as flexible as universal joint.
Applications of Knuckle Joint:

Knuckle joints find a wide variety of applications. They are used in:
1. Bicycle chains 2. Tractors
3. Trusses 4. Automotive wipers
5. Cranes 6. Chain straps of watches
7. Earth movers 8. Robotic joints
9. Structural members
Exercises
1. Draw a sectional front view along with top and side view of socket and spigot joint.
2. Draw a sectional front view along with top of Knuckle joint.
3. Draw a sectional front view along with half sectional top view and side view of strap joint suitable
for 40 mm rod.
Chapter
Pulleys
13
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a
cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by
a frame or shell which does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or exert a force,
the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called a sheave. Pulleys are usually used in
sets designed to reduce the amount of force needed to lift a load.
Pulleys can be found in many different applications around us. Not only are they used for the obvious
lifting of objects, such as by cranes, but they are also used in modern automobiles and air planes. Pulleys
are also essential for most machines in some form or other.
13.2 History
As is the case with all the simple machines, the origin of the pulley is unknown. When early peoples
lifted heavy objects by throwing vines or other crude ropes over tree limbs, they used the idea of a single
fixed pulley to change the direction of a force. But since there was no wheel to turn, this use resulted in
considerable friction. It is believed that by 1500 B.C.E. people in Mesopotamia used rope pulleys for
hoisting water. It is not recorded when or by whom the pulley was first developed. It is believed however
that Archimedes developed the first documented block and tackle pulley system, as recorded by Plutarch.
Plutarch reported that Archimedes moved an entire warship, laden with men, using compound pulleys
and his own strength.
13.3 Types of Pulleys

Various types of pulleys are in use and designed for specific applications. However, the following types
of pulleys are extensively used.
13.3.1. Flat Belt Pulley

The flat Belt pulley is as shown in figure 13.1 where the rim of the pulley is generally crowned to
prevent the belt running off. The arms of the pulley are required to be stronger at the hub than the rim.
242
Pulleys 243
5
12
Key Way
12 × 8
40 Hub
18
34
320
66
22
34
90
Arms
123
Crowned pin
Fig. 13.1. Flat belt pulley
13.3.2. V-Belt Pulley

Generally, the V-Belt pulley is having three grooves as shown in figure 13.2. It is similar to flat belt
pulley except that the rim of V-belt pulley is provided with V grooves to accommodate the V belts. It is
used when large power is to be transmitted over a small distance.
80
22
38
24

38
30
72
60
30
280
Key way 8 × 4 6 6
Fig. 13.2. V-belt pulley

244 Machine Drawing
13.3.3. Rope Pulley

Figure 13.3 shows a rope pulley having two groves. It is provided with grooves on the rim to
accommodate the ropes. It is used when large power is to be transmitted over a long distance.
10 30 10 30 10
12
R 45 8 20
28
12
300
90
80
40
0
19

80
50 18 Rope
45°
Fig. 13.3. Rope pulley
13.3.4. Split Pulley

Split pulleys are made in two halves. These two halves are joined together by nuts and bolts. The
line diagram of a split pulley is shown in figure 13.4. Pulleys are split into two halves only to make them
easily mounted in the assembly without removing other components.
Rim
Shaft
Key
Hub
Bolt
Fig. 13.4. Split pulley

Pulleys 245
13.3.5. Stepped or Cone Pulley

These pulleys are used when the velocity of the driven shaft needs to be changed frequently. It is
generally used in machine tools such as lathe, drilling machine. The velocity ratios in steps are obtained
just shifting the belt from one pulley to another. The line diagram of a step pulley is shown in figure
13.5 with three steps.
Main or
Cone driving
pulley shaft
Fig. 13.5. Stepped or cone pulley
13.3.6. Fast and loose Pulley

It is a set of two pulleys mounted on the shaft as shown in figure 13.6. One pulley is rigidly fixed to
the shaft with the help of key known as fast pulley and the other is mounted on a brass or gun metal bush
and is free known as loose pulley. The collar screwed to the shaft prevents running away of loose pulley
from fast pulley. This type of arrangements is mounted on the driving shaft and is used to start or stop the
12
2
6
Loose
pulley
22
130 130 Key
32
16 16 Fast 12 × 8 34
M 10 15
pulley
Gib headed key 76
320
Collar
135 135
Bush
4 Thick
Loose Fast
Fig. 13.6. Fast and loose pulley

246 Machine Drawing
driven shaft whenever desired. Normally, the belt is running on the fast pulley and thus rotating the driven
shaft but whenever it is desired to stop the driven shaft, the belt is shifted to fast pulley to loose pulley.
13.3.7. Guide Pulleys

It is used when the belt transmits motion power to non-parallel shafts may be intersecting or non-
intersecting. The guide pulley helps in keeping the belt in plane which is shown in figure 13.7.
Driver pulley
Shaft 1
Belt
Guide pulley
Shaft 2
Belt
Shaft Driven pulley
Fig. 13.7. Guide pulley
13.3.8. Jockey Pulleys

Jockey pulleys are also known as idler pulley since they do not take any part in the velocity ratio
between the driving shaft to driven shaft. These pulleys are mounted on the slack side of the belt and also
close to the smaller pulley as shown in the figure 13.8. It is generally used to increase the arc of contact
as the increase in arc of contact results the increase of transmission ratio.
Jockey pulley
Driving pulley
W Force Driven
pulley
Fig. 13.8. Jockey pulley

Pulleys 247
13.4 Applications of Pulley

Pulleys have been used for lifting for thousands of years. The most prevalent and oldest example are their
uses on ships and boats. The block and tackle have been a key tool for raising sails and cargo. Pulleys
have been used also in modern times with various machines and systems. Even in the space age, pulleys
have been an important aspect for the construction and operations of spacecraft and aircraft. It is with a
pulley system that rudders for an aircraft are controlled. Pulleys are used in everyday life, from vehicles
to moving equipment such as cranes and different machine tools.
Exercises
1. Draw the half sectional view of V-belt pulley.
2. Make a free hand sketch of flat belt pulley.
3. Draw the propionate free hand sketch of fast and loose pulley.
Chapter
Shaft Couplings
14
14.1 INTRODUCTION
A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of transmitting
power. It may be to connect two units such as a motor and a generator or it may be to form a long line
shaft by connecting shafts of standard lengths. Shafts are usually available up to 7 metres length due to
inconvenience in transport. In order to have a greater length, it becomes necessary to join two or more
pieces of the shaft by means of a coupling.
Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during operation, however there are torque
limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when some torque limit is exceeded.
The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating equipment while permitting some
degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By careful selection, installation and maintenance of
couplings, substantial savings can be made in reduced maintenance costs and downtime.
Coupling may be rigid or they may provide flexibility and compensate for misalignment. They may
also reduce shock loading and vibration. A wide variety of commercial shaft couplings are available
ranging from a simple keyed coupling to one which requires a complex design procedure using gears
or fluid drives etc.
Shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes, the most common of which are the
following:
1. To provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured separately such as a motor
and generator and to provide for disconnection for repairs or alternations.
2. To provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical flexibility.
3. To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.
4. To introduce protection against overloads.
5. It should have no projecting parts.
14.2 Types of Couplings

There are two main types of couplings: Rigid couplings and Flexible Couplings Rigid couplings are used
for shafts having no misalignment while the flexible couplings can absorb some amount of misalignment
in the shafts to be connected.
1. Rigid coupling. Since these couplings cannot absorb any misalignment the shafts to be connected
by a rigid coupling must have good lateral and angular alignment. Following are the types of rigid
couplings.
248
Shaft Couplings 249
(a) Sleeve or muff coupling.

(b) Clamp or split-muff or compression coupling, and
(c) Flange coupling.
2. Flexible coupling. It is used to connect two shafts having both lateral and angular misalignments.
Following are the types of flexible couplings.
(a) Bushed pin type coupling. (b) Universal coupling, and
(c) Oldham coupling
14.3 Rigid Couplings

14.3.1. Sleeve or Muff Coupling
Rigid Sleeve or Muff Couplings is the basic type of coupling made of cast iron. It consists of a hollow
cylinder whose inner diameter is the same as that of the shaft. It is further subdivided into
(1) Box or Muff Type coupling (2) Half lap Muff Type Coupling and
A. Box or Muff Type coupling: It is fitted over the ends of the two shafts by means of a gib head
key, as shown in Fig. 14.1. The shafts are inserted into the muff from opposite ends and key is
driven in the keyway between the muff and the shafts. The power is transmitted from one shaft
to the other shaft by means of a key and a sleeve.
Key
ff
Mu
2
aft
Sh
1
aft
Sh
Key
Muff
D
d
Shaft
L
Fig. 14.1. Muff coupling
B. Half Lap Muff Type coupling: In this type of coupling, the ends of the shafts are made overlap
each other as shown in Figure 14.2. The taper provided in the overlap prevents the axial separation of
shafts. A hollow saddle key is inserted to connect the shafts with muff.
250 Machine Drawing
110
12
90
Key
Muff
8
3
60
3
d
38 24 38
Fig. 14.2. Half lap muff coupling
C. Split Muff Coupling: In the muff coupling, axial movements of at least one of the shaft or muff is
necessary for the purpose of assembly. This particular problem is overcome in split type muff coupling.
The muff is made in two halves which are placed over the two shafts and then clamped together by means
of bolts and nuts. The number of bolts may be two, four or six. The nuts are recessed into the bodies of
the muff castings. This coupling may be used for heavy duty and moderate speeds.
Muff
Fig. 14.3. Three dimensional view of split muff coupling

Shaft Couplings 251
Nut bolt
Key assembly
Shaft A Shaft B
Fig. 14.4. Two dimensional view of split muff coupling
14.3.2. Flange Coupling

The coupling basically consists of two flanged end pieces as shown in the figure 14.5 to 14.7. A
spigot and recess is provided in the flanges to provide location between them. The flanges are connected
firmly by means of fitted bolts which are tightened accordingly to the torque to be transmitted. This is a
most widely used coupling.
Fig. 14.5. Three dimensional disassemble view of flange coupling
Flang
2
aft
Sh
Key
1
aft
Sh
Fig. 14.6. Three dimensional assemble view of flange coupling

252 Machine Drawing
Key 16
10 × 5
80
40
3
180
0
14

20 20
70 70
Fig. 14.7. Two Dimensional assemble view of unprotected flange coupling
In flange coupling the bolts heads and nuts are open hence there is chances of catch clothes of workmen
working around and are liable to cause injury. In order to avoid such accidents each flange is provided
with a annular projection which shelters the bolt heads and nuts as shown in Figure 14.8.
0.5 D 0.5 D
30
2D
D
2 3
40
0.8 D 0.8 D
4.50
150 150
Fig. 14.8. Assemble view of protected flange coupling
14.4 Flexible Couplings

A flexible coupling is used to join the shafts when they are not in exact alignment. In the case of a direct
coupled drive from a prime mover to a machine tool, a flexible coupling is used so as to permit an axial
misalignment of the shaft without undue absorption of the power which the shaft is transmitting.
Following are the different types of flexible couplings:
Shaft Couplings 253
1. Bushed pin flexible coupling.

2. Universal coupling.
3. Oldham’s coupling
The function of flexible shaft couplings is:
(i) Connect and transmit power from a driving shaft to a driven shaft.
(ii) Protect system from vibration.
(iii) Manage to compensate for totally 4 shaft misalignments:
Angular
Offset
Combination (angular + offset)
Axial movement
These shaft deviations are unavoidable, since machines are unloaded during alignment.
During operation the resulting forces are causing the shafts to bend. Other causes can for instance be
thermal expansion, worn bearings, installation (human) errors.
14.4.1. Pin Bush flange coupling

Bush pin type flange coupling is used to connect of shafts which having a small parallel misalignment,
angular misalignment or axial misalignment. This is a modification of the protected type flange coupling
which has pins (covered by rubber or leather bushes) and it works with coupling bolts. Generally, it is
used to assemble electric motors and machines. A bushed-pin flexible coupling, as shown in figure 14.9
to figure 14.11, is a modification of the rigid type of flange coupling. The coupling bolts are known as
pins. The rubber or leather bushes are used over the pins. The two halves of the coupling are dissimilar
in construction. A clearance of 5 mm is left between the face of the two halves of the coupling. There
is no rigid connection between them and the drive takes place through the medium of the compressible
rubber or leather bushes.
Fig. 14.9. Three dimensional disassemble and assemble view of pin bush flange coupling
254 Machine Drawing
Washer
Nut
Spring lock
washers Bolt
Bushing Joint
main
unit
Fig. 14.10. Three dimensional sectional assemble view of pin bush flange coupling
lb r Protective rim
Rubber
bush l1
Pin
d1 Db
Brass
lining Hub
Key
dh
d D
Input Output
shaft shaft
Flange
lh lh
Fig. 14.11. Two dimensional sectional assemble view of pin bush flange coupling
The parts of pin bush flange couplings are:

Shafts to be connected, Keys, Flange, Pins, Brass bush, Rubber bush, Nuts
Shaft Couplings 255
14.5 Non-Aligned Couplings

The non-aligned couplings are used when the power is to be transmitted between two non-coaxial shafts.
There are majorly two types of non-aligned couplings
(a) Universal Coupling
(b) Oldham’s Coupling
14.5.1 Universal Coupling

A universal joint is a linkage consisting of two yokes or fork one on each shaft, connected by spider
or central block as shown in Figures 14.12 to 14.15. It is also known as Hook’s joint. It is used to connect
two shafts whose axes are intersecting. Two similar forks are keyed to the ends of two shafts, A central
bock in the form of cross is positioned between the forks with the help of two pins. The main advantages
of this coupling is that it permits variation in angle between the shafts even when they are in motion. It
is majorly used in automobiles.
Pin
Central block
Fork
Split pin
Collar
Fig. 14.12. General arrangement of universal coupling

256 Machine Drawing
Pin
Center block Fork
Collar
Fig. 14.13. Assembly of universal coupling
Q.1. Figure 14.14 shows details of Universal Coupling. Draw the assembly including the part list and
fit chart.
30H8
44 30 56
28
106g6
50H8
88
Keyway 16H7 × 5
106H7
56
38
28
56
6
106
5
30H8
88
R38
30H8
44 30 2. Center block
C.l.–1 OFF
1. Fork C.l.–2 Off
Shaft Couplings 257
50
50f7
50
13
30H8 KEYWAY
10n6 × 5
7. SHAFT
13
C.l.–1 OFF
6
6 HOLE FOR TAPER 1:100 16
TAPER PIN
180
4. COLLAR
M.S.–2 OFF
6. KEY
30f8
56 M.S.–2 OFF
6
TAPER 1 IN 100
3. PIN 6
M.S.–2 OFF HOLE FOR TAPER PIN
Fig. 14.14. Details of universal coupling
Tolerance chart
50 H8 = + 0.039 30 H8 = + 0.030 + 0.000

+ 0.00 + 0.000
50 f7 = – 0.025 30 f8 = – 0.020 – 0.053
–0.050

106 H7 = + 0.035 16 H7 = + 0.018 + 0.000

106 g6 = – 0.012 – 0.340 16 n6 = + 0.023 + 0.012
Solution. The assembly drawing in two views along with Part List and Fit Chart is given below.
C 6
C
16H7/n6
7
B
C
13
50
258 Machine Drawing
38 44 30 56
3
28
31H8/g6
B
106H7/g6
50H8/f7
50H8/f7
2
88
88
162
86
A 1
28
A
A
13
B
TAPER PIN F6, 56 LG
5 4
Fig. 14.15. Assembly of universal coupling
FIT CHART
16H7/n6 Transition Fit
30H8/f8 Clearance Fit
106H7/g6 Clearance Fit
PART LIST
Part No. Part Name Material Quantity

1 Fork C.I. 2
2 Center Block C.I. 1
3 Pin M.S. 2
4 Taper Pin M.S. 2
5 Collar M.S. 2
6 Key M.S. 2
7 Shaft M.S. 2
14.5.2. Oldham’s Coupling

Oldham couplings is used to connect two shafts having their axes parallel but not in a straight line,
separated by small distance. It handles high degrees of parallel misalignment owing to their sliding element
design. Use of an elastomer center element instead of metal is popular in modern versions. It consists
Shaft Couplings 259
of three members, two flanges having a rectangular slot and central disc with rectangular projection on
either side at right angle to each other. The flanges are keyed one on each shaft and the circular disc is
placed between them as shown in Figures 14.16 and 14.17.
Oldham couplings have the following advantages:
(a) No velocity variation as with universal joints
(b) High lateral misalignments possible
(c) High torque capacity
(d) Ease of dismantling
Disadvantages:
(a) Limited angular displacement of shafts.
(b) Need for periodic lubrication due to relative sliding motion.
(c) Possible loss of loose members during disassembly.
Flange
Center block
Flange
Fig. 14.16. Three dimensional sectional view of disassembly of Oldham’s coupling
Flange
Center block
Flange
Fig. 14.17. Three dimensional sectional view of assembly of Oldham’s coupling

