Regular Article

International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Volume 22: 1–18
A Step-by-Step Process of Thematic © The Author(s) 2023
DOI: 10.1177/16094069231205789
Analysis to Develop a Conceptual Model in journals.sagepub.com/home/ijq

Qualitative Research

Muhammad Naeem1, Wilson Ozuem2 , Kerry Howell3, and Silvia Ranfagni4

Abstract
Thematic analysis is a highly popular technique among qualitative researchers for analyzing qualitative data, which usually
comprises thick descriptive data. However, the application and use of thematic analysis has also involved complications due to
confusion regarding the final outcome’s presentation as a conceptual model. This paper develops a systematic thematic analysis
process for creating a conceptual model from qualitative research findings. It explores the adaptability of the proposed process
across various research methodologies, including constructivist methodologies, positivist methodologies, grounded theory, and
interpretive phenomenology, and justifies their application. The paper distinguishes between inductive and deductive coding
approaches and emphasizes the merits of each. It suggests that the derived systematic thematic analysis model is valuable across
multiple disciplines, particularly in grounded theory, ethnographic approaches, and narrative approaches, while also being
adaptable to more descriptive, positivist-based methodologies. By providing a methodological roadmap, this study enhances the
rigor and replicability of thematic analysis and offers a comprehensive strategy for theoretical conceptualization in qualitative
research. The contribution of this paper is a systematic six-step thematic analysis process that leads to the development of a
conceptual model; each step is described in detail and examples are given.

Keywords
qualitative, inductive, deductive, thematic analysis, codes, themes, conceptual model

Introduction codes, and themes helps to form preliminary assertions that

can be further interpreted to develop the final conceptual
The aim of this paper is to present a comprehensive systematic model. Indeed, we posit that the thematic analysis process we
model for thematic analysis that culminates in the develop- have constructed exhibits considerable adaptability and po-
ment of a conceptual model that encapsulates a researcher’s tential for utilization in relation to grounded theory (GT),
findings. Furthermore, we provide practical guidance on each ethnographic approaches, and narrative approaches and, with
step of the thematic analysis process, discuss factors that some adaptation, more descriptive positivist-based method-
enhance its application, and illustrate how to transform ob- ologies would benefit.
served phenomena into potential codes and themes for deeper
analysis. To ground our discussion in practical terms, we use a
study conducted by Naeem and Ozuem (2022a) as an ex-
emplar to provide concrete examples for each of the six steps 1
University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, UK
of the proposed thematic analysis process. These steps include 2
University of Cumbria, Lancaster, UK
3
the selection of keywords and quotations, coding, theming, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
4
interpretation, and the development of a conceptual model. University of Florence, Florence, Italy
This paper argues for the merit of observing specific phe- Corresponding Author:
nomena during data collection and refining them into potential Muhammad Naeem, University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham GL50 2RH, UK.
codes and themes. The subsequent identification of keywords, Email: [email protected]

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2 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Thematic analysis is a research method used to identify and Thematic Analysis Process
interpret patterns or themes in a data set; it often leads to new
insights and understanding (Boyatzis, 1998; Elliott, 2018; The principles of the thematic analysis technique, such as
Thomas, 2006). However, it is critical that researchers avoid coding of data, searching for themes, refining the themes, and
letting their own preconceptions interfere with the identifi- reporting the findings, are relatable to other qualitative
cation of key themes (Morse & Mitcham, 2002; Patton, 2015). methods, such as discourse analysis (Flick, 2022). Thematic
According to Scriven (1991), a “goal-free” evaluation aligns analysis is a method to analyze qualitative data. It involves
well with inductive research where theories are developed the identification and reporting of patterns in a data set,
from the data. Users of thematic analysis develop core skills which are then interpreted for their inherent meaning (Braun
for conducting other kinds of qualitative analysis (Braun & & Clarke, 2006; Liebenberg et al., 2020; Xu & Zammit,
Clarke, 2006). Naeem and Ozuem (2022a) used thematic 2020); these patterns can be found on the basis of under-
analysis to construct a conceptual model of their findings standing the meaning of keywords used by participants. In
through a series of steps, including keyword and quotation this paper, we delve into the intricate details of a robust
selection, coding, theming, interpretation, and model devel- methodological approach known as systematic thematic
opment. This study provides a six-step theme analysis tech- analysis, where we systematically unpack its six steps:
nique based on their methodology for researchers to employ in transcript creation and data familiarization; keyword iden-
developing a conceptual model of their findings. This involves tification; code selection; theme development; conceptuali-
keeping an eye out for phenomena as data is being collected, zation through the interpretation of keywords, codes, and
brainstorming potential codes and themes, and making initial themes; and, finally, the development of a conceptual model
statements that will be refined into a final model. Naeem and (see Figure 2). These steps serve as a roadmap to meticu-
Ozuem’s (2022a) research is used to show the theme analysis lously process qualitative data; they enhance the rigor of the
process and the publication emphasizes the benefits of uti- research process and the depth of research findings. The six
lizing different methodologies at each level. steps of systematic thematic analysis are each described in
detail in the next six subsections. The subsections provide a
comprehensive breakdown of the methodologies of each
Exemplar Study: Overview and TA Process step; they elucidate each step’s functions within the over-
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Naeem and Ozuem (2022a) arching systematic thematic analysis process, and substan-
investigated how social media misinformation and rumors tiate them with scholarly references and practical examples
contributed to the phenomenon of “panic buying.” The re- from the exemplar study.
searchers used a six-stage theme analysis technique to deci- The thematic analysis process described in this paper is
pher the qualitative data they gathered from Twitter, YouTube, termed “systematic” because it follows a structured, sequential
and interviews. approach to interpreting research data. Each stage builds on
They began by reading over the data to get a feel for it, and the previous one, which results in a comprehensive under-
then they narrowed it down by choosing appropriate keywords standing of the data. This organized method enhances the
and citations. As a result, we have codes and may organize consistency and replicability of the findings, and it enables
them into categories based on their shared characteristics. clear connections between the data, interpretation, and final
They were able to decipher the connection between social conclusions. This systematic structured approach ensures
media rumors and panic buying thanks to the recurring motifs thoroughness and limits potential bias.
and patterns they identified. They reasoned from their data to
create statements and eventually arrived at the “Panic buying Step 1: Transcription, Familiarization With the Data,
as social practice” model. Based on the Protection Motivation and Selection of Quotations
Theory (PMT) and the Theory of Rumor Transmission
(TORT), this model analyzed the role that false information This is the initial phase of the thematic analysis process. It
and rumors played in triggering a buying frenzy. involves the transcription of data and familiarizing oneself
Naeem and Ozuem’s (2022a) study, depicted in Figure 1, with it. Researchers dive deep into the content to discern initial
generated three main themes from the data. The first theme themes and important sections. They then select quotes that
“Perceived consequences,” derived from the codes “Provoke bring the data to life and aptly represent diverse viewpoints
perception” and “Cost,” addressed the perceived outcomes of and patterns pertinent to the research objectives.
panic buying. The second theme, “Misinformation and ru-
mors,” derived from the codes “Obscurity” and “Eminence,”
Step 2: Selection of Keywords
highlighted the role of unclear and prominent information
sources in spreading misinformation. The third theme, This phase involves close examination of the data, be it from
“Content Characteristics,” arose from the codes “Prevailing interviews, focus groups, or visual content. Researchers
content” and “Anxiety,” which reflected prevalent information identify recurring patterns, terms, or visual elements and
types and the emotional factors influencing panic buying. designate them as keywords. These keywords encapsulate
Naeem et al. 3

Figure 1. Thematic approach used in exemplar study (Naeem & Ozuem, 2022a).
4 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Figure 2. A systematic thematic analysis process: A novel six-step process for conceptual model development in qualitative research.

participants’ experiences and perceptions and are directly because they embody patterned meanings that link the re-
derived from the data. search questions and data.

