Rs2 Academy

Fluids at rest

Hydrostatic is basically concerned with fluids at rest while

hydrodynamics deals with fluids which are in motion.

Liquids and gases can flow and are therefore, called fluids. Earth has an
envelop of air and two-thirds of its surface is covered with water. All the
processes occurring in living beings including plants are mediated by
fluids.

Pressure
We can define pressure as the normal force acting per unit area of a
surface. It is denoted by P and SI unit of it is pascal (Pa). It is a scalar
quantity.

P = F/A

We observe that the same force (weight) exerts different pressures for
different areas in contact. Lesser the area, more is the pressure exerted
for a given force.

Some Applications of The Concept of Pressure

1. The bags and suitcases are provided with broad handles so that small
pressure is exerted on the hand while carrying them.

2.Railway tracks are laid on large sized wooden, iron or cement sleepers
so that the thrust due to weight of train is spread over a large area. This
reduces the pressure on ground which would prevent the yielding of
ground.

3.It is painful to walk bare footed on a road covered with edge pebbles. It
is due to the fact that if our body weight is supported on a very small
area of the sharp edge of the pebble on the road, it will exert in reaction,
a large pressure on our feet.

4. It is difficult to walk bure footed on a sandy ground as the sand yields

under our weight.

This difficulty can be overcome by spreading the wooden board on the

sand. In this situatica, the thrust on the sand due to our weight will get
spread over the whole area of the board and hence a very small pressure
is exerted on the sand. Due to which, the sand does not yield.

5. Pins and nails are made to have pointed ends in order to have least
area of contact between the pin and the given surface. Due to this, the
pin if pressed, will exert high pressure on the surface, and hence will
easily penetrate the surface.

Density
The density of any material is defined as its mass per unit its volume. If a
fluid of mass m occupies a volume V, then its density is given as

Density= mass/volume

Density is usually denoted by the symbol ρ. It is a positive scalar quantity. Its SI

unit is kg m–3 and its dimensions are [ML–3]
Pascal’s Law
This law states that the pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points
which are at the same height.

Imagine a small element of fluid in the shape of a right angled prism. All
its points lie at the same depth inside the liquid. Therefore the effect of
gravity is same at all these points. The forces exerted by rest of the fluid
on different surfaces of this fluid element are as follows:
F1 = F2= F3

If A1, A2 and A3 are the surface areas of faces respectively, then by

dividing.

F1/A1 = F2/A2 = F3/A3

P1=P2=P3

So, the pressure exerted is same in all directions in a fluid at rest, at the
points at equal height.
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Let’s find the difference in pressures at two points, whose levels differ by
a height h in a fluid at rest. Let P1 and P2 be the pressures at two points 1
and 2 inside a fluid. Point 1 is at a height h above the point 2.

Imagine a fluid element in the shape of a cylinder as shown. If A be the

area of the top and the bottom of this cylinder, then

F1=P1/A

F2=P2/A

Since, the fluid remains at rest, therefore the force F2, which acts
upwards should balance the two downward forces. These are, the force F1
exerted at the top of the cylinder, and the weight W of the fluid confined
within the cylinder.

F2=F1+mg

If ρ is the density of the fluid, then

F2=F1+ρ.(volume of the cylinder).g

P2/A=P1/A+ρ.(A.h).g
P2=P1+ρgh

P2−P1=ρgh

This result tells us that as we go deep down a liquid the pressure goes on
increasing. This pressure depends only on the height of the liquid column
above the point.

Hydraulic lift
The hydraulic lift is an elevator which is operated by fluid pressure
generated by a suitable fluid. It is used to raise automobiles in service
stations and garages. In a hydraulic lift, two pistons are separated by the
space filled with liquid. A piston of small cross-section A1 is used to exert
a force F1 directly on the liquid. The pressure P =F/A is transmitted
throughout the liquid to the larger cylinder attached to a larger piston of
area A2, which results in an upward force of P × A2.

Therefore, the piston is capable of supporting a large force (large weight

of, say, a car, or a truck, placed on the platform).

F2 = p x A2 = (F1)(A2/A1]

By changing the force at A1, the platform can be moved up or down.

Thus, the applied force has been increased by a factor of A2/A1, and this
factor is the mechanical advantage of the device
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric pressure at a point is equal to the weight of a column of
air of unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the
atmosphere. Its value is 1.013 × 10^5 Pa at sea level. Atmospheric
pressure is measured using an instrument called barometer.