260 Machine Drawing
Q.2. Figure 14.18 shows details of Oldham’s Coupling. Draw the assembly including the part list and
fit chart.
50 50
50H8
106
150
30H7
16H7
18
1. FLANGE
32 C.l.–2 OFF
50f8
KEYWAY
16n 16 × 5
4. SHAFT
M.S.–2 OFF
30g6
16
TAPER 1:100
16
10
16
3. KEY
16 30g6
M.S.–2 OFF
2. CENTRE BLOCK
C.l.–1 OFFz
Fig. 14.18. Details of Oldham’s coupling
Tolerance Chart
50 H8 = +0.039 +0.00 30H7 = +0.21 +0.000

50 f8 = –0.025 –0.064 30g6 = –0.007 –0.020
16n6 = +0.023 + 0.012 16H7 = +0.018 +0.000
Shaft Couplings 261
Solution. The assembly drawing in two views along with Part List and Fit Chart is given below.
2
3
1 A
TAPER
B
16 × 10
106
50H8/f8
30G7/g6
20
170
30
106
16
B KEY
16H7/n6
50 38 16 16 22 50
A
Fig. 14.19. Assembly of Oldham’s coupling
FIT CHART
16H7/n6 Transition Fit
PART LIST
1 Flange C.I. 2
2 Center Block C.I. 1
3 Keys M.S. 2
4 Shaft M.S. 2
14.6 Miscellaneous Couplings

Following are the miscellaneous couplings used in the industries.
14.6.1. Beam Coupling
The beam coupling consists of single or multiple helical cuts in the coupling body as shown in figures
14.20 and 14.21, which typically can accommodate parallel misalignments up to 0.6 mm and angular
misalignments up to 7 degrees. They are used primarily for motion control applications where torques are
typically below 11 N-m. Zero backlash designs available ensure positioning accuracy between driving
and driven shafts.
262 Machine Drawing
Fig. 14.20. Three dimensional view of beam coupling
L
L1 L1
B1
B2
D
Fig. 14.21. Two dimensional view of beam coupling
14.6.2. Bellows Coupling

Bellows couplings are also suited to motion control applications. They consist of multiple convolutions
of metal which provide high torsional stiffness which is important to positioning applications. Torsional
stiffness reduces the level of angular and parallel misalignment they can accommodate compared with
beam couplings, although torque transmission capabilities are about similar.
Fig. 14.22. Three dimensional view of bellows coupling

Shaft Couplings 263
Fig. 14.23. Two dimensional view of bellows coupling
14.6.3. Chain Coupling

Chain couplings are suited to power transmission applications and are used to transmit power up
into the hundreds of horsepower range. Angular and parallel misalignment allowances are typically 2
degrees and 0.38 mm, respectively. Typical chain couplings use special chain sprockets and double wide
roller chains whose clearances permit the design to operate as a flexible coupling.
Fig. 14.24. Three dimensional view of chain coupling
Fig. 14.25. Two dimensional view of chain coupling

264 Machine Drawing
14.6.4. Jaw Coupling

Curved and Straight Jaw couplings are used for both motion control and light power transmission
applications and consist of pairs of multi-jawed hubs that mate with elastomeric spiders. The design allows
for backlash-free torque transmission. Accommodation for parallel misalignment usually approaches
0.254 mm and angular misalignment about 1 degree. Elastomeric spiders give these couplings some
damping capacity and of often the spiders are available in different durometers to lend specific properties
to the individual couplings. These couplings often operate without lubricant and can transmit torque up
into the 113 N-m.
Fig. 14.26. Three dimensional view of assemble and disassemble of jaw coupling
1 2 1 1 2 1a
L
dH
t
dH
G
d
Fig. 14.27. Two dimensional view of jaw coupling
14.6.5. Diaphragm Coupling

Diaphragm couplings are generally used for high power transmission such as found in turbomachinery.
Typically, they employ one or more flexible metal convoluted discs which transmit power to an inner
spacer shaft then back out through another diaphragm stack to the driven machinery. A principal advantage
over gear type couplings is their lack of lubrication requirements. Diaphragm couplings are capable of
high torque transmission and high speed operation.
Shaft Couplings 265
Fig. 14.28. Three dimensional disassemble view of diaphragm coupling
Fig. 14.29. Two dimensional view of diaphragm coupling
14.6.6. Gear Coupling

Gear couplings also transmit high torques. They have misalignment capabilities generally about 0.25
to 0.50 mm in parallel and 2 degrees in angular. Gear couplings are often used in pairs with spacer shafts
to span the distance between driving and driven equipment. They generally require lubricant although
some designs intended for lighter duty use lubricant free nylons or other polymers for the centre sleeve.
Oil paper
Triple crowned hub teeth
Both hub diameters

are identical
“O” Ring
seals
Finish bores
if required
Smooth one
piece sleeve High strength bonts
Lubrication pulgs
in each half sleeve
Fig. 14.30. Three dimensional sectional assemble view of gear coupling
266 Machine Drawing
Minimum clearance required for aligning
M M
G GAP G
C C A
D
F
H H
J J
Oil paper
B
Fig. 14.31. Two dimensional view of gear coupling
14.6.7. Elastomeric Coupling
Elastomeric couplings absorb all types of shock, vibration and misalignment. Sleeves have
an exceptional ability to absorb torsional shock and dampen torsional vibrations. Sleeves wind-up
approximately 15° torsional at their rated torque. Parallel misalignment is absorbed without wear or
appreciable energy losses. The lateral flexibility of the coupling sleeve minimizes radial bearing loads
normally associated with parallel misalignment. This feature also allows for easier installation by the use
of components bored for slip fits without fretting corrosion occurring at the shaft.
Fig. 14.32. Three dimensional disassemble and assemble view of elastomeric coupling
Shaft Couplings 267
Bmin
N P A
Cmax
L L
Cmin
Bmin
Fig. 14.33. Two dimensional view of elastomeric coupling
14.7 Applications of Couplings in Industries

Couplings are a pivotal part of any machinery. They form the backbone of the rotation mechanism of any
industrial or electrical machinery. Thus, they should be chosen with considerable thought and planning.
Different types of couplings are available for use, such as gear, muff, flange, elastomer, etc. Coupling
selection should be based on the particular amount of torque required, or the torque weight ratio. All
the types of couplings are used in various industries like textiles, beverages, dairies, semiconductor
production, aggregate production, food processing industry etc. It must be ensured that a proper coupling
is fitted into the machinery otherwise it may halt the production process. Some of the types of couplings
commonly used in the industries are:
Gear Coupling
One of the high-grade couplings, gear coupling is of tremendous use in textile machinery, centrifugal
pumps, shovels, draglines, air compressors, blowers and fans. The specific feature of this type of coupling
is that it provides a high torque weight ratio.
Muff Coupling
These kinds of couplings are for semi-elastic purposes. They come at a lower cost and are easy to
maintain. In combination with the Taper lock bush, they are easy to install. They come in sizes 7″-15″
with a maximum width of 24″. Features include:
Elastomer Couplings
These are extremely flexible couplings with major applications in all kinds of industries, especially
in areas of fluid technology. They are also known as spider couplings. Their high expansibility and
268 Machine Drawing
resilience offers easy solutions for installation in pumps, motors in beverage and textile industry or even
in water treatment plants.
Bellows Couplings
These consist of stainless steel bellows and various designs of hubs and provide exceptional torsional
stiffness. These are used to eliminate misalignment between shafts.
Exercises
1. Draw a neat and propionate sketch of
(a) Muff coupling
(b) Split Coupling
(c) Universal Coupling
(d) Oldham’s Coupling
2. Draw the front and side view of a rigid flange coupling for 50 mm diameter shaft.
3. Draw the sectional front and side view of a pin bush flange coupling for 60 mm diameter shaft.
4. Draw the assemble and disassemble front view of a jaw coupling.
5. Figure 14.19 shows assembly of Oldham’s Coupling. Draw the details including the tolerance chart
and part list.
6. Figure 14.15 shows assembly of Universal Coupling. Draw the details including the tolerance chart
and part list.
Chapter
Pipe Joints and Fittings

15
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Piping systems are used to transport water from the sources of water supply to the points of distribution;
convey waste from residential and commercial buildings and other civic facilities to the treatment facility
or the point of discharge. Similarly, pipelines carry crude oil from oil wells to tank farms for storage
or to refineries for processing. The natural gas transportation and distribution lines convey natural gas
from the source and storage tank forms to points of utilization, such as power plants, industrial facilities,
and commercial and residential communities. In chemical plants, paper mills, food processing plants,
and other similar industrial establishments, the piping systems are utilized to carry liquids, chemicals,
mixtures, gases, vapors, and solids from one location to another. The piping systems in thermal power
plants convey high-pressure and high-temperature steam to generate electricity. In short, the piping systems
are an essential and integral part of our modern civilization. It is evident that pipe is one element or a part
of piping. Therefore, pipe sections when joined with fittings, valves, and other mechanical equipment
and properly supported by hangers and supports, are called piping.
15.2 PIPE JOINTS

Pipes are commonly joined by welding, by using pipe threads, or by using a mechanical coupling. Process
piping is usually joined by welding using a TIG or MIG process. The most common process pipe joint
is the butt weld. Another form of jointing for heavy wall pipe is threading of which the most common
form some of the common pipe joints are:
(a) Flanged Joint (b) Socket and spigot Joint
(c) Hydraulic Joint (d) Union Joint
(e) Nipple (f) Socket Joint
15.2.1 Flanged Joint

Flanged joints are basically used to connect large diameter pipes. The cast iron pipes are generally
cast integrally with the pipes and their faces are machined as shown in figure 15.1 while the mild steel,
wrought iron and plastic pipes are screwed on the pipe ends. The flanges are joined together by means
of bolts. To make the joint leak-proof a packing ring or gasket of soft material coated with lead is placed
between the flanges as shown in figure 15.2.
269
270 Machine Drawing
g
Rin
king
Pac
22 22
180
220
30
1
110
Fig. 15.1. Cast flanged coupling
Fig. 15.2. Screwed flanged coupling
15.2.2. Socket and Spigot Joint

In socket and spigot joint the end of one pipe is formed onto a socket and the other pipe is made into a
spigot as shown in figure 15.3. For the connection of pipe, the spigot is placed in the socket position then
remaining space between them is filled by jute yarn and molten lead. It is generally used for connecting
Pipe Joints and Fittings 271
underground pipelines of large diameter pipes. As the joint permits the flexibility hence it adapts a small
change in the level due to earth settlement.
Lead Jute
10
Socket
90 5
270
t e
Ju
230
ad
170
140
Le Socket
50 50
Spigot Spigot
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.3. Socket and spigot joint
15.2.3. Hydraulic Joint

A hydraulic joint as shown in figure 15.4 is used where the fluids under pressure are to be conveyed.
Flanges for this joint are in oval shape and are cast integrally with pipe ends. A small circular spigot is
formed at the center of one flange which fits into socket in the other flange. A packing ring is inserted to
make the joint leak proof and the flanges are joined by means of bolts and nuts.
76 25 A SQ 46 R 50
6 M 40 4
32
28
78
200
130
154
270
6
R 260
B
F.V. Half sectional S.V. (section A-B)
Fig. 15.4. Hydraulic joint

272 Machine Drawing
15.2.4. Union Joint

The union joint is generally used for the small diameter pipes and where it requires frequent assembly
and disassembly of the joint. The pipe ends are threaded at their ends and a nut (A) as shown in figure 15.5
having external and internal threads is screwed on one pipe and other nut (B) having circular projection
at its one end is screwed on the other pipe. Both the nuts are drawn together by a coupler nut (C). A
packing ring is inserted between the two pipes to seal the joint more effectively.
18 32 16 8 8
Nut with Circular Projection
B
Externaly
58
72
Threaded
44
Nut
130
A e2 ere
Pip gh
in
P ak
e1
Pip
28 28
C
Coupler
Fig. 15.5. Union joint
15.2.5. Nipple
It is a piece of pipe having external threads and it is screwed inside the internally threaded ends of
two pipes in order to connect them as shown in figure 15.6.
Fig. 15.6. Nipple joint
15.5.6. Socket Joint

It is a short cylindrical sleeve threaded from inside. It is screwed on the externally threaded ends of
two pipes in order to connect them. To make the joint leak-proof, a few stands of jute coated with red
lead are wound round the bottom of the thread on each pipe end.
Fig. 15.7. Socket joint

15.3 PIPE FITTINGS

Various types of pipe fittings are available in plumbing systems for different purposes and functions. A
pipe fitting is used in plumbing system to join multiple pipes of same size or different sizes, to regulate
the flow or to measure the flow. They are made up of different materials like copper, iron, brass, PVC
etc. Figures 15.8 to 15.13 shows the different pipe fittings.
Fig. 15.8. Reducing socket Fig. 15.9. Tee
Fig. 15.10. Cross Fig. 15.11. Plug
Fig. 15.12. Elbow Fig. 15.13. Bend

274 Machine Drawing
15.4 SYMBOLS FOR PIPE FITTINGS

There are more than 200 piping symbols that are used on pipe fittings, but here are some of the basic
symbols as shown in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Pipe Fitting Symbols
Flanged Screwed Bell and Spigot Welded Soldered
Bushing
Cap — —
Cross 2 2 2 2 2
(Reducing)
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
4 4 4 4 4
Cross
(Straight)
Crossover __ __ __
Elbow - 45°
Elbow - 90°
Elbow -
Turned Down
Elbow -
Turned Up
Elbow -
Base __ ––
Elbow -
Double Branch –– –– ––
Elbow -
Long Radius –– –– ––
LR
LR
Elbow - Reducing 2 2 2 2
––
4 4 4
4
Elbow -
Side Outlet –– ––
(Outlet Down)
Elbow -
Side Outlet –– ––
(Outlet Up)
Elbow - Street
–– –– –– ––
Joint - Conn. Pipe
Joint - Expansion
Lateral
––
Orifice Plate
–– –– –– ––
Reducing Flange –– –– –– ––
Plug - Bull –– ––
––
Plug - pipe
–– –– ––
Reducer -
Concentric
Reducer -
Eccentric
Valve - Gate Angle

–– ––
Gate (Plan)
Valve - Globe
Angle Globe ––
(Elevation)
276 Machine Drawing
Valve - Globe
––
(Plan)
Valve (Auto)
B-Pass –– –– –– ––
Valve (Auto) -
Governor Oper. –– –– –– ––
Valve - Reducing
–– –– –– ––
Valve - Check
(Straight Way)
Valve - Cock
Valve - Diaphragm
–– –– ––
Valve - Float ––
Valve - Gate
Valve - Gate M M M
Motor Operated –– ––
Valve - Globe
Valve - Globe M M M
Motor Operated –– ––
Valve - Angle
Hose Angle
–– –– ––
Valve - Hose Gate –– –– ––
Valve - Hose Globe –– –– ––

Valve - Lockshield
–– ––
Valve - Quick
Opening ––
Valve - Saftey
Sleeve
Tee - Straight
Tee - Oullet Up
Tee - Outlet Down
Tee - Double
Sweep –– –– ––
Tee - Reducing 2 2 2 2 2
6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4
Tee - Single Sweep