Step 3: Coding Step 5: Conceptualization Through Interpretation of

In the third step, coding, short phrases or words, known as Keywords, Codes, and Themes
codes, are assigned to segments of data that capture the data’s This step, conceptualization, involves understanding and
core message, significance, or theme. This step simplifies defining concepts emerging from the data. Researchers
complex textual data by transforming it into a theoretical form identify social patterns and refine them into definitions that
and assists in identifying elements related to the research align with their research. They utilize tools like diagrams or
questions. Keywords play an essential role in coding as they models to understand the relationships among these concepts.
form the backbone of the analysis and help to convert raw data The quality of these definitions is assessed based on clarity,
into insightful, manageable units. accuracy, reliability, applicability, and their contribution to
theory and practice.
Step 4: Theme Development
Theme development involves organizing codes into mean-
Step 6: Development of Conceptual Model
ingful groups to identify patterns and relationships, thereby The final step in the thematic analysis is the development of a
offering insights into the research question. In this step, the conceptual model. This process involves creating a unique
researcher transitions from a detailed analysis of codes and representation of the data and it is often guided by existing
categories to a more abstract interpretation by creating themes. theories. The model serves to answer the research questions
These themes go beyond merely being recurring elements and underscore the study’s contribution to knowledge. This
Naeem et al. 5

step signifies the culmination of the analysis; it encapsulates representation (Lingard, 2019). Moreover, Creswell (2012)
all the findings and insights derived from the data. classified quotations into three types that each serve a distinct
function in research: discrete, embedded, and longer quota-
Step 1: Transcription, Familiarization With the Data, and Selection tions. Discrete quotations are concise and contribute diverse
of Quotations. According to the six steps of the thematic perspectives, embedded quotations contain brief quoted
analysis approach of Braun and Clarke (2006), familiarizing phrases that can signify a shift in the text, while longer
yourself with the data is the first step. To properly document an quotations, though less prevalent due to word count con-
interview, a high-quality audio recording and, preferably, a straints, aid in illustrating complex understandings.
word-for-word transcription are required; the researcher could Researchers ought to provide an adequate context to enable
also manually highlight patterns in the data (Tuckett, 2005) readers to accurately comprehend the essence of a quote. This
with the intention to find the most relevant statements. Ochs may sometimes necessitate incorporating the researcher’s
(1979, p. 44) said that “A more useful transcript is a more question along with the participant’s response (Lingard,
selective one” (i.e., a selective transcript is more useful be- 2019). Quotations are often utilized to exemplify findings,
cause it contains only the most relevant and significant in- with the primary aim of invigorating the text—breathing life
formation). “The evaluation objectives provide a focus or into it. Adopting quotations to illuminate results stems from
domain of relevance for conducting the analysis, not a set of the epistemological assumptions of an interpretative meth-
expectations about specific findings” (Thomas, 2006, p. 239). odology (Eldh et al., 2020).
In other words, the process of selecting certain parts of an Transparent representation of diverse participants’ quota-
interview and leaving out others is important because it makes tions augments the credibility of findings and contributes to
the transcript more concise and easier to analyze (Brady, 2015; the trustworthiness of the research (Côté & Turgeon, 2005).
Lamba et al., 2022). The data immersion stage in thematic There is an urgent need, however, to reconsider the application
analysis is not only about documenting everything, but also of quotations by addressing the “if,” “why,” “how,” and
involves identifying significant information relevant to the “when” of their use. Indeed, quotations may serve various
research objectives. As stated by Thomas (2006), these ob- purposes, including evidence, explanation, illustration, im-
jectives provide a focused domain for the analysis; they guide pression (Lingard, 2019), representation (Eldh et al., 2020),
the extraction of crucial data from transcripts rather than and readability enhancement. The strategic deployment of
dictate specific findings. Thus, effective transcription is not quotations should be conscious and transparent, which con-
about including every detail, but selecting parts relevant to the tributes to a meaningful and comprehensive analysis. Re-
evaluation objectives, which facilitates a focused and man- searchers are encouraged to practice reflexivity by continually
ageable analysis. examining their beliefs, values, and assumptions throughout
In the initial stage of transcription, it is of paramount the research process (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012). This can be
importance to judiciously select and highlight pertinent achieved by maintaining a reflective journal or by memoing,
quotations; this process not only conserves time but also le- thereby ensuring their interpretations are not overly influenced
verages the fresh reminiscences of the conversation still by pre-existing philosophical or theoretical stances.
dwelling in the researcher’s mind. Quotations, when em- Understanding the philosophical and conceptual assump-
ployed astutely, have the potential to animate the data; they tions underlying different approaches to thematic analysis can
provide a vivid portrayal of the subject matter. Ethical con- assist researchers in choosing an appropriate method for their
siderations underscore the necessity to use quotations that research and ensure the trustworthiness and validity of their
respect the participants’ confidentiality, and their application findings (Lin, 1998). Reading a transcript repeatedly can help
must be reliable. Researchers need to foreground pertinent researchers select appropriate statements from the data
quotations that resonate with the interview context, bring the (Grundy et al., 2003; Tracy, 2019), but this suggestion is too
narrative alive, and respect ethical standards. This selection subjective. Braun and Clarke (2019) noted that “the philo-
should echo robust patterns in the data, reflect diverse par- sophical underpinnings of thematic analysis are crucial and
ticipants’ viewpoints, and balance readability and authenticity that different philosophical and theoretical approaches to
(Eldh et al., 2020; Lingard, 2019). knowledge construction can lead to different procedures for
Researchers are encouraged to reiterate their engagement conducting thematic analysis” (p. 81). For example, from the
with the transcripts because it enhances their ability to identify constructivist perspective, which focuses on subjective in-
suitable quotations. Quotations can enhance the readers’ en- terpretation of a participant’s meaning and how it is con-
gagement with the text and underscore unique aspects of the structed (Tavares et al., 2021), approaches such as GT or
data. It is essential, however, to refrain from choosing quo- reflexive thematic analysis might be employed (Timmermans
tations that merely incite controversy; instead, researchers & Tavory, 2012). This perspective would also entail social
should focus on those that genuinely illustrate the findings constructivism. On the other hand, critical realism, which
(Eldh et al., 2020). Quotation selection should symbolize concentrates on objective reality and how it is socially con-
robust patterns within the data and incorporate a diverse range structed (Tavares et al., 2021), might utilize a different mode
of participants’ voices, thus ensuring an inclusive of thematic analysis. Critical realists seek causal explanations
6 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