Units os Atmospheric Pressure

SI unit of pressure is N m–2 or Pascal (Pa)

Atmosphere, 1 atm = 1.013 × 10^5 Pa = 760 mm of Hg

1 torr = 133 Pa

1 mm of Hg = 1 torr

1 bar = 10^5 Pa

1 millibar = 100 Pa

Gauge Pressure
When we remove atmospheric pressure from total pressure of any system
then this remaining pressure is called Gauge Pressure. The excess
pressure P–Pa, at depth h is called a gauge pressure at that point.

Archimedes’ Principle
When a body is partially or completely immersed in a liquid, it loses some
of its weight. The loss in weight of the body in the liquid is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body. The
upward force excerted by the liquid displaced when a body is immersed is
called buoyancy. Due to this, there is apparent loss in the weight
experienced by the body.
Law of Floatation
A body floats in a liquid if weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed
portion of the body is equal to the weight of the body. When a body is
immersed partially or wholly in a liquid, then the various forces acting on
the body are

Upward thrust (T) acting at the centre of buoyancy and whose magnitude
is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced

The weight of the body (W) which acts vertically downward through its
centre of gravity.

(a) When W > T, the body will sink in the liquid;

(b) When W = T, then the body will remain in equilibrium inside the liquid;

(c) When W < T, then the body will come upto the surface of the liquid.
 Hydrodynamic

Viscosity
When a fluid moves, it flows in the form of parallel layers. These layers
exert a force on each other which tends to oppose their relative motion.
This is similar to what a frictional force does when two solids in contact
move or tend to move over each other. The property of fluid which gives
rise to such frictional force in them, is called viscosity. It is denoted by ‘η’.
Its SI unit is N s m–2 or Pa s which is also called poiseuille (Pl). The
dimensions of viscosity are [ML–1T–1].

Distinction between Viscosity and Solid Friction

Viscosity is similar to the solid friction (friction among the solid surfaces
in contact) in the respect that
(i) both come into play whenever there is a relative motion,
(ii) both oppose relative motion and
(iii) both are due to molecular forces.

Viscosity differs from the solid friction in the respect that the viscous
force acting between two layers of the liquid depends upon
(i) the area of the layers,
(ii)the relative velocity of two layers and (iii) distance between two layers.
The friction between two solid surfaces is independent of
(i) the area of surfaces in contact and
(ii) the relative velocity between them

Note: 1. An ideal liquid has zero viscosity and zero compressibility.

2. Viscosity is due to trans-port of momentum.3. With increase in
temperature, the viscosity of liquid decreases but viscosity of gases
increases.

Poiseuille's Formula
When a liquid flows through a horizontal tube with a steady flow under
some external pressure, the liquid moves in cylindrical layers coaxial with
the axis of the tube. The velocity of the cylindrical layer is maximum
along the axis of the tube and it goes on decreasing towards the wall of
the tube. The velocity is minimum for the layer in contact with the wall of
the tube,

Poiseuille studied the rate of flow of a liquidthrough a horizontal capillary

tube and concludedthat the volume (V) of the liquid flowing per
secondthrough a capillary tube varies (i) directly as thepressure
difference (p) across the two ends of thetube

i.e.,
Derivation of poiseuille's Formula
Stoke's law
Stoke’s Law is a mathematical equation that expresses the settling
velocities of the small spherical particles in a fluid medium. The law is
derived considering the forces acting on a particular particle as it sinks
through the liquid column under the influence of gravity. The force that
retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly proportional to
the velocity and the radius of the sphere, and the fluid’s viscosity.
Terminal velocity
It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while falling freely
in a viscous medium.

When a small spherical body falls freely through a viscous medium, three
forces act on it.
(i) Weight of the body acting vertically downwards,
(ii) Upward thrust due to buoyancy equal to weight of liquid displaced.
(iii) Viscous drag acting in the direction opposite to the motion of body.

According to Stoke's law, F is proportional to v i.e. the opposing viscous

drag goes on increasing with the increasing velocity of the body.
Practical Uses of the Knowledge of Viscosity
(i) The knowledge of viscosity and its variation with temperature helps us
to select a suitable lubricant for a given machine.
(ii) The knowledge of viscosity of some organic liquids such as proteins,
cellulose etc helps us in determining their shape and molecular weight.
(iii) At railway terminals, the liquids of high viscosity are used as buffers.
(iv) Motion of some instruments is damped by using the viscosity of air or
liquid.
(v) The knowledge of viscosity helped Millikan in determining charge on
an electron.
(vi) The phenomenon of viscosity plays an important role in the
circulation of blood through arteries and veins of human body.