–– –– ––
Tee - Side Outlet

(Outlet Down) –– ––
Tee - Side Outlet

(Outlet Up) –– ––
Union
––
Angle Valve Check
Angle Valve Gate

–– ––
278 Machine Drawing
15.5 DESIGNATION FOR PIPE

“Iron Pipe Size” (IPS) system was established to designate the pipe size. The size represented the
approximate inside diameter of the pipe in inches. An IPS 6” pipe is one whose inside diameter is
approximately 6 inches. Users started to call the pipe as 2inch, 4inch, 6inch pipe and so on. To begin,
each pipe size was produced to have one thickness, which later was termed as standard (STD) or standard
weight (STD.WT.). The outside diameter of the pipe was standardized.
As the industrial requirements handling higher pressure fluids, pipes were manufactured with thicker walls,
which has become known as an extra strong (XS) or extra heavy (XH). The higher pressure requirements
increased further, with thicker wall pipes. Accordingly, pipes were made with double extra strong (XXS)
or double extra heavy (XXH) walls, while the standardized outside diameters are unchanged.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI), American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
and American Petroleum Institute (API) designation for piping is given in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Pipe fitting symbols
ANSI ASTM or API Title
Designation Designation
B36.1 ASTM A53 Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe
B36.2 ASTM A72 Welded Wrought Iron Pipe
B36.3 ASTM A106 Seamless Carbon-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
B36.20 ASTM A120 Black and Hot-Dipped Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Welded and
Seamless Steel Pipe for Ordinary Uses
B36.4 ASTM A134 Electric-Fushion (Arc) - Welded Steel Plate Pipe, Sizes 16 in.
and Over
B36.5 ASTM A135 Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
B36.9 ASTM A139 Electric-Fushion (Arc) - Welded Steel Plate Pipe, Sizes 14 in.
and Over
B36.11 ASTM A155 Electric-Fushion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
B36.16 ASTM A211 Spiral-Welded Steel or Iron Pipe
B36.26 ASTM A312 Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
Redesignated B125.16
B36.40 ASTM A333 Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-Temperature Service
Redesignated B26.27
B36.42 ASTM A335 Seamless Ferritic Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
B36.47 ASTM A358 Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickle Alloy Steel
Pipe for High-Temperature Service
B36.48 ASTM A369 Ferritic Alloy Steel Forged and Bored Pipe for High-Temperature
Service
B36.43 ASTM A376 Seamless Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-
Station Service
B36.49 ASTM A381 Metal-Arc Welded Steel Pipe for High-pressure Transmission
Service
B36.44 ASTM A405 Seamless Ferritic Alloy -Steel Pipe Specially Heat Treated for
High-Temperature Service
ASTM A419 Electric-Fusion (Arc)-Welded Wrought Iron Plate Pipe
ASTM A523 Plain End Seamless and Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
for High-Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Circuits
B 36.56 ASTM A524 Seamless Carbon Steep Pipe for Process Piping
B 36.57 ASTM A530 General Requirements for Specialized Carbon Steel and Alloy
API 5L Line Pipe
API 5LX High-Test Line Pipe
API 5LS Spiral Weld Line Pipe
Exercises
1. Draw front and side view of a screwed flanged coupling for mils steel pipe.
2. Draw a neat and proportionate free hand sketch of C.I. flanged coupling.
3. Draw sectional front and side view of a socket and spigot joint for an underground pipe of 100 mm
internal diameter.
4. Draw neat and proportionate free hand sketch of Nipple, reducing Socket, plug, Cross and Tee.
Chapter
Sectional Views
16
16.1 INTRODUCTION
A sectional view is obtained making an imaginary cut through the part, and by drawing the features
on the cut surface, as shown in Figure 16.1. In a drawing, the exposed or cut surfaces are identified by
section lining, or crosshatching. Section views show internal part detail as solid lines instead of hidden
lines, which improve communication. Hidden lines and details behind the cutting-plane line are usually
omitted unless they are required for clarity. A sectional view can sometimes replace one of the regular
views, for example, a regular front view as shown in Figure 16.2.
Cutting-Plane line
A A
Arrow indicates direction of sight
Front
Section A—A
Fig. 16.1. Cutting a part and showing a section view Fig. 16.2. A section drawing
16.1.1. Hatching Lines

Hatching lines are drawn on the sectional portion to make sections visible. Hatching lines are thin
lines drawn at an angle of 45° to the axis as shown in figure 16.3. The hatching of adjacent components
should be carried out in different directions. In the case of more than two adjacent components hatching
lines to be drawn in different directions and the spacing of hatching lines is varied as shown in figure 16.4.
When section of same part in parallel plane are shown side by side the hatching lines should be
similarly spaced but offset along the dividing line between the section as shown in figure 16.5. The
spacing between the hatching lines should be uniform and should be chosen in proportion to the size of
the section. Thin sections may be shown entirely black as shown in figure 16.6. in the parts like shafts,
ribs, bolts, nuts, studs, spoke of pulley, spoke of wheel, keys, pins etc. should be shown in longitudinal
section which means when the cutting plane passes in such a way as to contain their axes. These should
280
Sectional Views 281
be shown by normal views and not in the sectional view as stated in figure 16.7 for in section. For odd
pulley in section as shown in figure 16.8 and for even pulley in section as shown in figure 16.9.
Fig. 16.3. Hatching lines Fig. 16.4. Hatching lines

of adjacent components
Fig. 16.5. Hatching lines for parallel plane Fig. 16.6. Hatching lines for thin section
Corrent Incorrent
Fig. 16.7. Hatching lines for rivets in section
A Correct Incorrect
Fig. 16.8. Hatching lines for odd pulley arms in section

282 Machine Drawing
Correct Incorrect
Fig. 16.9. Hatching lines for even pulley arms in section
16.2 CUTTING PLANE LINE

A cutting-plane line indicates where the imaginary cutting takes place. The position of the cutting plane
is indicated, when necessary, on a view of the object or assembly by a cutting plane line, as shown in
Figure 16.10. The ends of the cutting-plane line are bent at 90 degrees and terminated by arrowheads to
indicate the direction of sight for viewing the section. Cutting planes are not shown on sectional views.
The cutting-plane line may be omitted when it corresponds to the centre line of the part or when only
one sectional view appears on a drawing.
A A
For all drawings
A A
Fig. 16.10. Section drawing
If two or more sections appear on the same drawing, the cutting-plane lines are identified by two
identical large, single-stroke, Gothic letters. One letter is placed at each end of the line. Sectional view
subtitles are given when identification letters are used and appear directly below the view, incorporating
the letters at each end of the cutting-plane line, like: SECTION A-A or, SECT A-A.
16.3 SECTION LINING

Section lining indicates the surface that has been cut and makes it stand out clearly. Because the exact
material specifications for a part are usually given elsewhere, the general use section lining (i.e., the
45-degree solid parallel lines) is recommended for general use. When it is desirable to indicate differences
in materials, other symbolic section lines are used, such as those shown in Figure 16.11. If the part shape
would cause section lines to be parallel or nearly parallel to one of the sides or features of the part, an
angle other than 45 degrees can be chosen.
Wood and concrete are the only two materials usually shown symbolically. When wood symbols are
used, the direction of the grain is shown.
Sectional Views 283
Fig. 16.11. Symbolic section lining
16.4 TYPES OF CUTTING PLANE SECTIONS

Cutting planes are used to create section views and reveal hidden details in a mechanical drawing.
These views assume that a cutting plane has removed portions of the object represented by the drawing,
displaying the appropriate section of the interior. Sectional views are used in engineering and architectural
drawings. They help mechanical, civil engineers, architects and designers to communicate their ideas to
their peers. The different types of cutting plane sections are discussed below.
16.4.1. Section in One Plane
The section in one plane example is shown in figure 16.12 as the section xx is sufficient to show
the details of the part.
X
X X
Fig. 16.12. Section in one plane Fig. 16.13. Section in two planes
284 Machine Drawing
16.4.2. Section in Two Parallel Planes

Sometimes one section plane is not sufficient to show the details of the component, in such cases
two section planes are used as shown in figure 16.13.
16.4.3. Section in Three Continuous Planes

There are certain parts to be section in the continuous section to observe the details, one of the
example is shown in figure 16.14.
Fig 16.14. Section in three planes

16.4.4. Full Section
When the cutting plane extends entirely through the object in a straight line and the front half of the
object is theoretically removed, a full section is obtained, Figure 16.15. This type of section is used for
both detail and assembly drawings. When the cutting plane divides the object into two identical parts,
it is not necessary to indicate its location. However, the cutting plane may be identified and indicated in
the usual manner to increase clarity.
Cutting plane
Front section
B
removed Cutting plane line
Section B—B
B
Fig. 16.15. Full section

16.4.5. Half Section
A symmetrical object or assembly may be drawn as a half section, Figure 16.16, showing one half up
to the centre line in section. A normal centre line is listed on the section view. The wording, half section,
can be confusing because one thinks of showing half the part. Remember, a half section shows one-
Sectional Views 285
fourth of the part, not one half. This type of section is used mostly for assembly drawings where internal
and external features are clearly shown and only overall and centre-to-centre dimensions are required.
Front section removed
Arrows indicate direction of sight
Cutting plane
A Cutting plane line
Section A—A
Direction of sight A
Fig. 16.16. Half section
16.4.6. Offset Section

In order to include features that are not in a straight line, the cutting-plane line may be offset or bent,
so as to include several planes or curved surfaces as shown in figure 16.17. An offset section is similar
to a full section in that the cutting plane extends through the object from one side to the other.
Fig. 16.17. Offset section
16.5 ADDITIONAL SECTION VIEWS

In addition to above sections there are other types of section views are used in the mechanical engineering
drawing for observing the details of hidden parts of the component in the assembly of machine or
equipment. The other additional sections are:
286 Machine Drawing
(a) Broken-out Section (b) Aligned Section

(c) Revolved Sections (d) Removed Section
(e) Web in section (f) Pulley in section
(a) Broken-out Section. When certain internal and external features of an object can be shown without
drawing another view, broken-out and partial sections are used as shown in figure 16.18. A cutting-plane
line or a break line is used to indicate where the section is taken. The break line is normally a jagged
line, which better indicates the break. Broken-out sections save drawing time and drawing space. Most
CAD systems have a freehand sketching tool to create the break line.
Fig. 16.18. Broken-out section
(b) Aligned Section. Aligned section is not a true projection of the cut surface. It is often used when
a part contains webs, ribs, spokes, or similar features. It revolves or aligns special part features to clarify
them or make them easier to represent in section. One can conceptually think about an aligned section
as a specialized offset section as shown in figure 16.19. The cutting plane can be bent to pass through all
of the nonaligned features in the un-sectioned view.
Holes are rotated to cutting plane to show their
true relationship with the rest of the element
A Ribs are not sectioned Wrong method of section
A Section A-A Section A-A

preferred true projection
Cutting plane passing through two ribs
Fig. 16.19. Aligned section
(c) Revolved Sections. A revolved section is made by revolving the cross-section view 90 degrees
about an axis of revolution and superimposing the section view on the orthographic view. Visible lines
adjacent to the revolved view can be either drawn or broken out using conventional breaks, as shown in
figure 16.20. When the revolved view is superimposed on the part, the original lines of the part behind the
Sectional Views 287
section are deleted. The cross section is drawn true shape and size, not distorted to fit the view. The axis
of revolution is shown on the revolved view as a centre line. Revolved sections are useful for describing
a cross section without having to draw another view. In addition, these sections are especially helpful
when a cross section varies or the shape of the part is not apparent from the given orthographic views.
Cutting plane
Revolved section
Depth
th
Dep
ht
Heig True size section
Imaginary cutting plane

Height
Line of sight
Depth
Fig. 16.20. Revolved section
(d) Removed Sections. A removed section differs from the revolved section in that the section is
removed to an open area on the drawing instead of being drawn directly on the view. Removed sections
are used when there is not enough room on the orthographic view for a revolved section. Removed
sections are used to show the contours of complicated shapes such as blades for jet engines or power
plant turbines, and other parts that have continuously varying shapes. Frequently, the removed section is
drawn to an enlarged scale for clarification and easier dimensioning as shown in figure 16.21.
A
Section A-A
Fig. 16.21. Removed section
(e) Web in Sections. Web or rib is not to be shown in section when a cutting plane passes longitudinally
passed through centre line of a rim as shown in figure 16.22.
288 Machine Drawing
(f) Pulley in Sections. Pulley, arms or spoke of wheel are not to be shown in section even though
the cutting plane passes through it as shown in figure 16.23.
A
A A
Fig. 16.22. Web in sections Fig. 16.23. Pulley in sections
16.6 THREADED PARTS

The conventional representation of internal and external threads along with the threads in section is as
shown in figure 16.24 and 16.25. For the threaded parts in section, hatching lines should be extended up
to the minor diameter for internal threads and up to the major diameter for external threads as shown in
figure 16.24 and 16.25.
Fig. 16.24. External threads in section
Fig. 16.25. Internal threads in section
16.7 CONVENTIONAL BREAKS

In the case of long components or parts with uniform cross section like shaft, pipe, rectangular, T and I
sections which occurs more space unnecessarily, hence a conventional break as shown in figure 16.26 is
Sectional Views 289
used rather than to be drawn of full length. The member is braked length wise and its ends are brought
nearer as shown in the figure and its true length is given by putting the dimensions.
Round section
Rectangular section
Pipe or tubing
Wood (Rectangular section)
Pipe or tubing I section
T section
Fig. 16.26. Conventional breaks
Exercises
1. Draw external threads on the shaft of 50 mm diameter in section.
2. Draw conventional break for I section.
3. Explain revolved section with an example.
4. Explain the necessity of half section with an example.
5. Draw section line for steel.
6. Draw hatching Lines for rivets in section
7. Draw and explain web in section.
Chapter
Assembly and Details

17
`17.1 INTRODUCTION
An Assembly and details of the drawing shows the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. It
shows all parts of the assembly and how they fit together. In mechanical systems usually the component
closest to the centre are assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. This
drawing can also help to represent the disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside normally get
removed first.
An assembly drawing is a drawing of an entire machine or system with all of its components located
and identified. We need to know how to put the machine together.
Detail Drawing are the drawing of each of the small components separately of a machine assembly or
a working unit. Details are prepared in orthographic projections. Each component is shown by minimum
two views.
17.2 DETAILS DRAWINGS

Following points should be considered while preparing the detail drawings,
1. Proper scale should be used for the drawing.
2. Components should be drawn in their working position.
3. Minimum two views should be drawn and whenever two views are not sufficient to describe the
object, three or more views should be shown.
4. For better understanding one or more views should be shown as sectional views.
5. In the case of sectional view, dotted lines should be shown in the outside view.
6. Details should be mention on the detail drawing as per the dimensions, material, tolerance, finishing
process etc.
7. Name, material and number of pieces required per unit should be written below the views of the
component.
8. Standard parts should be shown in section.
9. Required notes such as fillet radius, machine all over etc. should be written on drawing whenever
required.
290
Assembly and Details 291
17.3 ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

The assembly drawing show the relative positions of various parts grouped together in such a way that
as a whole they perform some function. Following points should be considered while preparing the
assembly drawings.
1. Choose a proper scale so as to view the drawing on the drawing sheet.
2. Two views of assembly should be drawn and when it requires more clarification then more views
should be drawn.
3. In case of symmetrical view, half views may be drawn if space is a constraint.
4. In order to observe the internal features, one or more views should be drawn in section.
5. In order to avoid the confusion on dotted line when crowding of dotted lines occurs, only few dotted
lines should be shown.
6. External threaded parts are always shown covering internally threaded parts and are not hidden by
them.
7. Overall dimensions should be shown in the assembly drawing.
8. Part list should be prepared by the serial numbers of the parts.
9. Tittle of the assembly drawing is to be written below the views.
Procedure to draw assembly drawing:
1. Study and visualize the various parts for their function, shape and size.
2. Study the relative position of parts is to be decided.
3. For sectional front view, imagine the sectional front view of all the parts.
4. Redraw the front views of all the parts in proper position and omit the overlapping or hidden lines.
5. For side view, redraw the side views of all the parts in their proper position.
6. Dark or visible lines should be decided by starting the drawing with the nearest surface and ending
with the farthest surface.
17.4 ENGINE PARTS
17.4.1 Cross Head

A crosshead is a mechanism used in long reciprocating engines and reciprocating compressors to
eliminate sideways pressure on the piston. Also, the crosshead enables the connecting rod to freely move
outside the cylinder. Because of the very small bore-to-stroke ratio on such engines, the connecting rod
would hit the cylinder walls and block the engine from rotating if the piston was attached directly to the
connecting rod like on trunk engines. Therefore, the longitudinal dimension of the crosshead must be
matched to the stroke of the engine.
Problem 1. The details of cross head are shown in Fig. 17.1. Draw the half sectional front and side view
of the assembly. Also prepared the bill of material.
Solution:
Following steps should be followed for drawing the assembly of cross head after the careful study
and visualisation of the parts for their shapes and sizes.
292 Machine Drawing
Rod end 1-off Cross head body Cap

2 1 24, 2 Holes 3
forged steel 1. off cast steel 1-Off
64 f7 64 f7 64 f7 28
32 75
Sung 24
slot 2 Holes
R85
33
R3
108
5
70H7
44 H7
44 h6
108
44
108
28
R85
8 6
R 20
5
R8
150
R10
50 75 50
End view Half sect. R20 R20 End view Elev.
elev.
25
100 175
End view Half sect. elev.
Round head bolt (M.S) Brasses in 2 Halves 45

5 4
Gun Metal
18 24 18
2 off
70 h6
42
24
90
R25
Snug
3×3 52 R35
35
180 8 64 H8 8
Half. Sect. Elev.
Fig. 17.1. Details of cross head
(a) The three dimensional view of assembly of cross head along the position of parts is shown in the
Fig. 17.2 and the assemble view is as shown in Fig. 17.3 along with part number.
(b) The projection provided on cross head body size 44 × 6 mm fits accurately in the corresponding
recess in the rod end of size 44 × 8 mm.
(c) The circular portion of the brasses with radius R 35 fits in the circular portion of the cross head
body.
(d) The distance between the centres of the holes in the rod end, cross head body and the cap is
108 mm and the diameter of the holes is 24 mm. The diameter of the cylindrical headed bolt is
also 24 mm. Therefore, the bolt must pass through the holes provided in the above mentioned
parts. Nuts are tightened to hold the parts together.
(e) The snug 3 mm × 3 mm provided on the cylindrical headed bolts fits in the snug slot made in the
rod end.
(f) The relative fitting position of the spigot 44 × 6 mm provided on the cross head body is to be
inserted in the corresponding recess in the rod end.
(g) The brasses are in two parts are to be housed in the cross head body and the cap.
(h) The bolts of diameter 24 mm are inserted through the holes which is having centre distance
108 mm provided in the rod end, cross head body and the cap.
(i) The nuts are tightened.
6
7
5
3
2
4
Fig. 17.2. The exploded view of Fig. 17.3. Three dimensional view
cross head assembly of cross head assembly
(j) The half sectional front view as given in the problem is to be redraw in their proper fitting positions.
Overlapping or hidden lines are to be omitted and complete the half sectional front view as shown
in Fig. 17.4.
(k) For drawing the side view of the assembly, redraw the side views of all the parts in their proper
position and again overlapping or hidden lines being omitted. Complete the view as shown in
Fig. 17.4.
64 H8/f7
Snug slot
33
R85
8
42
24
70 H7/h6
24 18
44
44 H7/h6
0H
7
108
5
5
R3
45
R20 6
10
28 7
45
R85
R10
18 32 75 28
50
150
50
R20
25
100 175
Fig. 17.4. Two views of cross head assembly