of reality and employ approaches like critical thematic a buying frenzy and to conceptualize it as a shared behavior
analysis (Timmermans & Tavory, 2012). rather than an individual reaction.
Studies such as those conducted by Wiltshire and
Ronkainen (2021) and Fryer (2022) provide insights into Step 2: Selection of Keywords. Thematic analysis is commonly
how critical realism is applied in thematic analysis and used to analyze interview and focus group data, but it can also
demonstrate its unique contribution in making sense of be applied to other forms of data such as photographs, videos,
qualitative data through experiential, inferential, and dispo- and other visual material (Braun & Clarke, 2019). When using
sitional themes. Understanding the philosophical and theo- thematic analysis with visual data, the process of identifying
retical foundations of thematic analysis guides researchers to themes may involve identifying patterns or recurring visual
choose appropriate quotations. This choice, reflective of their elements such as colors, shapes, or symbols. In addition, the
philosophical and theoretical orientations, enhances the researcher may analyze the contextual information sur-
trustworthiness and validity of their findings. This also rounding the visual data to gain a deeper understanding of the
highlights the significance of a researcher’s philosophical and meaning behind the image. Thematic analysis aims to identify
theoretical orientations in the initial stage of thematic analysis, and report the most repeated patterns in the data (Braun &
especially in choosing pertinent quotations. Braun and Clarke, 2006; Saldana, 2021; Wicks, 2017). To analyze in-
Clarke’s (2019) observations underscore this by showing terview or focus group data, as per current understanding of
how different philosophical and theoretical beliefs about thematic analysis, quotations or statements are selected from
knowledge formation may dictate unique thematic analysis the data and grouped together under a code (Saldana, 2021;
procedures. Hence, quotation selection is not simply a me- Simula, 2018; Tracy, 2019). “Within speech are meanings and
chanical task but is influenced by the researcher’s philo- perceptions that construct our reality” (Oliver et al., 2005, p.
sophical and theoretical approach (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012). 1274), which can be taken to mean that keywords (sets of
For instance, a constructivist researcher, focusing on partic- words) have meaning or are meaningful for research.
ipants’ subjective meaning-making, may select quotations that Although quotations as evidence in qualitative research
vividly depict these subjective realities. Conversely, a critical resurface periodically, we advocate a deeper examination of
realist researcher, concentrating on the social construction of fundamental tenets that uphold scientific rigor, such as validity
objective reality, may prefer quotations echoing societal im- and reliability. Many scholars argue that credibility provides a
pacts on individual experiences or highlighting objective el- better alignment with a qualitative worldview (Noble & Smith,
ements of investigated reality. 2015). Eldh et al. (2020) further asserted that quotation se-
In their study, Naeem and Ozuem (2022a) adopted a social lection resonates with the epistemological stance of inter-
constructionist perspective and they employed PMT and pretivism and social constructionism, as these quotations are
TORT as the theoretical foundation for their data analysis. The utilized in the interpretation of research findings. Naeem and
first phase of their analysis involved close reading of the Ozuem (2022a) added that a researcher can start data analysis
transcripts to familiarize themselves with the data; this stage while collecting the data and can note the keywords com-
was guided by these theories to explore psychological and monly used by participants; these commonly used keywords
behavioral factors affecting panic buying during the COVID- can be utilized to discuss the results of the research at the
19 pandemic. Their social constructionist approach aided their conceptualization stage of data analysis. So, we introduce a
deciphering of the transcripts and provided a theoretical novel step in thematic analysis: the selection of keywords from
scaffold for understanding panic buying as a socially con- the chosen quotation. The selection of powerful, meaningful,
structed phenomenon; this was achieved through under- and pertinent words from quotations as keywords paves the
standing the socially constructed meaning of COVID-19 that way for subsequent code development and data interpretation,
emerged from social interactions and communications. This and amplifies the depth and quality of the analysis that will be
perspective emphasizes the role of language and discourse in discussed in the next subsections of this paper.
shaping our understanding and actions. Community-based participatory research approaches pri-
PMT facilitated understanding of how individuals perceive oritize collaboration with community members throughout the
threats and respond to protect themselves and shed light on the research process to ensure that the outcomes are representative
perceived threats related to COVID-19, such as infection fears of the community’s needs and perspectives (Burgess et al.,
or the anxiety of running out of essential supplies. But TORT 2021; Kyoon-Achan et al., 2018). In this approach, re-
helped us figure out how COVID-19 rumors and false in- searchers work collaboratively with community members to
formation influenced people’s core convictions and attitudes, form a community of practice to develop research questions,
such the idea that stockpiling food and water would keep us collect and analyze data, and interpret the findings. In addition,
safe in a crisis. Insightful knowledge of the complex interplay researchers practise reflexivity, which entails constantly re-
of psychological and behavioral elements driving panic flecting on their own assumptions and worldviews. Re-
buying during the epidemic might be gleaned from these searchers can turn the data into new terminology that are more
theoretical foundations. By taking a sociological perspective, in line with the community’s practises and lexicon by actively
we were able to better understand the dynamics at play during engaging with and collaborating with people of the
Naeem et al. 7