Types of flow

a) streamline flow
When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid passing a given
point moves along the same path and has the same velocity as its
predecessor had at that point, the flow is called streamlined or steady
flow. The path followed by a fluid particle in steady flow is called
streamline.
Important properties of stream lines

(i) In a streamline flow, no two streamlines can Cross each other. If they
do so, the particles of the liquid at the point of intersection will have two
different directions for their flow, which will destroy the steady nature of
the liquid flow.

(ii) The greater is the crowding of stream lines at a place, the greater is
the velocity of liquid particles at that place and vice versa.

Tube of flow. A tube of flow is the bundle of streamlines having the same
velocity of the liquid particles over any cross section perpendicular to the
direction of flow of liquid.

It has been seen that the flow of liquid will be stream lined if the velocity
of liquid flow is always less than the critical velocity of the liquid. The
value of critical velocity is different for different liquids.

(b) Laminar flow.

If a liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface with a steady flow and

moves in the form of layers of different velocities which do not mix with
each other, then the flow of liquid is called laminar flow. Thus a flow, in
which the liquid moves in layers is called a laminar flow. In this flow, one
layer slides over the other layer of liquid. In this flow, the velocity of liquid
flow is always less than the critical velocity of the liquid. In general,
laminar flow is a streamline flow.

(c) Turbulent flow.

When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical velocity, the
motion of the particles of liquid becomes disorderly or irregular. Such a
flow is called turbulent flow.
Critical velocity
The critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow, upto which its flow is
streamlined and above which its flow becomes turbulent.

Reynolds Number
Whether a flow will be turbulent or not, is decided by a dimensionless
parameter called Reynolds number Re. This parameter is given by the
relation

where, ρ = density of the fluid

v = velocity of the fluid

η = viscosity of the fluid

d = diameter of the pipe through which the fluid flows

If Re < 1000, the flow is streamline or laminar

If Re > 2000, the flow becomes turbulent

If 1000 < Re < 2000, flow is unsteady i.e., it may change from laminar to
turbulent and vice versa.

Continuity equation represents that the product of cross-sectional area

of the pipe and the fluid speed at any point along the pipe is always
constant. This product is equal to the volume flow per second or simply
the flow rate. The continuity equation is given as

R= A v = constant Where,
R is the volume flow rate
A is the flow area
v is the flow velocity

Assumption of Continuity Equation

● The tube is having a single entry and single exit
● The fluid flowing in the tube is non-viscous
● The flow is incompressible
● The fluid flow is steady
Bernoulli's theorem
Application of bernoulli's theorem

1) working of aeroplane:
An aeroplane works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. When an
aeroplane flies, the wings create a low-pressure area above them. This
low-pressure area sucks the air from below the wings and creates lift.

2) Action of atomiser:
An atomiser is a device that is used to spray a liquid in the form of fine
droplets. It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. The liquid is
accelerated as it passes through a narrow constriction in the atomiser.
This causes a decrease in pressure which vaporises the liquid and breaks
it up into fine droplets.

3) working of a venturi:
A venturi is a device that is used to measure the flow rate of a fluid. It
works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem. The fluid is accelerated as it
passes through a narrow constriction in the venturi. This causes a
decrease in pressure which can be measured.

4) Blowing of the roofs during strom:-

During strom blowing , pressure inside the room is high and outside the
room pressure is low.Due to this pressure difference, the roof is lifted and
blown off with the wind.

5) Magnus force is the force exerted on a rapidly spinning cylinder or

sphere moving through air or another fluid in a direction at an angle to
the axis of spin following the Bernoulli's relation. This force is responsible
for the swinging of balls when hit or thrown with spin. This effect is called
Magnus effect.
A ball which is spinning, drags air along with it. If the surface is rough,
more air will be dragged. Figure shows the streamlines of air for a ball
which is moving and spinning at the same time. The ball is moving
forward and relative to it the air is moving backwards. Therefore, the
velocity of air above the ball relative to it is large and below it is smaller.
This difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure difference
between the lower and upper faces and there is a net upward force on
the ball. This dynamic lift due to spinning is called Magnus effect.
6) Motion of two parallel boats
If two boats, small distance apart are rowing parallel to each other in the
same direction the velocity of water between the two boats becomes very
large as compared to the velocity of water on outer sides of the boats.
Due to this, the pressure in between the boats is reduced according to
Bernoulli's principle. Now the outward high pressure pushes the boats
inwards. As a result of i the boats come closer to each other and may
even collide and be destroyed.

Torricelli's theorem
According to this theorem, velocity of efflux i.e. the velocity with which
the liquid flows out of on orifice (i.e. a narrow hole) is equal to that which
a freely falling body would acquire in falling through a vertical distance
equal to the depth of orifice below the free surface of liquid.