294 Machine Drawing
Bill of Material
S.N. Name Material No. Required
1. Cross Head Body Cast Steel 1
2. Rod end Forged Steel 1
3. Cap Cast Iron 1
4. Brasses ( in two halves) Gun Metal 1
5. Bolt Mild Steel 2
6. Nuts Mild Steel 2
7. Lock Nuts Mild Steel 2
17.4.2 Crank Shaft and Flywheel

Problem 2. The details of crank shaft and flywheel shown in Fig. 17.5. Draw the assembly. Also prepared
the part list and fit chart.
88
7
0k
5
660
100
92
35
22
18
23 Oil holes on
Crank pin all bearings
2. Flywheel Flang to connect
O/P pulley 35H8 45H7 45H7 100H8
C.I. –1 off 35H8
62
50 h7
M28 3
100
40
50 h7
120
140
40
45h7
Flywheel here
35H8 35H8
16 22
12 ,4 HOLES, Main bearing 25 22 22 25 22 145 20
EQUI. SPACED Journal Crank web 1. Crank shaft
steel–1 off
Fig. 17.5. Details of crank shaft and flywheel

Tolerance Chart
35 H8 = + 0.039 45 h7 = – 0.000
+ 0.000 + 0.025
50 h7 = – 0.000 45 H7 = – 0.000
– 0.025 – 0.021
50 k7 = + 0.020 50 H7 = + 0.030
+ 0.002 + 0.000
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of crank shaft and flywheel is shown in Fig. 17.6 just to understand the
position of parts. (It is not expected as per the examination point of view)
2. The assembly of Crank Shaft and Flywheel is shown in Fig. 17.7. The part list along with fit chart
also given. (This is expected as a solution to the problem as per the Examination point of view.)
Main 120
Bearing 50h7 45h7 Main Bearing journal
journal 35
H8
50h7
45h7 45
H7
45h7
Oil hole for
35 all bearing
H8
45
H7 Fly
22 10 wheel
6 0H M28 3
62 8 20
22
40
25
4, 12 EQUI. 22
35
SP. to H8
22
connect pully
25
Crank 35
H8
web
Flang to 45h7
connect out 5R for inner 50h7
put pulley common to all web
Crank shaft
Main bearing journal
Fig. 17.6. General arrangement of crank shaft and flywheel

296 Machine Drawing
A
88
B 2
A A
A
1 A
B
A
50H7/k7
35H8 35H8
M283
62 45H7 100H8
50H7/k7
120
16 22 20
35H8 35H8
25 22 22 25 22 145
C C
Fig. 17.7. Assembly of crank shaft and flywheel
PART LIST
1 Crank Shaft Steel 1
2 Flywheel Cast Iron 1
FIT CHART
50 H7/k7 Interference Fit
17.4.3 Petrol Engine Piston
Problem 3. Figure 17.8 shows the details of petrol engine piston and connecting rod. Draw the assembly.
Also prepared the part list and fit chart.
Ring grooves for
Gudgeon pin 82 Space for scraper ring compression
bearings rings 2 3.5 C.I.
72 R26 R6
15°
2
20H7
45
°
TURN 64.5
0.5
29
45
24
19
17
19
16
°
87
28
4
8
17.5
38
16
10 2
M 40 Webs
4 Thick
4
72
4. Castle nut 67
M.S. –2 OFF 73
1. Petrol engine piston
Alluminiuam alloy–1 OFF 75
24 76.8
2
R18
81.6
5
20H7
5
32
1 20
1 5
8
C D 5 8
14
R
4
10
6
R
1
1
6
58
14
6 6
M10
18
5
14 Section-CD
6
5
128
1 14
1
Section-EF
White metal
33 20
lining
36
R2 R27
0

R1 0
R
E F
6
12
3. Big–end bolt
43
M.S. –2 OFF
1
52
54
4
1
44 40
2 mm Thick
4
4
52
54
16
Shim
10 80
12
20g6
10
20 R1
R28
4 36 4 CRS 56
2. Connecting rod 5. Gudgeon pin
Forged steel–1 OFF Hardened steel–2 OFF
Fig. 17.8. Details of petrol engine piston and connecting rod

298 Machine Drawing
Tolerance Chart
20 H7 = + 0.021 20 g6 = – 0.007
+ 0.000 – 0.020
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Petrol Engine Piston and Connecting rod as shown in Fig. 17.9.
2. The assembly of Petrol Engine Piston and Connecting rod is as shown in Fig. 17.10. The part list
along with fit chart also given.
Piston
Big–End Bolt
Connecting rod
Fig. 17.9. General arrangement of petrol engine piston and connecting rod
A A 1
A Ring grooves for
Space for compression
82 5 scraper ring rings 2 3.5 C.I.
Gudgeon pin 75
bearings R6
24 R26
15°
45
2
Turn 64.5
°
R18
29
24
19
19
16
17
87
32
20
17.5
38
20H7/g6
10
16
R
4
R
40 Webs
4
4 Thick
72
67
14
128
73
2 6
75
White metal
lining 33 20
R2
0
R27
0
R1
R
6
12
43
4
52
3
32
16 10 R28
20 4
R11
4 36 4
CRS 56
Fig. 17.10. Assembly of petrol engine piston and connecting rod

PART LIST
1 Piston Alloy Steel 1
2 Connecting Rod Forged Steel 1
3 Big-end Bolt Mild Steel 2
4 Castle Nut Mild Steel 2
5 Gudgeon Pin Hardened Steel 1
300 Machine Drawing
FIT CHART
20 H7/g6 Clearance Fit
17.4.4 Stuffing Box

Problem 4. Figure 17.11 shows the details of Stuffing Box. Draw the assembly. All the dimensions are
in MM.
Fig. 17.11. Details of stuffing box
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Stuffing Box as shown in Fig. 17.12.
2. The assembly of Stuffing Box is as shown in Fig. 17.13. The part list also shown.
4
5
5 3
5
2
4
Section A-A
Fig. 17.12. General arrangement of stuffing box Fig. 17.13. Assembly of stuffing box
Part List
S.N. Part Name Description Material No. Required
1. 1 Body Cast Iron 1
2. 2 Gland Brass 1
3. 3 Bush Brass 1
4. 4 Stud Mild Steel 2
5. 5 Nut M12 Mild Steel 2
17.5 BEARINGS
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces
friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may prevent a motion by controlling the normal
forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions
of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.
17.5.1 Foot Step Bearing

Problem 5. The Fig. 17.14 shows details of foot step bearing. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill
of material along with fit chart.
Tolerance Chart
68 H7 = + 0.030 68 h6 = – 0.019
+ 0.000 – 0.000
50 H8 = + 0.039 50 e8 = – 0.050
+ 0.000 – 0.089
8 H7 = + 0.015 8 g6 = – 0.005
+ 0.000 – 0.014
302 Machine Drawing
50e8
15
15
15
130
7
8 8H 15
6
28 Pin hole 4, 6 deep
4. Disc
G.M. 1–OFF
30
20
Sung recess
3
8
15
64
71
94
40
R6
R60
68H7
15
72
18
50H8
200
Pin hole 4, 6 deep
1. Body 3. Shaft
C.I. 1–OFF M.S. 1–OFF
5
6
50H7 Pin 4,
12 long
78
5. Pin
M.S. 1–OFF
12
8
15
40
Sung 3
8 wide
68g6
15
2. Bush
G.M. 1 –OFF
Fig. 17.14. Details of foot step bearing

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Foot Step Bearing as shown in Figs. 17.15 and 17.16.
2. The assembly of Foot Step Bearing is as shown in Fig. 17.17. The part list along with fit chart is
also shown.
Shaft
Bush
Disc
Body
Fig. 17.15. General arrangement of foot step bearing

Shaft
Bush
Body
Disc
Fig. 17.16. General arrangement of assembly of foot step bearing

304 Machine Drawing
15
15
8H7/g6
130
28
30
20
4
3
8
8
15
2
50H8/e8
5 94
40
1 68H7/h6
A
15
A
18
200
Pin hole 4, 6 deep A
Fig. 17.17. Assembly of foot step bearing
Part List
Part No. Part name Material Quantity
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Disc Gun Metal 1
3 Bush Gun Metal 1
4 Shaft Mild Steel 1
5 Pin Mild Steel 1
Fit Chart
50 H8/e8 Clearance Fit
68 H7/h6 Clearance Fit
17.5.2 Pedestal Bearing (Plummer Block)

Problem 6. The Fig. 17.18 (see figure on next page) shows details of pedestal bearing. Draw the assembly.
Also prepared the bill of material along with fit chart.
Tolerance Chart
48 H7 = + 0.025 48 g6 = – 0.009
+ 0.000 – 0.025
46 H7 = + 0.025 46 g6 = – 0.009
+ 0.000 – 0.025
8 H7 = + 0.015 8 h6 = – 0.009
+ 0.000 – 0.000
56 H7 = + 0.030 56 g6 = – 0.010
+ 0.000 – 0.029
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Pedestal Bearing as shown in Figs. 17.19 and 17.20.
2. The assembly of Pedestal Bearing is as shown in Fig. 17.21. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
306 Machine Drawing
SQ.26
R54
8
48H7
28
R8
20 12 48H7
98
208
CRS78
56H7
28
16
R2
4
8H7 M12
4
4
68
R8
14
4. Bolt
M.S. 2–OFF
8
10
3
SQ.26 10
CRS162 Spot to suit nut

1. Body
C.I. 1–OFF CRS78
64
12
16
8
16
M12
24
48g6
46g6
4
R2
64
28
8
6. Lock nut Oil hole 4 56g6
M.S. 2–OFF
5
44 R1 R54
46g6
12
R8
X
8
Oil hole 4
M12 3. Cap
32
C.I. 1–OFF
5. Nut
M.S. 2–OFF
8
8h6
2. Brass
G.M. 1–OFF
Fig. 17.18. Details of pedestal bearing

Nut Lock nut
Cap
Brass
Body Body
(Bottom view)
Bolt
Fig. 17.19. General arrangement of pedestal bearing
Cap
Nut
Lock nut Brass
Body
Bolt
Fig. 17.20. Assembly arrangement of pedestal bearing

308 Machine Drawing
64
2 A
B
8
A
R 54
46H7/g6
R8
12
28
64
A
48H7/g6
A
5 20
M12
6 B
6
12
3
8
R48
12
56H7/g6
24
16
32

4
68
1 R8 4
8
8H7/h6
14
10
7
SQ. 26
3
10 78 CRS
162 CRS B
208
Fig. 17.21. Assembly of pedestal bearing
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Brass Gun Metal 1

3 Cap Cast Iron 1
4 Bolt Mild Steel 2
5 Nut Mild Steel 2
6 Lock Nut Mild Steel 2
Fit Chart
8 H7 / h6 Clearance Fit
48 H7/ g6 Clearance Fit
46 H7 / g6 Clearance Fit
Problem 7. The Fig. 17.22 shows details of pedestal bearing. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill
Tolerance Chart
70 H7 = + 0.030 70 g6 = – 0.010
+ 0.000 – 0.029
58 H7 = + 0.030 58 g6 = – 0.010
+ 0.000 – 0.029
50 H7 = + 0.025
+ 0.000
7
1
58H7
30
18
14
M16 1.5
25 R20
70H7
15
22
R8 5. Hex. nut
76
22 (M.S., 2–OFF)
3
14
16
SQ. 28 14
3
102 CRS
30 200 CRS 30
1. Body
50H7 C.I., 1–OFF 0
R2
10
58
M16 1.5
58g6
38
76
102 CRS
12
6 17
25
10
Oil hole 3
5
16
10
104
11
35
18
R5
28
Sung 6
7
To suit
82
brasses 70g6 Flats

12
50H7 102 CRS

66
3. Cup
SQ. 26 C.I.,1–OFF
70g6
4. Bolt
2. Brass M.S., 2–OFF
G.M., 1–OFF
Fig. 17.22. Details of pedestal bearing
310 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Pedestal Bearing as shown in Fig. 17.23.
2. The assembly of Pedestal Bearing is as shown in Fig. 17.24. The part list along with fit chart is
also shown.
Nut
Washer
Cap
Brass Cap
Bottom view
Body
Bolt
Body
Bottom view
Fig. 17.23. General arrangement of pedestal bearing

260
30 82 30
2 A
B
9
R2
58H7/g6
18
25
A
5
M16
B
70H7/g6 3
16
A
22
5 6
0H A
7
A
76
1
R
4
8
3
16
SQ. 28 200 CRS
30 30
102 CRS B
Fig. 17.24. Assembly of pedestal bearing
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Brasses Gun Metal 2
3 Cup Cast Iron 1
4 Bolt Mild Steel 2
5 Nut Mild Steel 2
Fit Chart
312 Machine Drawing
17.6 VALVES
A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid like gases, liquids, fluidized
solids, or slurries by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. In an open valve,
fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. Modern control valves may regulate
pressure or flow downstream and operate on sophisticated automation systems. Valves have many uses,
including controlling water for irrigation, industrial uses for controlling processes, residential uses such
as on/off and pressure control to dish and clothes washers and taps in the home. Valves are also used in
the military and transport sectors.
17.6.1 Non Return Valve

Problem 8. The Fig. 17.25 (see figure on next page) shows details of Non Return Valve. Draw the assembly.
Also prepared the bill of material along with fit chart.
Tolerance Chart
106 H7 = + 0.054 106 f 7 = – 0.036

+ 0.000 – 0.071
120 H7 = + 0.035 120 k6 = + 0.025
+ 0.000 + 0.003
144 H7 = + 0.040 144 h6 = + 0.000
+ 0.000 – 0.025
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Non return Valve as shown in Figs. 17.26 and 17.27.
2. The assembly of Non Return Valve is as shown in Fig. 17.28. The part list along with fit chart is
also shown.
6 Holes,
180 PCD, M20 226
140
144H7 106H7
6
°
45
15
26
10
54
84
150
240
106
120k6
15
120H7 2. Valve seat
G.M. 1–OFF
12
54
166
15
106
15
67
24
24
240
166
1. Body
C.I. 1–OFF
226 128
30
6 Holes on PCD180, 22
7
100
30
45
3
6
24
12
38 5
56
6
52
30 106f6
144h6 3. Valve
G.M. 1–OFF
4. Cover
C.I. 1–OFF
Fig. 17.25. Details of non return valve

314 Machine Drawing
Cover
Valve
Valve
bottom view
Valve seat
Body
Fig. 17.26. General arrangement of non return valve
Cover
Body
Valve
Valve seat
Fig. 17.27. Assembly arrangement of non return valve

M20, 6 Studs
on PCD 180.
B
226
4 144H7/h6 5
26 24
38
15
A
150
30
84
A
240
15
26
128
106
1
30
3
3
6
5
B
12
A
4
12
166
15
54
7 120H7/k6 A
2 15 106H7/f7 15
67
24
24
166
240 A
B
Fig. 17.28. Assembly of non return valve

316 Machine Drawing
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Valve Seat Gun Metal 1
3 Valve Gun Metal 1
4 Cover Cast Iron 1
5 Stud Mild Steel 4
Fit Chart
106 H7 / f7 Clearance Fit
144 H7/ h6 Clearance Fit
120 H7/ k6 Transition Fit
Problem 9. The Fig. 17.29 shows details of Non return Valve. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill
Tolerance Chart
110 H7 = + 0.035 110 f7 = – 0.036

+ 0.000 – 0.071
100 H7 = + 0.035 100 g6 = – 0.012

+ 0.000 – 0.034
85 H7 = + 0.030 85 n6 = + 0.045
+ 0.000 + 0.023
70 H7 = + 0.030 70 e8 = – 0.060
+ 0.000 – 0.106
225 100g6
175PCD 4 Holes M16 70H7
4
110H7
40 15
10
25
120
15
85n6
13
2. Valve Seat
70
70
100H7 G.M. 1–OFF
10
15
270
15
15 85H7
80
180
50
20
25
70
M16
15
55
25 5.Stud
M.S. 4–OFF
170
168 80
26
1.Body
3
C.I. 1–OFF
8
28
225
6
4
175 PCD
65
17 4 Holes
99
70e8
26
R10
110f7
7
3.Valve
53
G.M. 1–OFF
20
30
30
4.Cover
C.I. 1–OFF
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Non return Valve as shown in Fig. 17.30.
also shown.
318 Machine Drawing
Cover
Valve
Valve
Bottom
view
Valve seat
Body