community to discover and classify the key phrases or words. the keyword “Spreading fear” was repeatedly used in
To successfully capture the diverse viewpoints and needs of a the data to emphasize the impact of misinformation on
community, keywords can be used in the framework of people’s behavior during the pandemic.
community-based thematic analysis in qualitative research. · Rationale: The research’s theoretical foundations in-
According to Naeem and Ozuem (2022a), this first step in formed the choice of keywords. TORT describes how
qualitative research is the most crucial. In qualitative research, rumours spread because to people’s inability to cope
choosing the right phrase or term to stand in for a keyword is with ambiguity and fear, while PMT examines how
an important step that needs to be given lots of thought. In people evaluate and react to actual threats. The chosen
order to accurately convey the participants’ perspectives and ideas informed the selection of relevant keywords for
interpretations, researchers often employ a number of different investigating the role of social media in driving “panic
methods to select the most acceptable phrases or terms. In buying” during the pandemic. There was a correlation
qualitative research, keywords are essential for creating codes between the terms “Risk” and “Cost of illness” and the
that accurately reflect the underlying meaning of the data. perceived costs and benefits of panic buying, whereas
During data collection, researchers might take note of par- the keywords “Tension” and “Welcoming infection”
ticipants’ most frequently used keywords, as suggested by represented the perceived threat of the pandemic.
Naeem and Ozuem (2022a). For an analysis to be methodical, · Repartee: Words were chosen to symbolize the con-
rigorous, and grounded in the data, it needs keywords, which versation’s most poignant or “witty” moments, which
are terms or phrases that indicate essential concepts or ideas in provided further context for the study. For example, the
the data. Using keywords to indicate the concepts and ideas keyword “Death rate rising” was a poignant indication
existing in the data ensures that the created codes are true to of people’s fear.
the data. Many authors suggested that reading a transcript · Regal: Words that were crucial to understanding the
repeatedly can help researchers select appropriate statements phenomenon of panic buying and misinformation
from the data (Grundy et al., 2003; Tracy, 2019), but this during the COVID-19 pandemic were selected as
suggestion is too subjective. In contrast, Naeem and Ozuem keywords. These keywords helped to establish the
(2022a) selected statements/quotations on the basis of significance of the study and its contribution to the
meaningful keywords in these statements, which is why the literature on this topic. For example, the keywords
selection of keywords is the second step in thematic analysis. “Flood of information” and “Lying” on social media
In this paper we propose that keywords can be selected on the reflected a critical aspect of the pandemic and its impact
basis of 6Rs: realness, richness, repetition, rationale, repartee, on individuals’ behavior.
and regal. Examples of the 6Rs based on the exemplar study
are as follows. We present a summary of the 6Rs for keyword selection in
qualitative research in Table 1. Table 1 succinctly defines each
· Realness: The keywords selected by the researchers R and offers insights into how keywords can be selected in the
reflected the real experiences and perceptions of indi- context of a research study.
viduals during the COVID-19 pandemic. These key-
words expressed real situations, tensions, and fears that Step 3: Coding. Creswell (2015) highlighted the need for
people experienced during the pandemic, such as coding: “Text data are dense data, and it takes a long time to
“Flood of information” and “Not under control” (see go through them and make sense of them” (Creswell, 2015, p.
Figure 1). They represented the actual concerns and 152). Coding represents assigning a short phrase or a word to
anxieties that people had about their health and data. It symbolizes the salient, summative, and essence-
wellbeing. capturing attribute of the data (Saldana, 2016). Richards
· Richness: The selected keywords were rich in meaning (2015) stated that coding is in fact indexing of the data.
and helped to provide a detailed understanding of the Put simply, coding is the process of cataloguing information
phenomenon being studied. For example, the keyword (keywords) according to a predetermined structure that leads
“Welcoming infection” provided a rich understanding to making data take on a more theoretical and conceptual form.
of the fear and concern that individuals had about be- As stated by Attride-Stirling (2001), the process of coding
coming infected with COVID-19. The keyword “Cost involves breaking down real data into smaller, more man-
of illness” encompassed the financial, physical, and ageable pieces that can then be categorized and analyzed for
emotional costs associated with panic buying and patterns and themes. Coding enables researchers to identify
misinformation during the pandemic. specific elements of the data that are relevant to their research
· Repetition: The repetition of particular words (these question, which can then be used to develop a more com-
words could be the same words or different words that prehensive understanding of the underlying concepts and idea
held the same meaning for the participants) throughout (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006).
the data indicated their significance and relevance to the In articulating a cohesive thematic analysis procedure, this
study, and they were selected as keywords. For instance, manuscript aspires to function as a beneficial beacon for
8 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Table 1. Definitions of the 6Rs for Keyword Selection in Thematic Analysis.

6Rs for Keyword

Selection Definitions

Realness Words that reflect the genuine experiences and perceptions of the participants
Richness Words that are rich in meaning and provide a detailed understanding of the phenomenon being studied
Repetition Words that frequently occur in the data, which indicates their significance and relevance to the participants
Rationale Words that are connected to the theoretical or philosophical foundation of the research
Repartee In general, repartee refers to quick, witty conversation or a quick, witty reply. However, when used in the context of
thematic analysis and in selecting keywords from the data, “repartee keywords” are words that are insightful,
evocative, and stimulate further discussion or consideration
Regal Words that are central to understanding the phenomenon under study and contribute significantly to the literature
through adding new insight

researchers who wish to investigate their data in a methodo- 4. Data comparison: By examining the presence or fre-
logically rigorous yet adaptable fashion. Furthermore, in our quency of specific keywords, researchers can compare
description of systematic thematic analysis, we delve into the different segments of data, which can highlight con-
philosophical constituents within the context of both inductive trasts, similarities, or relationships.
and deductive approaches, which enriches thematic analysis. 5. Enhanced understanding: Keywords can provide a
Inductive research, derived from researchers’ observations, “snapshot” of the data; they offer researchers a quick
leads to theory development by building broader themes from conceptual understanding of the underlying ideas or
participants’ views (Braun & Clarke, 2006). As Braun and sentiments.
Clarke (2019) posited, understanding the theoretical and phil-
osophical underpinnings of thematic analysis enables re- The analytical process balances between descriptive
searchers to adopt an appropriate methodological approach, analysis, which outlines patterns or trends, and interpretive
thereby assuring the validity and trustworthiness of the findings analysis, which offers subjective perspectives (Miles &
(Lin, 1998). The validity and trustworthiness of the findings of Huberman, 1994, p. 56). This balance depends on the para-
thematic analysis can be improved through careful consider- digm of inquiry, either post-positivist, emphasizing descrip-
ation of the keywords selected at the second stage or the re- tion, or constructivist, emphasizing interpretation. However,
searcher can go back to the relevant quotation to select more the thematic analysis approach could also fit a post-positivist
keywords or to change the keywords relevant to the codes. The paradigm (Howell, 2012, p. 30). This implies that thematic
thoughtful selection and use of keywords are crucial to effective analysis, with its balance of descriptive and interpretive
coding, as they help to transform raw data into more insightful, analysis, aligns well with the post-positivist paradigm, which
manageable units for further examination. focuses on objective descriptions of reality. Furthermore,
Keywords in coding are essential terms or phrases Miles and Huberman (1994) stated that its flexibility allows
extracted from the data that are crucial to understanding the for both inductive and deductive approaches, the latter of
themes or patterns within it. They can be actual words used by which resonates with the structured and theory-testing nature
participants in a study or words the researchers use to sum- of post-positivist inquiry, thereby solidifying thematic anal-
marize or categorize the data. In the coding process, con- ysis as a reliable, rigorous, and adaptable method in deductive
sideration of keywords helps in multiple ways: research.
The coding phase in thematic analysis, where patterns are
1. Code development: Keywords often serve as the basis identified, bears resemblance to inductive data analysis. These
for the development of codes. They encapsulate the identified codes must later be interpreted and assigned to
core idea or theme of a specific data segment; thus, they themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In contrast, deductive the-
help the researcher create meaningful, concise codes. matic analysis, also referred to as “theoretical thematic
2. Categorization: Keywords can be used to categorize analysis,” is grounded in a pre-existing theory or framework,
similar pieces of data together. When a specific key- which guides the coding and theme development (Braun &
word appears repeatedly, it might indicate a significant Clarke, 2006). It involves the application of an existing
theme or concept, which can be grouped for deeper theoretical or conceptual framework to structure and interpret
analysis. the data. The deductive approach is hypothesis-driven and
3. Pattern identification: Keywords help researchers aims to test or confirm existing theories. (Saldaña, 2016).
identify patterns or trends within the data. These Deductive coding, linked with descriptive analysis, is a top-
patterns can guide the formation of broader themes or down approach where pre-existing theories, models, or codes
insights. guide the data analysis (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). This approach
Naeem et al. 9