168
20
170
4 Stud on A
175 PCD, M16
5
4
225
99 B
25
110H7/f 7 A
25
120
15
20
13
30
30
A
70
80
28
8
15
15
6 A
40
65
70H7/e8 A B
A
1
15 85H7/n6
2 3
15
55
25
70
A
170
B

320 Machine Drawing
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
3 Valve Gun Metal 1
4 Cover Cast Iron 1
5 Stud Mild Steel 4
Fit Chart
85 H7/ n6 Transition Fit
Problem 10. The Fig. 17.32 shows details of Non return Valve. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the
bill of material along with fit chart.
Tolerance Chart
48 H7 = + 0.025 48 e8 = – 0.050
+ 0.000 – 0.089
12 H7 = + 0.018 12 e8 = – 0.032
+ 0.000 – 0.069
88
12 12
M64 4
60
51
80
°
45
64
45
120
°
48
2
18
45
°
48H7
R102
6
45° Seat,
12 2 Deep
180 10,6 Holes
Equi. On 96
1. Body
C.I. 1– OFF
58
36
12e8 88
58 A/C
18
8 12
9
45°
6
12
18
27
12H7
30
48e8 4 Webs
46
6 Thick
M64 4
2. Valve 3.Cover
G.M. 1 – OFF C.I. 1–OFF
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Non return Valve as shown in Fig. 17.33.
also shown.
322 Machine Drawing
Cover
Valve
Cover
Valve
Bottom view
Bottom view
Body
88
M64 4
58 A/C
3
12H7/e8
12
A
1
8
A
46
58 A
9
60
6
102
R102
48
18
64
27
80
A
9
B A
2 B
12 48H7/e8 12
180

Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Valve Gun Metal 1
3 Cover Cast Iron 1
Fit Chart
48 H7 / e8 Clearance Fit
17.6.2 Steam Stop Valve

Problem 11. The Fig. 17.35 shows details of Steam Stop Valve. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the
Tolerance Chart
10 H7 = + 0.018 10 e8 = – 0.032
+ 0.000 – 0.059
30 H7 = + 0.011 30 n6 = + 0.033
+ 0.000 + 0.017
82 H7 = + 0.035 82 e8 = – 0.072
+ 0.000 – 0.126
20 H7 = + 0.021 20 g6 = – 0.007
+ 0.000 – 0.020
324 Machine Drawing
4 Holes, 16 44

172 On 132 PCD 38
82H7 Tapped, 19 Deep
19
13
19
41
6
13 90
50
29
70
3
22
156
21
19
19
21
98
M452
13
M602
10
19 27
33
13 50 13
19
15
164
3
°
48
45
Section A–A 66
10e8
Off CEN. Line
On 126 PCD
4 Holes, 18
7.Nut
M.S.,1–off
5
5
7
3
4
18
164
3.Valve 30n6
A A G.M.,1–off 20H7
35
127
6. Gland
48 G.M.,1–off
1.Body
30 15(4 Arms)
C.I.,1–off
10
M121.5
24
172
19
6
SQ.14 SQ.14
21
M45 2
30H7 150
68
8. Hand wheel
19
25
37
C.I.,1–Off
221
168
25
M202
16
50
3
20.5
45
2
5
4
20g6
48
19
25
On 132 PCD.
4 Holes 16
40
16
M121.25
13
82e8
M602 5
M121.25
4. Cover 10H7 67
C.I.,1–Off Hole for 3
13
Taper pin
25mm Long
25
2.Valve seat
G.M.,1–off 5. Valve spindle
M.S.
Fig. 17.35. Details of stem stop valve

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Steam Stop Valve as shown in Fig. 17.36.
2. The assembly of Steam Stop Valve is as shown in Fig. 17.37. The part list along with fit chart is
also shown.
Fig. 17.36. General arrangement of steam stop valve

326 Machine Drawing
SQ.14
150
M12 1.5 8
24 A
15 A
5 7
41
M20 2 SQ. TH.
B
6 4
5
A
29
172
25
A
20H7/g6
16
30H7/n6 A
19
82H7/e8
13 90 A
3 43
164
50
156
A
19
M60 2
98
10H7/e8
13 A
2 B
50
19
164
1
A
B
Fig. 17.37. Assembly of steam stop valve
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
3 Valve Gun Metal 1
4 Cover Cast Iron 1
5 Spindle Mild Steel 1
6 Gland Gun Metal 1
7 Nut Mild Steel 1
8 Hand Wheel Cast Iron 1
Fit Chart
30 H7/n6 Transition Fit
Problem 12. The Fig. 17.38 shows details of Steam Stop Valve. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the
Tolerance Chart
146 H7 = + 0.040 146 n6 = + 0.015

+ 0.000 + 0.055
164 H7 = + 0.000 164 g6 = – 0.014

+ 0.040 – 0.039
125 H8 = + 0.000 125 e8 = – 0.085

– 0.025 – 0.185
158 H7 = + 0.040 158 n6 = + 0.015

+ 0.000 + 0.055
58 H7 = + 0.000 58 n6 = + 0.039
+ 0.039 + 0.029
30 H7 = + 0.000 30 f7 = – 0.025
+ 0.030 – 0.050
328 Machine Drawing
70
280 48
16
8 Holes, 15.off
164H7 76
22
57
Center line, on
28
19
204 P.C.D.
29
170
57
6
40
16
R238
M202
172
R152 R127
158H7 125e8
10
11. Studs 140
46
254
16
M.S.,6–off
125
25
146H7
25
126
178
38 35
19 4 Webs,
R2
10 Thk.
M151.5
22
356 65
3. Valve
& Tap M20 on
6 Holes. Drill
22 10. Studs G.M.,1–off

228 P.C.D.
M.S.,2–off
254
SQ.356 SQ.25
38
25
32
9
R2
38
29
R2
45
CRS 120
60
4 Arms,Ellip
Typ. 1020
185
16
R25 9. Hand
22 wheel
76
1. Body C.I.,1–off
C.I.,1–off R32
M22 Hex.Nut 6. Bridge 158n6
°
45
10
24
G.M.,1–off
64
28
31
125H7
40
38
25
146n6
80
2.Valve seat
M253
3 3 G.M.,1–off
178
386
54 102 32 CRS1.20
30f 7
194 58H7
6
8. Pillars
29
22 M.S.,2–off
& Tap M15 &
2 Holes, Drill
50
16
6
20 Deep.
60 Crs 88 30

On 228 P.C.D.
11
10
70
8 Holes, 20
44
2
164g6
44
7. Spindle 58n6 30H7

G.M.,1–off 60
°
& Tap M25 &
2 Holes, Drill
R15
32 Deep.
5. Bush
44
Crs 88
G.M.,1–off
280
20
4. Cover
C.I.,1–off
Fig. 17.38. Details of stem stop valve

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Steam Stop Valve as shown in Fig. 17.39.
2. The assembly of Steam Stop Valve is as shown in Fig. 17.40. The part list along with fit chart is
also shown.
Spindle
Stud
Bridge
Bush
Cover
Valve
Bottom
Valve view
Valve seat
Body
Fig. 17.39. General arrangement of steam stop valve

330 Machine Drawing
254
CRS 120
SQ. 35 6
M22
M25 A
B
29 9
6 Holes M20 A
on 228 PCD. 185
280
228
60
B 58H7/n6
A
29
120 A
29
164H7/g6
50
P.C.D
204
30H7/f 7 8 Holes
15
16
19
A
46 10
158H7/n6 A
254
125
40
125H7/e8 A
A
R238
146H7/n6
A
178 B
B
16
22 22
356
Fig. 17.40. Assembly of steam stop valve
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
3 Valve Gun Metal 1
4 Cover Cast Iron 1
5 Bush Gun Metal 1

6 Bridge Gun Metal 1
7 Spindle Gun Metal 1
8 Pillar Mild Steel 2
10 Stud Mild Steel 2
Fit Chart
146 H7 / n6 Transition Fit
125 H7/ e8 Clearance Fit
17.7 EXPANSION JOINT

An expansion joint or movement joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb the heat induced expansion
and contraction of construction materials, to absorb vibration, to hold parts together, or to allow movement
due to ground settlement or earthquakes. They are commonly found between sections of piping systems,
building, bridges, side walk, railway tracks, ships, and other structures. Pipelines expand and contract
due to warming and cooling from seasonal variation, or due to other heat sources. Before expansion joint
gaps were built into these structures, they would crack under the stress induced.
17.7.1 Expansion Joint

Problem 13. The Fig. 17.41 shows details of Expansion Joint. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the
Tolerance Chart
150 H7 = + 0.040 150 g6 = – 0.014
+ 0.000 – 0.039
170 H7 = + 0.040 170 g6 = – 0.014
+ 0.000 – 0.039
125 H7 = + 0.040 125 g6 = – 0.014
+ 0.000 – 0.039
332 Machine Drawing
220
4 Holes 16
22
275
235
50
20
6 Holes 15
156 PCD.
16
150H7
70
M16
170g6 6. Nut
300
M.S. 4–off
4. Gland
Brass 1 – off
16
170g6
10
100
40
120
145
125H7
90
1 50g6 M16 125g6
5. Pipe
4 Holes 2. Neck bush C.I. 1–off
Brass 1–off 7. Bolt
16 on M.S. 4–off
235 PCD. 150g6
275
235 125H7
20
90
200
100
10
170H7 170g6
3. Gland bush
15
185
Brass 1–off
262
150H7
70
6 Holes,
15 on
15
156 PCD.
130
50
100
22
220
1. Body
C.I. 1–off
Fig. 17.41. Details of expansion joint

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Expansion Joint as shown in Figs. 17.42 and 17.43.
2. The assembly of Expansion Joint is as shown in Fig. 17.44. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
Pipe
Bolt
Gland
Pipe
Gland bush
Bolt
Gland
Neck bush
Body Gland bush
Neck bush
Nut
Nut
Body
Fig. 17.42. General arrangement Fig. 17.43. Assembly arrangement

of expansion joint of expansion joint
334 Machine Drawing
B
5 220
4 Holes
22
16 on
235 PCD.
275 7
B B
150
20
6 Holes 15 A
on 156 PCD. 4
90
70
20
100
83
6
170H7/g6 A
125H7/g6 A
3
40
262
120 A
2
50 15
6 Holes 15 185

1
on 156 PCD. 130 A
100
220
22
A
B
Fig. 17.44. Assembly of expansion joint

Part List

1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Neck Bush Brass 1
3 Gland Bush Brass 1
4 Gland Brass 1
5 Pipe Cast Iron 1
6 Nut Mild Steel 4
7 Bolt Mild Steel 4
Fit Chart
17.8 SCREW JACK

A jackscrew is a type of jack that is operated by turning a lead screw. In the form of a screw jack it is
commonly used to lift moderately heavy weights, such as vehicles. More commonly it is used as an
adjustable support for heavy loads, such as the foundations of houses, or large vehicles. These can
support a heavy load.
17.8.1 Screw Jack

Problem 14. The Fig. 17.45 shows details of Screw Jack. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
material along with fit chart.
Tolerance Chart
50 H7 = +0.030 50 n6 = +0.039
+0.000 +0.020
336 Machine Drawing
Drill & Tap 65
12
20
M12 1.5, 25 45
Deep 25
65 45°
280
45
12
°
8
7. Tommy bar
25
M.S., 1 – off
50
SQ. 40 6 RH. M12 1.5
88
9
45°
1.5 1.5
9
9
45
6. Set screw
M.S., 1 – off
50n6
SQ. 40 6 RH.
13 45
165
°
2. Bush
2.5
6
M.S., 1 – off
35
45°
50H7
40
40
75 3. Screw
5. Washer
M.S., 1 – off M.S., 1 – off
125
9 65
9
100
37
30
4.5
20
100 25
3
140 45
4. Cup
1. Body C.I., 1 – off
C.I., 1 – off
Fig. 17.45. Details of screw jack

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Screw Jack as shown in Figs. 17.46 and 17.47.
2. The assembly of Screw Jack is as shown in Fig. 17.48. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
Washer
Cup
Screw
Tomy bar
Bush
Body
Fig. 17.46. General arrangement of screw jack

338 Machine Drawing
Washer Cup
Tomy bar
Bush
Body
Screw
Fig. 17.47. Assembly arrangement of screw jack

245
65
50 B
40 4
4.5
35
5 28 6
39
25
9
6
A
A M12
12
20
50
65
45
9
7
9
9
A
88 2
40
50H7/n6 3
125
100
20
100
A 140
Fig. 17.48. Assembly of screw jack

340 Machine Drawing
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Bush Mild Steel 1
3 Screw Mild Steel 1
4 Cup Cast Iron 1
5 Washer Mild Steel 1
6 Set Screw Mild Steel 1
7 Tomy Bar Mild Steel 1
Fit Chart
17.9 CRANE HOOK

A Crane hook is a device for grabbing and lifting loads by means of a hoist. A crane hook is usually
equipped with a safety latch to prevent the disengagement of the lifting wire rope sling, chain or rope to
which the load is attached. A hook may have one or more built-in pulley sheaves as a block and tackle
to multiply the lifting force.
17.9.1 Crane Hook

Problem 15. The Fig. 17.49 shows details of Crane Hook. Draw the assembly.
B
M16 8
3 R18
16 15
20 32 7 Thick
30
3 Holes
M6
Equi-SP 25
130 PCD 35 115
22 32
R4 26
6
R12
43 32
25 R25
R18 38
100 R6 B 76
Section B-B Scale 0.600
Scale 0.600
Part No. 1 Part No. 2
2×1
12 82 3
38 7 18 18 7
16 32 R3
15
M 16 22 9 M6
31 22
Part No:- 5 Part No:- 13
B Slot 30 3
M12 25 25 16 4×2
46
12 12 10 31
M 12
10 52 25
3 holes, 20
dia. 6 8 25
B
PCD 35
2 R2 Part No.:- 7 Part No.:- 6
11
Part No.:-4
Part No:- 3
15 Slot 4 × 2
A A A A 7 A Slot
14 24 22 14 17 30 4×2
30 27
2 2 3 M 16 3
A A A A A
Section A-A Section A-A Section A-A Section A-A Section A-A
Part No.:- 12 Part No.:- 11 Part No.:- 10 Part No.:- 9 Part No.:- 8
Fig. 17.49. Details of crane hook
Solution:
1. The three dimensional assembly arrangement and assembly of Crane Hook is as shown in
Figs. 17.50 and 17.51 respectively.
342 Machine Drawing
10 4
8
3
12
7
13
1
11
Fig. 17.50. Assembly arrangement of crane hook
10 5
2
6
3 7
4
1
Fig. 17.51. Assembly of crane hook

Part List
1 Crane Hook Forged Steel 1
2 Support Plate Mild Steel 2
3 Hook Anchor Mild Steel 1
4 End Bush Mild Steel 2
5 Plate Spacers Mild Steel 3
6 Bush Gun Metal 1
13 Bolt M 16 Mild Steel 6
17.10 MACHINE TOOLS PARTS

A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting,
boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that
does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the work piece and
provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus the relative movement between the work
piece and the cutting tool is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent, rather than
being entirely “offhand” or “free hand”. Today machine tools are typically powered other than by human
muscle (e.g., electrically, hydraulically, or via line shaft), used to make manufactured parts (components)
in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation.
17.10.1 Machine Vice

Problem 16. The Fig. 17.52 shows details of Machine Vice. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill
Tolerance Chart
8 H7 = + 0.000 8 p6 = + 0.024
+ 0.015 + 0.015
344 Machine Drawing
SQ.6
19
25 4 Holes M8
19
12 SQ. Thrd.
19
152
162
36
88
50
62
12
R6
R6
8p6
16 16
190
6. Screw
X
7
88
6
20
26
12
X 62
240
6
1. Body C.I.-1 OFF Section X-X
94 25 25
2 Holes drill
44 6
16
& TAP M8 x
21 25
16
17
6
44
32
16
6
6
44
6
x
6
Section X-X 50
8H7 drill & Ream 50
6
13
25 mm Deep 2 Holes 8
2. Sliding Jaw C.S.-1 OFF 3. End plate M.S.-1 OFF CSK 13
88 88
50 50 32
10
6
90°
32
32
16
10
32 12 Hole
2 Holes 8 2 Holes 8 SQ. Third.
CSK 13 CSK 13
4. Fix plate C.S.-1 OFF 5. Block C.S.-1 OFF
25 45
M8
M8
20 18
45 45
° °
7. Screw M.S.-2 OFF 8. Screw M.S.-4 OFF
Fig. 17.52. Details of machine vice