fits within a post-positivist paradigm, aiming to describe a On the other hand, “Obscurity” and “Prevailing content”
singular, objective reality. The researcher applies their theo- might represent novel insights gained from the data that were
retical framework to the data and creates themes based on not initially anticipated within the framework of TORT and
established constructs (Crabtree, 1999). It parallels GT as both PMT. “Obscurity” could represent participants’ experiences
use coding to develop themes or categories from concepts that and perceptions of ambiguity or lack of clarity in their en-
emerge during data collection. Thematic analysis identifies vironment or situation. Similarly, “Prevailing content” might
and describes patterns, whereas GT extends thematic analysis reflect the participants’ perceptions of dominant or widespread
to generate substantive theory from empirical data. GT goes a narratives, beliefs, or attitudes within their social or cultural
step further by using this coding process to not only identify context. In the inductive approach, keywords play an essential
and describe patterns but also to generate substantive theory role in forming new codes because they provide context-
from the empirical data, thus adding a layer of theoretical specific insights that help shape and define the code’s
development to the process (Charmaz, 2014). So, in the meaning and represent the emergent patterns in the data.
context of GT, the coding phase in thematic analysis involves Conversely, in a deductive approach, keywords can bolster
identifying patterns within the data, similar to inductive data and substantiate existing theoretical codes, reinforcing their
analysis, which then serves as a basis for interpreting and relevance and applicability to the analyzed data, by linking
establishing themes. direct expressions or ideas back to the theoretical constructs
Inductive coding refers to the process of gathering key- they represent.
words with the purpose of creating an organized list of codes. Keywords offer substantial starting points for coding;
Inductive coding involves generating codes from the data however, they may not be enough to fully capture the breadth
itself to allow patterns and themes to emerge from the real and depth of qualitative data in thematic analysis. We propose
data. This approach is exploratory and data-driven; it allows six Rs—robust, reflective, resplendent, relevant, radical, and
the researcher to remain open to new ideas and themes that righteous—that serve as a comprehensive coding strategy that
may emerge from the data (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). addresses the complexity of the data, the interplay between
Inductive coding, linked with interpretive analysis, is a theories and facts, the context-specific richness, alignment
bottom-up approach where codes emerge from the data and with the research objective, the avoidance of overlaps, and a
reflect the unique contexts and experiences of participants logical consistency within the broader coding agenda. The
(Thomas, 2006). The researcher immerses themselves in the following elaborates on each “R,” delineating their definitions,
data and allows themes to emerge organically; this approach is applications, and relevance through examples based on the
often aligned with a constructivist paradigm that recognizes exemplar study.
multiple realities and the co-construction of knowledge be-
tween researcher and participants (Braun & Clarke, 2006). · Robust: Coding should convey the true essence of data
Essentially, the transformation of paradigms concerning de- in a theoretical manner (Nowell et al., 2017). The code
grees of subjectivity and objectivity has underscored the “Provoke perception” is a perfect example of robustness
flexibility intrinsic to research methodologies and highlighted as it encapsulates keywords like “Tension,” thereby
that these tools of analysis are intimately intertwined with, providing a substantial understanding of the data.
and, indeed, emerge from the distinctive nature of specific Another code, “Cost,” embodies various aspects of cost,
disciplines and perspectives (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). such as “Risk” and “Cost of illness,” demonstrating that
It is plausible to utilize either inductive or deductive coding a robust code is multifaceted and comprehensive in
independently within the context of thematic analysis (Naeem representing data.
& Ozuem, 2022a). Braun and Clarke (2006) explained the role · Reflective: Codes should symbolize a relationship be-
of coding in thematic analysis and its resemblance to inductive tween facts and theories to create a lens through which
data analysis. In inductive (or data-driven) coding the codes facts can be interpreted (Guba & Lincoln, 1994;
are derived from the real data, whereas in deductive (or theory- Sandelowski, 1986; Savage, 2000). For example, the
driven) coding in thematic analysis the codes are derived from code “Prevailing content” mirrors critical thinking
theory. Naeem and Ozuem’s (2022a) study involved both about information quality during the pandemic.
deductive and deductive approach to thematic analysis where · Resplendent: Codes offer powerful, impressive, and
the coding and theme development were grounded in pre- comprehensive explanations of the context under study
existing theories (TORT and PMT). For instance, the codes (Holton, 2011; Punch, 2013; Rogers, 2018). They ar-
“Provoke perception” and “Anxiety” align with PMT’s central ticulate the implicit richness of data and paint vivid
tenet of an individual’s response to perceived threats, where a imagery of the context. The code “Eminence” dem-
person’s anxiety level can influence their motivation to adopt onstrates resplendence by showcasing urgency and
protective behaviors. “Cost” and “Eminence” connect with the apprehension during the pandemic.
TORT, where the perceived costs and benefits (Eminence can · Relevant: Codes should symbolize inferential and de-
be seen as the perceived social status benefit) of a behaviour scriptive data gathered during research; they should
influence the individual’s intention to perform that behaviour. represent the data using the most suitable phrases
10 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

(Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Cunningham, 2004; Saldana, related codes), and extract the salient, common or significant
2016; Sandelowski & Barroso, 2003). The code “Ob- themes in the coded text segments” (Estrada, 2017, p. 392).
scurity” is a pertinent example of relevance, as it focuses Therefore, a researcher needs to group codes together in
on the topic of misinformation during the pandemic. meaningful way to represent the data. According to Creswell
Consistent application and justified reasoning are key to (2013), categories are “components of the text that are similar
creating relevant codes. in meaning and related to the research questions” (p. 186).
· Radical: Codes should avoid overlap and offer unique Categories are more concrete and specific than themes, and
insights, even when contradicting the main narrative they are often created during the initial process of coding the
(Boyatzis, 1998; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Creswell, data. Categories may include descriptive or factual labels that
2015; Sandelowski, 2010). The code “Provoke per- help to organize and classify the data into meaningful groups
ception” presents a radical perspective by including (Creswell, 2013). In contrast, themes are more abstract than
unconventional keywords that challenge traditional categories and involve a level of interpretation and concep-
assumptions about panic buying. tualization. Themes may include patterns, trends, or rela-
· Righteous: Codes should fit logically within the larger tionships between different codes in thematic analysis and
coding framework and align with the research’s purpose provide insight into the research questions or phenomena
(Attride-Stirling, 2001; Nowell et al., 2017; Richards, being studied (Creswell, 2013). Themes are often used to
2015). This ensures that codes are selected righteously, develop a conceptual framework or theoretical model that
that is, with a clear understanding of the decisions made explains the relationships between the categories and the
during coding. For instance, the codes “Prevailing research questions (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Fereday & Muir-
content” and “Anxiety” precisely embody the assigned Cochrane, 2006).
keywords and demonstrate the ethical considerations of The theme is something that provides a significant link
the researchers. between research questions and data. A theme is based on the
researcher’s own thinking and observation during data col-
Table 2 presents an overview of the various characteristics, lection; the researcher’s observations about the data and deep
termed as “Rs,” that a good coding process should embody in theoretical understanding help them to develop themes from
qualitative research. Each “R” represents a unique quality, the codes (Carey, 2017). However, the codes are applied to the
ranging from the robustness and reflectivity of the codes to entire data by labelling extracts of data with relevant codes,
their resplendence, relevance, radicality, and righteousness, thereby keeping note of any connection or potential pattern
serving to enhance the depth, clarity, and coherence of the between items which may subsequently inform the devel-
analysis. opment of themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Braun and Clarke
(2006) observed that multiple codes may get assigned to a
Step 4: Theme Development. A theme represents a patterned single extract. Once the entire data has been coded, the data
meaning within data (Braun & Clarke, 2006) as gained from can be collated and the search for themes can commence.
data informing the research question. Moreover, the mere fact Varpio et al. (2019) observed that themes are not the face value
that a theme recurs or frequently appears in a data set does not of the data, but they are the result of an analytical and
mean that it is central to the meaning that is being conveyed comparative process exercised by the researcher to present the
(Braun & Clarke, 2006; Nowell et al., 2017). The research aim data in a meaningful form. Developing themes involves
is to “go through the text segments in each code (or group of meticulously grouping related codes to extrapolate