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Machine Vice as shown in Figs. 17.53 and 17.54.
2. The assembly of Machine Vice is as shown in Fig. 17.55. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
Block
Sliding Fixed jaw

jaw
Base
plate
End
plate
Base plate
(Bottom view)
Fig. 17.53. General arrangement of machine vice

346 Machine Drawing
Fixed
jaw
Sliding jaw
Block
Base
plate
End
plate
Fig. 17.54. Assembly arrangement of machine vice
19
100
62
50
76
36
12
88
25
2 Screw of M8 3
7
2 Screw of M8 8 A
4 4 A 8
A
32 50 32
SQ. 12
SQ. 6
B
10
A
8H7/p6
B
32
32
32
10
1
14
26
6
6
12
240
B
Fig. 17.55. Assembly of machine vice

Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Sliding Jaw Cast Steel 1
3 End Plate Mild Steel 1
4 Fixed Jaw Cast Steel 1
5 Block Cast Steel 1
Fit Chart
8 H7 / p6 Transition Fit
Tolerance Chart
20 H7 = + 0.021 20 e8 = – 0.040
+ 0.000 – 0.073
12 H7 = + 0.018 12 e8 = – 0.032
+ 0.000 – 0.059
348 Machine Drawing
3 22 58 22
°
12
45
24
24
27
52
6
Drill 6, CSD 90 × 10
3
4. Jaw grips steel-2 OFF
16
27
44 54
22
12
6
108 108
24
38 39 40 39
5. Lock plate M.S.-1 OFF
2
R1
22
5 5 10
R8
1.5
90
9. Washer M.S.-1 OFF

20H7
12H7
20
102
32
58
56
38
9
1.5
45
°
18
12
4
90
R1
M6 × 0.75
1. Body
Drill and C.I.-1 OFF 6. Set-Screws M.S.-4 OFF
14
TAP M6 × 7.5,
14 deep 102
45
51 22
°
14
12
24
3
M6 × 0.75
25
SQ. 20 × 3.5
40
6. Set-Screws
M.S.-2 OFF
Drill & TAP

2. Movable jaw 24 M6 × 7.5, 8. Hex. Nut
10
C.I.-1 OFF 10 deep M.S.-1 OFF

38
36 43 166 M 10
17
8. Lock Nut
6
18 M.S.-1 OFF
20e8
12e8 M 10
S.Q. 20 × 3.5
4 Holes 10 deep
3. Screw M.S.-1 OFF
Solution:
shown.
Jaw grip
Movable jaw
(Bottom view)
Movable
jaw
Nut
Washer
Base
Screw Lock plate

Base
(Bottom view)
Screw
Movable jaw
Jaw grip
Nut
Washer
Lock plate
Screw
Base

350 Machine Drawing
38 39 40 39
R8
90
SQ. 20 × 3.5
5
102
20
24
58
38
56
9 8
Drill & Tap R14

M6 × .75, 14 Deep
14
2
6 2 Screw 6 57
of M6 A
A A
27
4 3 B
B 36 12
52
M10
20H7/e8
12H7/e8
32
27
54 10
108 23
1 108
5
A B A 2 Screw of M6
7

Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Movable Jaw Cast Iron 1
4 Jaw Grip Steel 2
5 Lock Plate Mild Steel 1
8 Nut Mild Steel 2
Fit Chart
Tolerance Chart
19 H7 = + 0.021 19 e8 = – 0.040
+ 0.000 – 0.073
12 H7 = + 0.018 12 e8 = – 0.032
+ 0.000 – 0.059
352 Machine Drawing
95
R12
60
44
25
R
Y
22
19H7
12H7
Y
27
12
6
82
38
54
95
32
20
19 19
12
2. Sliding jaw M.S.-1 OFF
60
12
R16
5
44 44 30
15
3 46
13
CRS 152 3
R8 X 19
Section X-X
3
74
38
22
41
13
1.5
28
10 X
8. Washer M.S.-1 OFF 1. Body C.I.-1 OFF
CRS19
M12 M10 M10
M12
SQ. 20 × 2 RH.
10
5
12
25
7. Lock nut
19
6. Hex. nut
5. Circular nut M.S.-1 OFF M.S.-1 OFF
19
19
M.S.-1 OFF
32 170 20
26
48
23
38
50
10
38
20
12es
19e8
54
3 SQ. 20 × 2 RH.
4. Clamping bolt M.S.-1 OFF 14 3. Screw M.S.-1 OFF
Solution:
shown.
Circular nut
Nut
Sliding jaw
Body Washer
Screw
Sliding jaw
clamping bolt
Circular nut
Sliding jaw Nut
Body
Washer
Sliding jaw
clamping bolt
Screw

354 Machine Drawing
R12
60
R25
6 7
19H7/e8
38
54
95
82
95
19
60
12
44 44
25 5
46
B
2
SQ. 20 × 2
M10
32
A
19 3 5
3
74
12H7/e8
38
38
54
41
23
28
10
50 19
32 187 A
1 A B A 4 A

Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Sliding Jaw Mild Steel 1
4 Sliding Jaw Mild Steel 1

Clamping Bolt
5 Circular Nut Mild Steel 1
6 Nut Mild Steel 1
Fit Chart
17.10.2 Bench Vice

Problem 19. The Fig. 17.64 shows details of Bench Vice. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
12 H7 = + 0.000 12 p6 = + 0.029
+ 0.027 + 0.018
356 Machine Drawing
96 22
16 10 M16 × 2 45°
R16
1.5
R3
36
4
20
9
52
52
36
10
16
12
12
7
16
38 70 36 7. Bar glove
32 C.D.S., 2-OFF
144
44
64
4 Tapped holes M6 × 1 10
12H7 R16 10
32
R3
16
44
24
36
32
20
1. Vice Bode C.I.-1 OFF
16
10
12
12
12
8
8 16 8
12p6
18
M16
15.5 deep
5
M16 × 2 RH. 6
6
11 82 10 24 20
138
5. Jaw screw M.S., 1-OFF Drill 6.5 2. Vice jaw
64
45° C’Sunk 4 deep C.I., 1-OFF
22
20
20
38 70 36
6 144 32
4. Base plate C.D.S., 2-OFF 45°

16
4
10 10
7
104
6
4
6. Screw bar Carb.S., 1-OFF 32

Drill 6.5
10 45° M6 C’Sunk
45° 4 deep
32
6
13
16
4
4
16
5 8 8
M.S., 4-OFF M.S., 2-OFF 3. Sliding jaw stop
8. Oval fillister
9. Set Screw C.D.S., 1-OFF
M.S., 1-OFF
Fig. 17.64. Details of bench vice

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Machine Vice as shown in Fig. 17.65 and 17.66.
shown.
Set screw
Oval
Vice Jaw fillister
Sliding jaw stop
Vice body
Vice body
(from bottom side)
Jaw screw
Screw
Base plate bar
Fig. 17.65. General arrangement of bench vice

358 Machine Drawing
Vice body
Vice jaw
Jaw screw
Screw
bar
Sliding jaw stop
Base plate
Fig. 17.66. Assembly arrangement of bench vice
20
16 10 96 22
M16 × 2
B 8 2 128
24
M6 5 6
A
1217 p6
B
8
12
12
36
1
16
20
52
16
36
32 7
16
16 20 20
3 M6
6
32 4 M6
38 70 36
140
9
B B A A
B A A
Fig. 17.67. Assembly of bench vice

Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Jaw Cast Iron 1
3 Jaw Stop Cast Steel 1
4 Base Plate Cast Steel 2
5 Jaw Screw Mild Steel 1
6 Screw Bar Cast Steel 1
7 Bar Globe Cast Steel 2
8 Oval Fillister Mild Steel 1
Fit Chart
12 H7 / p6 Transition Fit
17.10.3 Swivel Machine Vice

Problem 20. The Figs. 17.68 and 17.69 shows details of Swivel Machine Vice. Draw the assembly. Also
prepared the bill of material along with fit chart.
Tolerance Chart
54 H6 = + 0.019 54 f6 = – 0.030
+ 0.000 – 0.049
18 H7 = + 0.021 18 e8 = – 0.040
+ 0.000 – 0.073
25 H7 = + 0.019 25 e8 = – 0.040
+ 0.000 – 0.073
360 Machine Drawing
Jaw face 13 Screw M10

harden steel 25 LG. 2-OFF
298 14
190
3
M10
6
27
45
R6
14
54
64
235 127
83
R10 10 37
21
13 32
21
19
18
57
13
83
38 R6
13 R16 13
13
3 R13
24
5
22
22
10
80°
184 54 18

354 124
13 Round key 3
3
35 M16
25 5
18
25H7
18H7
7 4. Collar 5. Nut
54H
184
41
41
121
57
83
92
M.S.-1 OFF M.S.-1 OFF
10
10
R62
M16
29
45°
48 25
2. Swivel body & fixed jaw 6. Clamping bolt & Nut

C.I.-1 OFF M.S.-1 OFF
51
25e8
R25 25
10 SQ. 24 × 5 LH. 6 SQ. 19

18e8
33
3
M16 × 2 22 108 222 32 13

R25
7. Screw C.S.-10FF 6
Fig. 17.68. Details of swivel machine vice

184
18 54f7
10
13 80°
14
32
3
25
22
13
6
124 29
203
1
R5
83
38
32
32
18
254
292
1. Base plate C.I.-1 OFF
Jaw face Screw M10 25 Long

37 14 190
M10
45°
Sq. 24 × 5 LH.
27
127
14
54
°
60
22
64
19
13 6 122
R10
50
21
3
16
R10 3
16
10
10
41 57 41 41 R25 41
152
83 Bolt
184 M1 2 × 1.25
139
30 Long
3. Movable jaw C.I.-1OFF
Fig. 17.69. Details of swivel machine vice
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Swivel Machine Vice as shown in Fig. 17.70.
2. The assembly of Swivel Machine Vice is as shown in Fig. 17.71. The part list along with fit chart
is also shown.
362 Machine Drawing
Jaw face
Swivel body &

fixed jaw
Jaw face
Movabel jaw
Base plate
Guide strip
Fig. 17.70. General arrangement of swivel machine vice
B
A A
145 B A
M10. 25 LG
33 14 14 13
2 Screw
A
41 57
27
54
75
M16
A 28
25H7/e8
18H7/e8
33
M12
7 M16
10
124
104
Sq. 24 × 5 4 5
A
38
2 C 54H7/6
3
C
C 29
28
29
28
16
8
124 6
1 292
354
Fig. 17.71. Assembly of swivel machine vice

Part List
1 Base Plate Cast Iron 1
2 Swivel Body and Fixed Jaw Cast Iron 1
3 Movable Jaw Cast Iron 1
4 Collar Mild Steel 1
5 Nut Mild Steel 1
6 Clamping Bolt & Nut Mild Steel 1
Fit Chart
54 H6/f6 Clearance Fit
17.10.4 Tool Holder

Problem 21. The Fig. 17.72 shows details of Tool Holder. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
60 H7 = + 0.030 60 h6 = – 0.000
+ 0.000 – 0.046
364 Machine Drawing
104 P.C.
8 Holes tapped M16
60
150
120
150
116
58
A C
C
58 58
60 60 116
A 120 Section C-C
Section A-A 90°
150 2 × 45° 60 h6
9
28 10
34
17
26
17 M25
40
90
SQ. 80
150
2
20
16
2. Base plate
10
(Steel, 1 OFF)
60 H7 10 40
Spherical
52
38
1. Tool holder (steel, 1 OFF)
M10
46
TaP M10,
M25
8 10 Deep
10
144
5. Knob
30°
26
4. Handle (M.S., 1 OFF) (Ebonite, 1 OFF)

46
160
M25
62
46
30 60
R
Spherical 6. Stud (M.S., 1 OFF)
3. Mover (steel, 1 OFF) 25
7
M16
10
32 12
22
30
27
0
1
25
7
2
18
14 56 16 when compressed
3
75 in position M16
7. Set screw 8. Spring 9. Washer 10. Grub screw 11. Ball
(M.S., 8 OFF) (Steel, 1 OFF) (M.S., 4 OFF) (M.S., 4 OFF) (Steel, 1 OFF)
Fig. 17.72. Details of tool holder

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Tool Holder shown in Figs. 17.73 and 17.74.
2. The assembly of Tool Holder is as shown in Fig. 17.75. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
Mover Knob
Handle
Set screw
Tool Knob
holder
Mover
Set
screw
Handle
Grub
screw
Washer Tool
holder
Base
plate
Base
plate
Washer
Grub screw
Fig. 17.73. General arrangement of tool holder Fig. 17.74. Assembly arrangement of tool holder
366 Machine Drawing
150
60 60
58 58
60
58
150
60
58
A
40
46 144
6
4
46
5
60
19
A 1
62
75
30
M16 7
SQ. 80
40
60H7/h6 8 11
26
25
10
25
16
A
7
A M25
25
52
9 10
A
16
Fig. 17.75. Assembly of tool holder

Part List
1 Tool Holder Steel 1
2 Base Plate Steel 1
3 Mover Steel 1
4 Handle Mild Steel 1
5 Knob Ebonite 1
6 Stud Mild Steel 1
8 Spring Steel 1
10 Grub Screw Mild Steel 4
11 Ball Steel 1
Fit Chart
60 H7/h6 Clearance Fit
17.10.5 Tool Post

Problem 22. Figure 17.76 shows details of Tool Post. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
60 H7 = + 0.000 60 e8 = – 0.060
+ 0.030 – 0.106
24 H7 = + 0.021 24 n6 = + 0.036
+ 0.000 + 0.015
368 Machine Drawing
24n6
144
6
48 R144 4. Wedge M.S., 1-OFF
SQ. 90
36
60

60
90
e8
24H7
66
132
6
60H7
74
12
2. Block C.I., 1-OFF
12
72
SQ.18
1. Post C.I., 1-OFF 15
6
36
20
72
1
60

M18
6
5. Screw
R144 M.S., 1-OFF
18
3 Ring C.I., 1-OFF
Fig. 17.76. Details of tool post
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Tool Post shown in Figs. 17.77 and 17.78.
2. The assembly of Tool Post is as shown in Fig. 17.79. The part list along with fit chart is also shown.
Screw
Ring
Block
Block
(Bottam view)
Body
Wedge
Fig. 17.77. General arrangement of tool post
Screw
Ring
Block
Body
Fig. 17.78. Assembly arrangement of tool post

370 Machine Drawing
4
5 SQ.18
6 15
36
M18
36
A
5
72
A
126.01
60H7/e8
2H7/n6
3
18
120
2
18
12
A
72
74
A
SQ. 90
Fig. 17.79. Assembly of tool post
Part List
1 Post Cast Iron 1
2 Block Cast Iron 1
3 Ring Cast Iron 1
4 Wedge Mild Steel 1

Fit Chart
24 H7 /n6 Interference Fit
Problem 23. The Fig. 17.80 shows details of Tool Post. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
5 H7 = + 0.012 5 e8 = – 0.020
+ 0.000 – 0.038
60 5 M12
30 13 8
M12, 2
30
2 Holes
24
8
20
52
52
10
32 20
10
4. Washer (M.S., 1-OFF)
140
22
10 40 10
20
110
16
28
M8
8
con.
Hole
bore 10
M6, 2 Holes
16 8
20°
8
65
16 SQ. 24
30
20
2 6. Bolt
5. Adjustment nut (M.S., 1-OFF)
(M.S., 1-OFF)
12
1. Body M12
1
30
5
(C.I. 1-OFF) 16
88 20 12
2
8. Nut
40
20° 7. Washer (M.S., 1-OFF)

(M.S. 1-OFF)
20
2. Wedge (M.S., 1-OFF) 5H7
12
6 100
M6
M12
3
10
50 Flat-7.5e8
45
40
3. Adjustment screw (M.S., 1-OFF)

M12
9. Tool post screw 10. Set screw

(M.S., 2-OFF) (M.S., 2-OFF)
Fig. 17.80. Details of tool post

372 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Tool Post shown in Figs. 17.81 and 17.82.
2. The assembly of Tool Post is as shown in Fig. 17.83. The part list along with fit chart is also shown.
Fig. 17.81. General arrangement of tool post Fig. 17.82. Assembly arrangement
of tool post
60
10 40 10
52
28
9 M12 M12 5
8 7
3 12
22
22
52
A
M6
1
2
115
88 20
10
20°
28
10
3 6
20
A 12
5H7/e8
4 5
A
SQ. 24 6 16
60
Fig. 17.83. Assembly of tool post

374 Machine Drawing
Part list
Part no. Part name Material Quantity
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Wedge Mild Steel 1
3 Adjustment Screw Mild Steel 1
5 Adjustment Nut Mild Steel 1
6 Bolt Mild Steel 1
8 Nut Mild Steel 1
9 Tool Post Screw Mild Steel 2
Fit Chart
17.10.6 Tail Stock

Problem 24. The Fig. 17.84 shows details of Tail Stock. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
38 H6 = + 0.016 38 f6 = – 0.025
+ 0.000 – 0.040
21 H6 = + 0.013 21 k5 = + 0.011
+ 0.000 + 0.002
6 H6 = + 0.080 6 e7 = – 0.020
+ 0.000 – 0.032
5 H6 = + 0.008 5 e7 = – 0.020
+ 0.000 – 0.032
6H6 4 Holes M8,