Table 2. Definitions of the 6Rs for Coding in Thematic Analysis.

6Rs Definitions

Robust Robust coding refers to the representation of raw data in a meaningful and comprehensive manner, which encapsulates various
aspects of the data under consideration
Reflective Reflective coding involves creating codes, based on the keywords, which reflect a relationship between facts and theories and
provide an interpretive lens for understanding the facts
Resplendent Resplendent codes are rich and powerful, and provide a comprehensive explanation of the context under study; they effectively
capture the essence of the data
Relevant Relevant codes are inferential and descriptive, closely related to the research question, and are applied consistently to every
piece of information with justified reasoning
Radical Radical codes are unique and well defined, preventing overlaps, and might even offer insights that may contradict the main
narrative of the analysis
Righteous Righteous coding ensures codes logically fit within the larger coding and align with the research’s purpose; they maintain
consistency and understanding of the decisions made during coding
Naeem et al. 11

meaningful patterns that provide significant insight into the only the building blocks of coding, but also the seeds from
research question. This process requires the researcher’s an- which themes grow. They provide the initial guideposts that
alytical judgment and a thorough understanding of the data; steer the analysis process and continue to shape the devel-
the categories from the coding process are transformed into opment and refinement of themes.
more abstract themes that provide a rich, interpretative context Deciding themes in thematic analysis involves a careful
to the data set. interpretation of patterns and relationships among codes,
The chosen methodology significantly impacts theme de- however, it is subject to ambiguity due to the interpretive
velopment in research. In an inductive approach, themes nature of the process. Consideration of codes and key-
emerge from the data through descriptive or interpretive words can inform themes, yet it may not entirely elucidate
analysis, thus a comprehensive understanding is gained their depth and context. We propose 4Rs—reciprocal,
(Braun & Clarke, 2006). In an inductive approach, keywords recognizable, responsive, resourceful—to enhance the
emerge naturally from the data and aid in identifying initial thematic decision-making process by ensuring codes are
themes, which contribute to a data-driven understanding. interrelated and that themes align closely with the original
Conversely, deductive research applies pre-existing theoreti- data, are relevant to research objectives, and provide
cal knowledge to data, which potentially influences theme valuable insights; hence, we address issues of ambiguity in
generation (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006); so, in deduc- deciding themes. These four characteristics of codes (4Rs)
tive research, selected keywords often align with existing enable the identification of themes and are described as
theoretical concepts or hypotheses that assist in categorizing follows.
the data. In GT, themes are iteratively developed, allowing the
flexibility to adjust to the evolving insights emerging from the · Reciprocal: Themes in thematic analysis are constructed
data, which leads to a rich, theory-grounded understanding based on a mutual connection among different codes
(Glaser & Strauss, 2017). So, in GT, keywords play a dynamic (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Denzin & Salvo, 2020). This
role; initially they are used inductively to identify open codes, reciprocal relationship among codes allows for the
but as the research progresses they align more with evolving development of a new concept based on two or more
theory and help in the development of axial and selective codes. For instance, in the exemplar study by Naeem
codes. Thus, keywords serve as a critical bridge between data and Ozuem (2022a), the codes “Obscurity” and “Em-
and themes in different methodologies. inence” were constructed on the basis of the keywords
In the process of developing themes, a researcher engages “Lying,” “Death rate rising,” and other observations.
in a deeper level of interpretation; they move beyond the more These codes were further grouped under the second
concrete categories derived from the initial coding process to theme, “Misinformation and rumors.”
uncover abstract patterns, trends, or relationships that shed · Recognizable: Themes provide a pathway to developing
light on the research questions (Naeem, 2020). The resulting a theoretical or conceptual model through aligning
themes provide understanding for constructing a coherent closely with the original data set (Braun & Clarke,
narrative that connects the quotations, keywords and themes 2006). By analyzing keywords and codes together,
together; this enables a thorough understanding of the data and recurring patterns or themes that are recognizable based
helps to answer the research question (Naeem, 2021). on the data can be identified. Themes are recognized
Once the keywords have been selected, they become in- based on their strong alignment with the original data. In
strumental in developing themes. These keywords serve as the exemplar study, the theme “Content characteristics”
anchor points around which broader patterns, ideas, or themes is a prime example of recognizability. This theme, with
can be identified and formed (Naeem & Ozuem, 2022b). The its two codes “Prevailing content” and “Anxiety,” is
process of theme development involves grouping these easily recognized based on the keywords used, such as
keywords (and the corresponding coded data) into larger units “Flood of information” and “Stress and distrust.”
of meaning. When researchers are developing themes, they · Responsive: A theme might not directly correspond to
return to the keywords and consider how they might be the questions asked of participants or reflect the re-
connected or related. These connections could be due to searcher’s interests or beliefs. However, a theme should
similar meanings, shared context, or relationships that emerge be responsive to the aims and objectives of the research
from the data. As themes are formed, they are typically given (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seale, 2013). All emerging
labels that reflect the key ideas represented by the keywords themes, even those seemingly unrelated to the research
within them. questions, should be noted and reviewed for their re-
It is also worth noting that keywords continue to play a role sponsiveness to the research objectives (Braun &
in refining and finalizing themes. As themes are reviewed, the Clarke, 2006; Morse, 2016; Thomas, 2006). In the
keywords within each theme can be checked for coherence exemplar study, all themes, even those seemingly un-
and consistency. If the keywords within a theme are disparate related to the original research questions, were taken
or unrelated, it may suggest that the theme is too broad or into consideration. For example, the theme “Perceived
unclear and needs to be further refined. So, keywords are not consequences” might not correspond directly to the
12 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Table 3. Definitions of the 4Rs for Theming in Thematic Analysis.

R Definitions

Reciprocal Refers to the mutual connection between codes in the development of a theme. It highlights the interrelationship between
various codes that binds them together into a cohesive thematic concept
Recognizable Emphasizes the importance of themes being closely aligned with, and easily identifiable from, the original data. A recognizable
theme reflects recurring patterns derived from the data; it contributes to the development of a conceptual model
Responsive Speaks to the capacity of a theme to align with and address the research’s aims and objectives. Even themes that may initially
seem unrelated to the research questions can be responsive if they contribute to fulfilling the overall goals of the study
Resourceful Describes the role of themes in providing useful insights to answer research questions. Themes in this context are seen as
resources that contribute to developing a story/theme that helps resolve the research issue or understand the studied
phenomenon

research questions, but it responded to the research’s to describe the procedure of developing a working definition
aims and objectives. and refined understanding of concepts of the research (Arar,
· Resourceful: Theming involves examining codes and 2017). Researchers can hypothesize or look for structure or
the extracts they come from and then grouping the codes links as they progress from the specific to the general; visual
into broader themes that display patterns (Braun & aids, like maps, diagrams, and models, would be final out-
Clarke, 2006; DeSantis & Ugarriza, 2000). The re- comes of the conceptualization through interpretation of the
searcher should also be able to tell a coherent story to research findings (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012). The researcher
explain how these codes grouped under one theme can will first define notions before moving on to the interpre-
resolve the research issue. This requires consideration tation of relevant data to create relations between different
of the resourcefulness of the codes, analyzing each concepts to put them into a model (Patton, 2015). Inter-
theme for its relevance to the research question, and pretation indicates how the concept was developed from the
determining the valuable insights provided by the data (Leidner et al., 2018) and the interpretation requires: (1)
themes (Elliott, 2018; Harding, 2013; Lichtman, 2013; defining the range of possible interpretations (i.e., dimen-
Saldana, 2021). Theming involves arranging codes into sions) of a concept (Gupta & Awasthy, 2021), and (2) fig-
broader themes that provide useful insights to answer uring out the kinds of evidence (i.e., indicators) that might be
the research question. For example, in the exemplar seen (directly or indirectly) to demonstrate the presence or
study, the theme “Misinformation and rumors” helped absence of a concept within the data (Carey, 2017). It is
understanding of the role of rumors and misinformation common practice to review the work of others to get a better
in triggering panic buying during the COVID-19 understanding of how a notion has been defined and dis-
pandemic, thus demonstrating the resourcefulness of cussed before proceeding with the conceptualization process
themes. to contextualize the concept within existing research (Morse,
2016). Even though it can be difficult to tell whether or not a
Table 3 provides definitions for the 4Rs, which are sig- given conceptual definition is excellent, Naeem and Ozuem
nificant characteristics used in the process of theming during (2022a) used the following criteria to evaluate a definition’s
thematic analysis. These characteristics represent important quality:
aspects of a theme, such as its mutual connection to other
codes (Reciprocal), its alignment and identifiability with the · Does the definition make the meaning of the phrases or
original data (Recognizable), its ability to address the re- words picked as major concepts obvious?
search’s aims (Responsive), and its role in providing insightful · Do the definitions of themes as new concepts help
answers to the research question (Resourceful). Definitions of understanding of the research results?
the 4Rs for themes were developed based on the above · Are the definitions and explanations of the concepts
justifications. accurate and reliable?
· Do the definitions of the concepts reflect the real sce-
Step 5: Conceptualization Through Interpretation of Keywords, nario or context of the research?
Codes, and Themes. Conceptual, theoretical, researchers all · To what level of analysis does the notion of partici-
have their own lingo for talking about their work (Tracy, pation and theory apply to these concepts?
2013). A concept is defined as “the naming of an emergent · How can the selected concepts be used to justify re-
social pattern grounded in research data” (Glaser, 2002, p. search outcomes as contributions to theory and
24). The term “concept” refers to any mental representation practice?
of a social occurrence, such as an idea, image, thinking, or · Are all the concepts related to each other, which would
emotion (Oliver, 2021). The term “conceptualization” is used support development of a conceptual model?
Naeem et al. 13

The interpretation stage refers to the act of delineating the proposes that the primary goal of a protection motive is to
meaning of the terminology (themes) employed in the study explain why people have different reactions to the same fear
(e.g., themes being presented through the usage of concepts appeals. The notion of protection motivation suggests that
and words). Therefore, at this stage the researcher needs to people take precautions in response to two considerations: the
describe these concepts (themes and codes) in light of prior perceived severity of the threat and the confidence that they
research to define these concepts in general. “These theories can successfully deal with it (Maddux & Rogers, 1983). The
are rich in description, and the theoretical boundaries have theoretical underpinning in the exemplar study also helped to
been derived from the context and not from the researcher’s justify the theoretical contribution of the study: “Theoretically,
arbitrary goals for delimiting the scope” (Morse, 1997, p. this study adds two dimensions (obscurity and eminence) to
188). Jackson and Mazzei (2012) suggested that the theo- TORT. The first dimension (obscurity) showed that the
retical framework of research should be considered for in- public’s interpretations of governments’ and health officials’
terpretation of research findings. communications generated rumor that ultimately enhanced
Nonetheless, this paper suggests that it is usual (and vital) social panic buying behavior” (Naeem & Ozuem, 2022a, p. 4).
for researchers to query the conceptualization of a term in the Therefore, researchers should provide theoretical underpin-
context of their research findings. At this stage, a researcher ning to their final conceptual model. Grodal et al. (2021) stated
can link the contribution of new concepts back to the codes that in order to apply theoretical frameworks to develop a
and keywords as examples. In the context of building relations conceptual model, it is the researcher’s job to develop a novel
with the identified factors, the conceptualization of the phrases application of the chosen theory (or theories) in a specific
or words being used as themes and codes, which would in- context to answer the research questions. Consequently, we
crease the trackability of the concepts back to the real data, is have positioned the development of the conceptual model as
important. Real data refers to the actual data collected from the the final, sixth step in the thematic analysis process (please
research participants and the environment being studied, refer to Figure 2). In this crucial stage, the researcher for-
rather than interpretations, opinions, or assumptions. Real data mulates a conceptual model grounded in the research findings
are the data that are obtained through direct observation, to comprehensively address the research questions.
interviews, surveys, or other research methods. Real data are The chosen methodology not only influences the process of
essential in qualitative research as they are used to generate thematic analysis but also shapes the conceptualization of a
codes, themes, and concepts that are grounded in the par- model that encapsulates the study’s findings. The use of an
ticipants’ experiences and perceptions, rather than being inductive or deductive or a mixed approach in thematic
imposed on the data by the researcher. By using real data, analysis and model conceptualization can significantly differ
researchers aim to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness across methodologies. The nature of the methodology, the
of their findings, as the data reflect the richness and complexity research questions, the data set, and the epistemological po-
of the participants’ lived experiences. Researchers should sitioning of the researcher can all influence the choice of
apply the above suggested criteria for the selection of key- approach. Social constructivism, which favors a more in-
words, codes, and themes that would help at this stage to ductive approach, guides the development of a conceptual
conceptualize the overall research results through interpre- model based on themes emerging from the data, and allows for
tation of the research findings with reference to the relevant new, subjective understandings of phenomena. An inductive
literature. approach is primarily data-driven, whereby themes are derived
from the data itself without the influence of pre-existing
Step 6: Development of Conceptual Model. The development of theories (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This approach is usually
a conceptual model has its own importance. “Theorizing is adopted in methodologies that seek to develop new theories or
also work: often researchers make the mistake of submitting models, such as GT or phenomenological research. Inductive
their study for publication without making the effort to do the methods work well in cases where no prior theory has been
conceptual work necessary for the development of theory” developed to explain the phenomenon under investigation. An
(Jan, 1997, p. 163). To clarify the difference between a the- excellent illustration of inductive theme analysis is seen in
oretical and conceptual model, Camp (2001) pointed out that a Naeem and Ozuem (2022a), who generate the “Obscurity” and
theoretical framework is based on an already established “Eminence” codes.
theory (or theories) in the literature, which has been subjected Positivism, which favours inductive methods, builds its
to rigorous testing and validation by other researchers and is model on top of previously established theories and conducts
widely accepted in the academic community. This perspective its experiments in an unbiased manner. The deductive method
is the researcher’s lens to investigate the matter in hand relies heavily on theory. The data is interpreted via the lens of
(Merriam, 1997). Consequently, theoretical underpinnings of an existing theory or conceptual model (Fereday & Muir-
research can also be applied to develop the conceptual model. Cochrane, 2006). Methodologies like experimental research
Naeem and Ozuem (2022a) used TORT and PMT. and case study research, which aim to verify or validate
According to TORT, spreading rumors serves mostly to preexisting hypotheses, frequently take this approach. Naeem
allay people’s unaddressed worries (Buckner, 1965). PMT and Ozuem (2022a) used TORT and PMT to do a deductive
14 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