Deep 15 on
280 58 PCD
74
86
38H6
64
64 25 R12 3
38
3
150
24 R24 12 R40
R28 70 38 106 36
40
44
44
6
25
19 24
16 75
38 38
83
150 242
1. Body (C.I., 1-OFF)
13
18
22
45 45 5e7
21H6
38f6
3
10
6e7
25 5H6
3
265 LH SQ.
18 × 4.5 9. Feather
2. Barrel (M.S., 1-OFF) (M.S., 1-OFF)
4 Holes 8
Keyway 22 on 58 PCD
19 5 × 2.5
38f8
19
90
1
6
12
16
35
5. Spindle bearing
29 (C.I., 1-OFF)
22
22 Tapper
10
60°
32 50
7. Hand wheel (C.I., 1-OFF) 4. Center (C.S., 1-OFF)

M8
22
Keyway
29 12 M15 × 1.5 6. Screw 5 × 2.5 H6
19
(M.S., 4-OFF)
16
5
M12 × 1.5
38
5
8. Key 10. Nut 215
(M.S., 1-OFF) (M.S., 1-OFF) 18 29 16
3. Spindle (M.S., 1-OFF) 10
Fig. 17.84. Details of tail stock

376 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Tail Stock shown in Figs. 17.85 and 17.86.
2. The assembly of Tail Stock is as shown in Fig. 17.87. The part list along with fit chart is also shown.
Fig. 17.85. General arrangement of tail stock
Hand
wheel
Spindle
Barrel
Spindle
bearing
Centre Body
Fig. 17.86. Assembly arrangement of tail stock

Fig. 17.87. Assembly of tail stock
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Barrel Mild Steel 1
3 Spindle Mild Steel 1
4 Centre Cast Steel 1
5 Spindle Bearing Cast Iron 1
8 Key Mild Steel 1
9 Feather Mild Steel 1
10 Nut Mild Steel 1

378 Machine Drawing
Fit Chart
21 H6 / k5 Transition Fit
17.11 Jigs and Fixtures

Some machining operation are so simple and are done quite easily, such as turning, the job is held in
position in the chuck and turning operation is done easily. No other device is required to hold the job or
to guide the tool on the machine in such an operation. But some operations are such type in which the
tool is required to be guided by means of another device and also some jobs are of such forms which
are required to be held in position on the machine by means of another device. The device which guides
the tool is called jig and the device which holds the job in position is called fixture. Jigs and fixtures are
special purpose tool which are used to facilitate in production and inspection operations. When work piece
is based on the concept of interchangeability according to which every part will be produced within an
established tolerance. Jigs and fixtures provide on means of manufacturing interchangeable parts since
they establish a relation with predetermined to tolerance between the work and cutting tool. They eliminate
the necessity of a special set up for each individual park. Hence, jig is may be defined as a device which
hold and position the work and locate or guides the tool relative to the work piece and usually not fixed
to the m/c table. A fixture is a work holding device and position the work but does not guide and locate
or position the cutting tool. A fixture is hold or clamped to the machine table.
17.11.1 Drill Jig

Problem 25. The Fig. 17.88 shows details of Drill Jig. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
60 H7 = + 0.030 60 f7 = – 0.030
+ 0.000 – 0.049
54 H7 = + 0.030 54 f7 = – 0.030
+ 0.000 – 0.049
25 H7 = + 0.021 25 n6 = + 0.028
+ 0.000 + 0.015
25H7, 6 Holes
6, 3 Holes on 160 PCD.
equi. SP. on
PCD. 40
0
R8
2
R4
156 54H7
110 216
3 × 45°
60H7 42
5
5 × 45°
20 17
25
20
8
10 M12
3. Jig plate (C.I., 1-OFF)
1. Base plate (C.l., 1-OFF)
54f7 2 × 45° 84
M6
52 12 20
25
M20
50
58
54
5. Stud
M20 (M.S., 1-OFF)
2
25n6
4
110
50 M20 18
11
12
30
4. Screw
25
25
(M.S., 3-OFF)
6, 3 Holes
60f7 equl sp. on 6. Nut 7. Bush
PCD. 40 (M.S., 1-OFF) (Steel, 6-OFF)
2. Stem (M.S., 1-OFF)
42
24
5
4 3 × 45°
R12 17
R32
16
36
R15
4
3
R5
R3
M12
12
9. Screw
8. Latch washer (M.S., 1-OFF) (M.S., 1-OFF)
Fig. 17.88. Details of drill jig

380 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Drill Jig shown in Figs. 17.89 and 17.90.
2. The assembly of Drill Jig is as shown in Fig. 17.91. The part list along with fit chart is also shown.
Bush
Screw
Screw
Latch
washer
Jig
plate
Bush
Jig plate
Stem
Stem bottom view
Screw
Base
plate
Stem
Base
plate
Screw
Screw
Fig. 17.89. General arrangement of drill jig Fig. 17.90. Assembly arrangement of drill jig
A 216
6 Holes,
EQ. SP.
on PCD.
42 160
3 Holes,
Eq. Sp.
on PCD. 40
9
B 6
A 24
12 20
8
5
25H7/n6
16 7
54H7/7
A
M20
18
50 M12
44
3 A
2
5 4
60H7/f7
11
3 × 45°
30
1
A
52
20
110
20
156
A
B
Fig. 17.91. Assembly of drill jig

382 Machine Drawing
Part List
2 Stem Mild Steel 1
3 Jig Plate Cast Iron 1
5 Stud Mild Steel 1
6 Nut Mild Steel 1
7 Bush Steel 6
Fit Chart
Problem 26. The Fig. 17.92 shows details of Drill Jig. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
20 H7 = + 0.021 20 r6 = + 0.041
+ 0.000 + 0.028
16 H6 = + 0.011 16 r5 = + 0.034
+ 0.000 + 0.023
32 H6 = + 0.016 32 h5 = – 0.011
+ 0.000 + 0.000
4 H7 = + 0.012 4 h7 = – 0.008
+ 0.000 + 0.000
32 H6 = + 0.016 38 r5 = + 0.050
+ 0.000 + 0.034
3 Holes 16
on PCD 86
86 P.C. H6
120°
120°
20
120 12 32H6
° 0°
4H7 4H7 38r5
R7 3. Bush
115 G.M., 1-OFF
100 M16
94 25
10
5
25
16r5
20
R40
20
38H6 20
R5 R3
56
20
R5 4 Bush
H7 2. Plate C.l., 1-OFF G.M., 3-OFF
16
70
128 1.5 × 45° PCD86H6
1. Body C.I., 1-OFF
34
60
3
12
7. Washer
1
8
Steel, 1-OFF
R
1.5 × 45° M16

5
60
5. Special washer Location
8. Nut of dowen
M.S., 1-OFF M.S., 2-OFF 32
2
5
M16
2
26
4h6
32h5
25
M16
20r6
46
100
6
26
24 18 18 40 128
9. Pin
6 Stud M.S., 1-OFF Steel, 1-OFF 10. Component
Fig. 17.92. Details of drill jig

384 Machine Drawing
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Drill Jig shown in Figs. 17.92 and 17.94.
2. The assembly of Drill Jig is as shown in Fig. 17.95. The part list along with fit chart is also shown.
Washer
Stud
Bush
Bush
Plate
Bush Stud
Component Washer
Plate
Body
Component
Body
Fig. 17.93. General arrangement of drill jig Fig. 17.94. Assembly arrangement of drill jig
86
115
60
8
M16
6H6/r5 7 5
2
3 B
4 A
20
38H6/r5
A
32H6/h5
A
20H7/r6
40
10
56
100 9
4H7/h7
5
1
16
A 70
B 128
Fig. 17.95. Assembly of drill jig

386 Machine Drawing
Part List
1 Body Cast Iron 1
2 Plate Cast Iron 1
3 Bush Gun Metal 1
4 Bush Gun Metal 3
6 Stud Mild Steel 1
8 Nut Mild Steel 1
9 Pin Steel 1
10 Component Cast Iron 1
Fit Chart
20 H7 / r6 Interference Fit
17.11.2 Tumble Jig

Problem 27. The Fig. 17.96 shows details of Tumble Jig. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
32 H7 = + 0.025 32 h6 = + 0.000
+ 0.000 – 0.016
12 H6 = + 0.011 12 r6 = + 0.034
+ 0.000 + 0.023
Fig. 17.96. Details of tumble jig
Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Tumble Jig shown in Figs. 17.97 and 17.98.
2. The assembly of Tumble Jig is as shown in Fig. 17.99. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
388 Machine Drawing
Fig. 17.97. General arrangement of tumble jig Fig. 17.98. Assembly arrangement of tumble jig
A A A
A
1
90
44 46 12 48 48
8
7
11
B
A f2.5 Drill 6
57
B holes, 4 deep 4
27
32H7/h6
15
45
45
114
25
92
70
8
27
32 12 6
2
57
3
11 12H6/n6
26
10 SP. 12
11
12
16 M10
M18 9
5
Fig. 17.99. Assembly of tumble jig

Part List
1 Jig Base Cast Iron 1
2 Drill Shaft Mild Steel 1
3 Clamp Button Mild Steel 1
4 Clamp Screw Mild Steel 1
5 Clamp Screw Mild Steel 1
6 Handle Mild Steel 1
7 Ball Steel 2
8 Cap Screw Mild Steel 1
9 Bush EN 8 1
11 Nut Mild Steel 1
12 Key Mild Steel 2
Fit Chart
17.11.3 Milling Jig

Problem 28. The Fig. 17.100 shows details of Milling Jig. Draw the assembly. Also prepared the bill of
Tolerance Chart
56 H6 = + 0.019 56 g6 = – 0.010
+ 0.000 – 0.019
108 H7 = + 0.035 108 e8 = – 0.072

+ 0.000 – 0.126
10 H6 = + 0.011 10 g6 = – 0.006
+ 0.000 – 0.017
48 H7 = + 0.025 48 e8 = – 0.050
+ 0.000 – 0.089
390 Machine Drawing
275 CRS
100 35
11 0 M12 H6
R2
28
22
19 6
38
0 19
5
178
100
100
140
40
50
28
3 5
13
25
50
7. Key
14
M.S.–1 off
R10 19 40
22
108 110 38
305
5.5
28
16
3
48e8
18
11
10
28
8. Taper ring
M.S.–1 off
14 1. Base plate 150
C.I.–1 off 16
10
6
2
8
5. Cap screw 13
M6
38
M.S.–4 off 120°
13
M10–g6 4 Capstan M56 4–H6
Handle eqi. sp. 72
3. Cap C.I.–1 off
2 Saw cut
41.5
2
108e8
90
23
44
5
8H7
9
25 10
70
125
100
20
19
5
13
48H7
16
22
26
M56 4
23 10H6 100
2 62 125
10 6. Collet
56
M.S.–1 off
32
32
Tolerance chart
22
10
22
13
13
10
23 6
62 4. Clamping ring
C.I.–1 off
2. Body C.I.–1 off
Fig. 17.100. Details of milling jig

Solution:
1. The general arrangement of Milling Jig shown in Figs. 17.101 and 17.102.
2. The assembly of Milling Jig is as shown in Fig. 17.103. The part list along with fit chart is also
shown.
Cap
Collet
Bottom view
collet
Taper
ring
Clamping ring
Body Base plate
Bottom view of base plate
Fig. 17.101. General arrangement of milling jig

392 Machine Drawing
Base plate
Body
Collet
Cap
Taper
ring
Clamping
ring
Fig. 17.102. Assembly arrangement of milling jig

108 5 35
100
14
89
22
25
178
100
28
28
125
4 Screw, 140
M10H6/g6
72
M56 4H6/g6
3
41.5
6
16 4. Capstan handle
B Equi. SP.
M6 13
8
A
A
27
8 A
48H7/e6 Key 13 5
7
2 88
1
126
A
56
A
10
32
16
22
13
A
23
28
25
10
62
108H7/e8 A
4
305 B
Fig. 17.103. Assembly of milling jig

394 Machine Drawing
Part List
2 Body Cast Iron 1
3 Cap Cast Iron 1
4 Clamping Ring Cast Iron 1
5 Cap Screw Mild Steel 4
6 Collet Mild Steel 1
7 Key Mild Steel 1
8 Taper Ring Mild Steel 1
Fit Chart
Exercises
1. Figure 17.92 gives the details of the drill jig along with tolerance chart. Using the proper scale draw
the two views of assembly and also prepare the bill of material along the fit chart.
2. Figure 17.84 shows the details of Tail Stock of lathe machine. Draw the assembly and also prepare
the bill of material.
3. The detail of Tool holder is as shown in Fig. 17.72 along with tolerance chart. Draw the assembly
and also prepare the bill of material along the fit chart.
4. The two view of assembly for Cross Head is given in Fig. 17.4. Draw the details of Cross Head by
using the proper scale and also prepare the bill of material.
5. The assembly of Foot Step Bearing is as shown in Fig. 17.17. Draw the details of Foot Step Bearing
by using the proper scale and also prepare the bill of material.
6. Figure 17.22 shows the details of the Plummer Block. Draw the assembly along with part list.
7. The assembly of Non Return Valve is given in Fig. 17.34. Draw the details of Non Return Valve in
two views (whichever is applicable) and also prepare the bill of material along with the fit chart.
8. The details of Non Return Valve are given in Fig. 17.25 along with the tolerance chart. Draw the
assembly along with part list and fit chart.
9. Figure 17.45 gives the details of Screw Jack. Draw the assembly using proper scale.
Chapter
Free Hand Sketches

18
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Freehand sketching is important for the initial transfer of an idea from the engineer abstract world.
Sketching is used so as to be able to quickly present in a graphical form, an idea that is related to a
particular problem. Sketching significantly improves the communications between the members of a
team, the drafter and the customer. A sketch is usually freehand, without any assistance or the use of
instruments or aids that are otherwise used for technical drawing. Sketches can also be an integral part of
analytical computations, where they are used to present and define the characteristic parameters of analysed
physical objects. Sketches are used to present the outside appearance of an object, with a little emphasis
on concealed surfaces and features, which are included in the sketch in order to make the presentation as
clear as possible. Sketches are direct graphical communications, often drawn in changeable conditions,
such as at a building site, in a workshop or at a business meeting.
18.2 IMPORTANCE OF FREE HAND SKETCHES

An integral part of the creative design process is ideation, the generation of concepts or ideas to solve a
design problem. Often freehand sketching can be used to explore and communicate mental concepts that
come about in the mind eye. The process of sketching can solidify and fill out rough concepts. Furthermore,
sketching captures the ideas in a permanent form that can be used to communicate the concept to others.
In this way, sketches often act as stepping stones to refine and detail the original concept or generate new
ideas. Many great design ideas are first sketched on the back of an envelope or in a lab notebook. While
computers are the workhorses for engineering graphics, initially generating ideas on a computer screen is
very rare. A more common scenario is sketching an idea on paper and subsequently refining the concept
on paper using more rough sketches. This often occurs simply because all that is needed for a freehand
sketch is a pencil and a paper. Freehand sketching quickly translates the image of the concept in the mind
eye to paper. Engineers often communicate via rough freehand sketches to refine and improve the design.
Sketches are much more useful than detailed CAD drawings early in the design process, because they are
informal, quickly and easily changed, and less restrictive. It is only after clarifying the design concept by
iterating through several freehand sketches that it is possible to draw the object using computer graphics.
18.3 FREEHAND SKETCHING FUNDAMENTALS

Freehand sketching requires few tools: just a pencil and paper. It may be tempting to use straight-edged
triangles or rulers for drawing straight lines and a compass to draw circles. But these instruments often
395
396 Machine Drawing
slow down the process and distract from the purpose of sketching, which is to create a quick, rough
graphical representation of the image in the mind eye. Generally sketching has three steps, although the
steps are usually subconscious. First, the sketch is planned by visualizing it in the mind including the
size of the sketch on the paper, the orientation of the object, and the amount of detail to be included in
the sketch. Second, the sketch is outlined using very light lines to establish the orientation, proportion,
and major features of the sketch. Finally, sharpening and darkening object lines and adding details
develops the sketch. All sketches are made up of a series of arcs and lines, so the ability to draw circles
and straight lines is necessary
18.4 FREEHAND SKETCH LINES AND CIRCLES

All sketches are made up of a series of arcs and lines, so the ability to draw circles and straight lines is
necessary. A straight line is sketched in the following way.
First, sketch the endpoints of the line as dots or small crosses. Then place your pencil on the starting
endpoint. Keeping your eyes on the terminal point, use a smooth continuous stroke to draw the line
between the points as shown in figure 18.1. Nearly horizontal or vertical lines are frequently easier to
draw than inclined lines, so it may be helpful to shift the paper to draw the line horizontally or vertically.
For long lines, it may be helpful to mark two or three points along the line and use the procedure between
consecutive points or to make two or three shorter passes lightly with the pencil before a final darker line.
Starting Keep eye on

endpoint Motion of terminal endpoint
pencil
Fig. 18.1. Drawing the line between the points
A circle can be sketched using the following steps,

First, draw light horizontal and vertical lines crossing at the centre of the circle. Second, lightly mark
the radius of the circle on each line. Finally, connect the radius marks with a curved line to form a circle.
Another technique is to lightly draw a square box the same size as the circle diameter as shown in figure
18.2. Then lightly draw diagonals of the box and centre lines between midpoints of the sides of the box.
The diagonals and centre lines should intersect at the centre of the circle. Mark the radius on these lines,
and sketch the circle within the box. It is sometimes helpful to mark the radius on the edge of a scrap
paper and mark the radius at as many points as desired in addition to the marks on the centre lines and
diagonals. Arcs are sketched in much the same way as circles, except that only a portion of the circle is
sketched. It is generally easier to sketch an arc with your hand and pencil on the concave side of the arc.
Fig. 18.2. Drawing the circle

Free Hand Sketches 397
18.5 CAD AND TECHNICAL FREEHAND DRAWING

Computer modelling (using CAD software) is possible if all the dimensions and features of a structure are
defined at the input. Incomplete data do not allow a presentation; the object is recorded neither in RAM
(on the screen) nor in the archives (file in data storage). This means that before modelling on the computer
it is vital to acquire all the data as a free record, a sketch. Due to the volume of data, their structure is
generally presented on a handy piece of paper. Generating a random model is conceptualized with a specific
generic model, which the modelling software uses in its own way. For simple or less complex models or
features, different types of software usually have similar shape generators. For the reasons of continuous
data input, or at least to prevent lengthy breaks, you can take advantage of a rough presentation on a
sketch that was done previously on paper. Later on, when the model is becoming increasingly complex,
you should make a temporary copy of the model or detail on paper, which is then complemented with
sketches that have improved details, which are necessary for the high-quality processing of a problem.
Understanding data processing in freehand drawing can define the trends in the future development
of computer modelling. Generally used modelling software (CAD programmes) still has difficulties with
special shapes in terms of a computer description of specific technical products. For such products and
for specific shapes, such as car tyres, steel structures (bars, framework structures, etc.), unfolded sheet
metal, molecular structures etc., special modelling software is often developed. To present details, cross-
sections, connecting systems, etc., specific routines are applied for each of those examples.
In terms of future modelling software development, we can expect the increasing use of natural
communications, typical of human beings, such as: sketching, hands and fingers in space; eyesight, eye-
pupil movement and image sharpening; hearing, communication for the simulation of sound phenomena;
speech, voice commands for the computer; smell, recognizing the results of simulated processes.
18.6 FREEHAND SKETCHES OF BEARINGS
18.6.1 Solid Journal Bearing

It is simplest type of bearing made of cast iron. It is used for light load and slow speed. A cylindrical
block is extended at the base to form as a rectangle base plate which is known as sole. A hole equal to
the diameter of shaft is drilled through the cylindrical block, so that shaft can be inserted in the hole. A
small oil hole is provided top of cylinder to reduce friction between shaft and bearing. The entire bearing
is replaced when the wear in the bearing is maximum which is one of the disadvantage of bearing.
Three dimensional view of the bearing is as shown in Figure 18.3 and its two views is shown in
Figure 18.4.
Fig. 18.3. Three dimensional view of solid journal bearing

398 Machine Drawing
25H7
R25
30
15
20 85 20
A A
15
35
Oil hole 3
at 90° to 1.5
Fig. 18.4. Two views of solid journal bearing
Tolerance Chart
25 H7 = +0.021 25 e8 = –0.040
+0.000 –0.073
Fit Chart
Φ25 H7/e8 Clearance Fit
Part List
01 Solid Journal Bearing Cast iron 01
18.6.2 Bushed Journal Bearing

It is a modified form of solid journal bearing. A hollow bush of soft material as compared to cast iron
such as gun metal is provided in the hole of bearing. Bush is press fit inside the hole of bearing. A grub
screw prevents the rotation of bush. It is having an advantage over the solid journal bearing to replace
the bush rather than replacing the whole bearing as in the case of solid journal bearing.
Three dimensional view of bush journal bearing is as shown in figure 18.5 and its two views is
shown in Figure 18.6.
Fig. 18.5. Three dimensional view of bushed journal bearing

R25 25H7
32H7/n6 B
35
15
5
3
15 80 15
A
A
12
50
40
20
B
Oil hole
f5 CSK
at 45° to 3.5
Fig. 18.6. Two views of bushed journal bearing
Tolerance Chart
25 H7 = +0.021 25 e8 = –0.040
+0.000 –0.073
32 H7 = +0.025 32 n6 = +0.033
+0.000 +0.017
Fit Chart
Φ32 H7/n6 Transition Fit
Φ25 H7/e8 Clearance Fit
Part List
01 Body Cast iron 01
02 Bush Gun Metal 01
18.6.3 Ball Bearing

It is a type of rolling element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation between the bearing
races. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads. It
achieves this by using at least three races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls.
In most applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating assembly (e.g., a hub
or shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are
400 Machine Drawing
rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were sliding against each
other. Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element
bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some
misalignment of the inner and outer races.
Three dimensional view of ball bearing is as shown in figure 18.7 and its two views is shown in
Figure 18.8.
Fig. 18.7. Three dimensional view of ball bearing
A
A
24H7/p6
56H7/n6
32
48
40
14
8 Ball 10
Fig. 18.8. Two views of ball bearing
Tolerance Chart
24 H7 = +0.021 24 p6 = +0.035
+0.000 +0.022
56 H7 = +0.030 56 n6 = +0.039
+0.000 +0.020
Fit Chart
Φ24 H7/p6 Interference Fit
Φ54 H7/n6 Transition Fit

Part List
01 Cage Steel 01
02 Ball High Speed Steel 08
18.6.4 Roller Bearing

It is a Modified form of ball bearing where balls are replaced by rollers. Rollers are solid cylinders
with ends perpendicular to the axis are and are made of steel with harden and grinding. It can take 70%
more load as compared to ball bearing.
Two views of roller bearing are shown in figure 18.9.
A A
24H7/p6
58H7/n6
34
52
40
15
8 Roller 10
Fig. 18.9. Two views of roller bearing
Tolerance Chart
24 H7 = +0.021 24 p6 = +0.035
+0.000 +0.022
58 H7 = +0.030 58 n6 = +0.039
+0.000 +0.020
Fit Chart
Φ24 H7 / p6 Interference Fit
Φ58 H7 / n6 Transition Fit
Part List
01 Cage Steel 01
02 Roller High Speed Steel 08

402 Machine Drawing
18.7 FREEHAND SKETCHES OF PULLEYS

Pulleys are used to transmit the power from one shaft to another with help of belt or rope. The function of
a pulley is to lift heavy objects by changing the direction of the force on a flexible cable. It also consists
a wheel with a groove in its outer edge and an axle. With the help of ropes, chains or cords, a pulley
makes moving objects upward easier. Pulley reduces the force given to get the work done. Pulley also
functions to mainly distribute the weight evenly which sort of makes the elevator lighter. The pulley
serves in many different industries for lifting loads, applying forces or transmitting power.
18.7.1 Belt Pulley

Belt pulley is made of cast iron and the rim of the pulley made crowned to prevent the belt slip from
the pulley. A solid web of elliptical cross section may be curved or straight is used to connect outer rim
with the boss.
Three-dimension view of flat belt pulley is as shown in figure 18.10 and two views of flat belt pulley
are shown in Figure 18.11.
R250
A
400 Rim
10
Key
50H7/f7
Arm 30
Bore
100
40
Hub
25 20 A
110
120
Fig. 18.10. Three dimensional view of belt pulley Fig. 18.11. Two views of belt pulley
Tolerance Chart
50 H7 = +0.030 58 f7 = –0.030
+0.000 –0.060
Fit Chart
Φ50 H7/f7 Clearance Fit
Part List
01 Belt Pulley Cast Iron 01
18.7.2 Rope Pulley

Rope pulley is similar to flat belt pulley only rim of the pulley is replaced by the groove to fit the
rope. It is used when large power is to be transmitted over long distance.
Three-dimension view of rope pulley with two groves is as shown in Figure 18.12 and two views of
rope pulley are shown in Figure 18.13.
Fig. 18.12. Three dimensional view of rope pulley

8 25
25 8
12
16
30H7/f7
6
R35
20 10
262
70
60
170
60 A
72
Fig. 18.13. Two views of rope pulley
Tolerance Chart
30 H7 = +0.000 30 f7 = –0.020
+0.021 –0.053
Fig. 18.14. Three dimensional view of V belt pulley

404 Machine Drawing
Fit Chart
Part List
01 Rope Pulley Cast Iron 01
18.7.3 V- Belt Pulley

V belt pulley is used when large power is to be transmitted over small distance. It is similar to flat
belt pulley except the rim of the v-belt pulley is provided with v-groves to fit the belts. It is generally
having three or four groves.
Three-dimension view of V-belt pulley with three groves is as shown in Figure 18.14 and two views
of V belt pulley are shown in Figure 18.15.
70 A
4 4
18
25
20
PC 35
D1
25
0
5
65
18
250
4 4
2
20 5H A
7
12
18
40
°
A Keyway 63 4 4
A
Fig. 18.15. Two views of V belt pulley
Tolerance Chart
25 H7 = +0.021 20 f7 = –0.020
+0.000 –0.041
Fit Chart
Part List
Part no. Part name Material Quantity
01 V- Belt Pulley Cast Iron 01

18.7.4 Fast and Loose Pulley

When a number of machines are operated from a single power source, each machine is provided with
a fast and loose pulley arrangement. With this arrangement, any machine may be started or stopped at will,
while the lay shaft is running continuously. In this, the fast pulley is mounted on the shaft with a keyed
joint, whereas the loose pulley runs freely on the shaft. The diameter of the loose pulley is slightly less
than that of the fast pulley so that when the belt is shifted on to the loose pulley, its tension is reduced.
Power is transmitted only when the belt is on the fast pulley. Loose pulley takes care of the idling time
of the machine and does not transmit any power.
Three-dimension view of Fast and Loose pulley is as shown in figure 18.16 and two views of pulley
are shown in Figure 18.17.
Fast
pulley
Loose
pulley
Fig. 18.16. Three dimensional view of fast
R225 A A
400
20
50H7/f7
3
M12
75H7/n6
100
90
40 30
25 20 A
A
1 110 110
2
Fig. 18.17. Two views of fast and loose pulley
Tolerance Chart
50 H7 = +0.030 50 f7 = –0.030
+0.000 –0.060
75 H7 = +0.030 75 n6 = +0.039
+0.000 +0.020
406 Machine Drawing
Fit Chart
Φ50 H7 / f7 Clearance Fit
Φ75 H7 / n6 Transition Fit
Part List
01 Loose Pulley Cast Iron 01
02 Fast Pulley Cast Iron 01
03 Bush Gun Metal 01
18.7.5 Stepped or Cone Pulley

A stepped or cone pulley drive is used for changing the speed of the driven shaft while the main or
driving shaft runs at constant speed. This is accomplished by shifting the belt from one part of the steps
to the other. The pulley is having three or four steps of different diameter.
Three-dimension view of Stepped pulley is as shown in Figure 18.18 and two views of pulley are
shown in Figure 18.19.
12 Hole Drill & Tap
for tapping M6 for set
on hub screw
Fig. 18.18. Three dimensional view of steeped pulley
210
5
50 50 50 50 10
21
Crowning
46
2mm
R6
52
R85
R40
4
0H
125
160
195
95
7
A
190
A A A A
Fig. 18.19. Two views of steeped pulley

Tolerance Chart
40 H7 = +0.025 40 f7 = –0.025
+0.000 –0.050
Fit Chart
Φ40 H7 / f7 Clearance fit
Part List
01 Steeped cone Pulley Cast Iron 01
18.8 FREEHAND SKETCH OF ARBOR

Arbor milling is a cutting process which removes material via a multi-toothed cutter. An arbor mill is a
type of milling machine characterized by its ability to rapidly remove material from a variety of materials.
This milling process is not only rapid but also versatile. Milling machine arbors are made in various
lengths and in standard diameters of 7/8,1,1 and 1/4, and 1 and 1/2 inch. The shank is made to fit the
taper hole in the spindle while the other end is threaded.
18.8.1 Arbor
Belt pulley is made of cast iron and the rim of the pulley made crowned to prevent the belt slip from
the pulley. A solid web of elliptical cross section may be curved or straight is used to connect outer rim
with the boss.
Three-dimension view of Arbor is as shown in figure 18.20 and its front view is as shown in Figure
18.21.
Fig. 18.20. Three dimensional view of arbor
13
101.6 63
199
Fig. 18.21. View of arbor

408 Machine Drawing
18.9 FREEHAND SKETCH OF WALL BRACKET

Wall Bracket is used to hold a bearing which supports an overhang shaft which is parallel to and near
a wall. The bearing is bolted to the wall bracket and wall bracket is bolted to a pillar or wall. It is also
used to hold the electric cables.
18.9.1 Wall Bracket

Figure 18.23 shows the wall bracket, brasses, cap and studs. The cap is fitted to sole by two
studs and nuts. The brasses are prevented from rotating by snug and an oil hole is drilled. Three-
dimension view of wall bracket is as shown in Figure 18.22 and its assembly in two views are shown in
Figure 18.23.
Nut
Stud
Wall brack
Cap
Brass
Fig. 18.22. Three dimensional view of wall bracket

50H7/g6
R25 A
10
R25
70H7/g6
80
R13
A
3
A
35 45 170 45 35
15
R15
35
R15
R10
15
10
10
100
50
50
R10
300
R10
45
5
10
2 25
10 25
110
7
40H
R
40
R10
35
50
1
R1
90
4 R50
Snug hole 5.5 deep
Fig. 18.23. Two views of wall bracket
Tolerance Chart
50 H7 = +0.030 50 g6 = -0.019
+0.000 +0.000
70 H7 = +0.030 70 g6 = -0.019
+0.000 +0.000
40 H7 = +0.025
+0.000
Fit Chart
Φ50 H7 / g6 Clearance Fit
Φ70 H7 / g6 Clearance Fit

410 Machine Drawing
Part List
01 Body Cast Iron 01
02 Cap Cast Iron 01
03 Brasses Gun Metal 01
05 Nut Mild Steel 02
Exercises
1. Prepare the free hand sketch of bushed journal bearing and state the advantage over the solid
journal bearing.
2. Draw the two views of a belt pulley along with the part list.
3. Prepare the free hand sketch of fast and loose pulley with their function.

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NEW AGE

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

All rights reserved.

Prof (Dr.) Anil M Bisen

1. A Language of Engineers.......................................................................................... 1–4

4.3 Methods of Development .......................................................................................35

9. Riveted Joints..................................................................................................... 190–207

12. Cotter and Kunckle Joints................................................................................. 235–241

14. Shaft Couplings.................................................................................................. 248–268

16. Sectional Views.................................................................................................. 280–289

16.4 Types of Cutting Plane Sections...........................................................................283

18. Free Hand Sketches........................................................................................... 395–410

1.2 Brief History of Drawing

1.2.1 What is Engineering Drawing?

1.2.2 How long we have been using it?

1.2.3 What noteworthy about engineering is in discussion of human history?

1.2.4 Why drawing intimately related to humans?

1.3 Importance of Graphical Language in Engineering

1.4 MACHINE DRAWING

1.4.1 Classification of Machine Drawing

1.4.2 Production Drawing

1.4.3 Part Drawing

1.4.4 Assembly Drawing

2.1 SIZES OF DRAWING SHEETS

2.1.1 ISO-A series

2.1.2 Special Elongated Size

Table 2.1 Special elongated size

2.1.3 Exceptional Elongated Sizes

*this size is equal to 2 A0 of ISO-A series

2.2 LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEETS

Fig. 2.1. Layout of drawing sheet

2.2.1 Title Block

2.2.2 Margin, Borders and Frames

2.2.3 Centering Marks

2.2.4 Orientation Marks

2.3 FOLDING OF DRAWING SHEETS

2.3.1 Basic Principles

Fig. 2.2. Drawing sheet folding method 1

210 210 210

Fig. 2.3. Drawing sheet folding method 2

2.4.1 Definition of Line

2.4.2 Classification of Lines

2.4.3 According to Geometrical Feature

Type of line Illustration Application Remarks

Short dashes Hidden outlines and —

Fig. 2.4. Types of line

2.4.4 According to Application of Line

2.4.5 Visible Outline

2.4.6 Construction Lines

2.4.7 Hidden Lines

2.4.8 Center Lines

2.4.9 Dimension Lines

2.4.10 Extension Lines

2.4.11 Leader Line

2.4.12 Reference Line

2.4.13 Cutting Plane Lines

2.4.14 Break Lines

2.4.15 Long Chain Lines

2.4.16 Line Dimensions, Line Groups and Line Configuration