thematic analysis of their data. Methodologies that want to In all these methodologies, the importance of a well-
both discover new phenomena and validate or develop developed conceptual model cannot be overstated. It pro-
current theories may find a hybrid approach, which incor- vides a guide for the investigation and helps the researcher
porates both inductive and deductive procedures, particularly identify significant factors and relationships that exist in the
effective. This method facilitates an all-encompassing data. The conceptual model, grounded in a theoretical
comprehension of the material and can produce sophisti- framework, also serves as a justification for the theoretical
cated, nuanced results. Naeem and Ozuem’s (2022a) mul- contribution of the study (Naeem & Ozuem, 2022a). Hence,
tifaceted strategy yielded a deep, nuanced, and theory- researchers must exercise diligence and intellectual rigor in
informed comprehension of panic buying and a useful developing their conceptual models and leverage the strengths
conceptual model. The integration of inductive richness and of thematic analysis and the specific research methodology
deductive clarity in thematic analysis through the interaction used. Consequently, the development of a conceptual model
of both paradigms improves the theoretical robustness of through the use of GT, ethnographic, and narrative ap-
research. proaches, and positivist-based methodologies, allows for a
The research topic, the data collection, the methodology, robust, versatile, and theoretically grounded method of
and the researcher’s epistemological perspective all play a role analysis.
in determining whether an inductive, deductive, or hybrid
approach is best for thematic analysis and model conceptu- Trustworthiness Criteria Through
alization. At this pivotal stage, findings from thematic analysis Application of Step-by-Step Systematic
and other research methods are combined into a unified Thematic Analysis in Qualitative
conceptual model with the goal of providing an explanation
Research Paradigms
for the phenomena under study. Thematic analysis is crucial in
forming the final conceptual model within the framework of The six-step guideline presented in this paper aligns with the
GT, ethnographic, and narrative techniques, and positivist- goal of enhancing the trustworthiness of qualitative research
based procedures. through thematic analysis, which is similar to the objective of
Identification of central themes in the data and the constant Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six steps of thematic analysis.
comparison procedure are integral to the construction of a However, the revised six steps in this paper build on Braun and
conceptual model in GT (Glaser & Strauss, 2017). By re- Clarke’s (2006) approach and provide additional structure and
peatedly comparing and refining the developing conceptual clarity, especially in the latter stages of the process, which
model with newly collected data, a rich and nuanced un- include theme development, conceptualization through in-
derstanding of the events under study can be attained. As a terpretation, and the development of conceptual frameworks.
result, the model is able to capture the nuances of the cultural Braun and Clarke’s (2006) steps are: familiarizing oneself
setting and give researchers a fuller picture of the culture under with the data, initial code generation, identifying themes,
investigation (Lingard, 2019). Cultural patterns and shared reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and pro-
beliefs discovered during the topic analysis and linked through ducing the report. Comparatively, the six steps proposed here
with the keywords chosen in the second step of the thematic present a more detailed and robust framework, which spe-
analysis have a significant impact on the construction of a cifically focuses on the selection of keywords and quotations,
conceptual model in the setting of ethnographic the coding process, themes development, conceptual inter-
investigations. pretation, and the final step of developing a conceptual
For narrative approaches, conceptual model development framework.
focuses on personal experiences, emotions, and life histories In particular, the inclusion of keyword selection (Step 2)
(Eldh et al., 2020). Therefore, in narrative approaches, themes and the explicit guidance to develop a conceptual framework
identified in the narrative data guide the creation of a con- (Step 6) distinguish this new process. Researchers can be
ceptual model that respects individual perspectives and cap- guided towards a more methodical strategy for data analysis if
tures the complexity of personal experiences. In positivist- they give careful consideration to their choice of keywords.
based methodologies, the development of a conceptual model Choosing keywords that have a solid basis in the data and are
starts with hypothesis generation based on identified themes. pertinent to the research issue can improve the reliability of the
Thematic analysis thus provides a useful bridge between study as a whole (Mischler, 1991). Fifth, a conceptual
qualitative insights and quantitative validation in positivist framework is developed through the analysis of keywords,
research (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The model de- codes, and themes. This method ensures the analysis is me-
veloped on the basis of a systematic analysis process could be thodical and data-driven, and it lays out an organized plan for
tested quantitatively with the themes aiding in the interpre- acquiring information pertinent to specific evaluation issues.
tation of results. Therefore, positivist-based methodologies A systematic and rigorous process of developing a conceptual
could benefit from using mixed methods to develop a model at framework through thematic analysis is ensured by the use of
the first stage and then test that model at the second stage of properly chosen keywords in the interpretation of codes and
research. themes. Using the flexibility of deductive and inductive
Naeem et al. 15

thematic analysis to derive inferences from the data rather than our model introduces additional parameters at each step that
on prior assumptions or theoretical models might provide enhance the thoroughness of the analysis. The concepts of 6Rs
researchers with more reason to trust the results of qualitative (for keywords and codes) and 4Rs (for themes) are introduced
research. at various stages for the selection of quotations, keywords,
Step 6 involves the explicit construction of conceptual codes, and themes, and bring rigor and relevancy to the
frameworks, which helps boost the research’s overall validity by process. The Systematic Thematic Analysis Process Model
providing a well-structured interpretation of the findings. This also includes an exceptional step of conceptualization through
organized interpretation provides both the theoretical grounding interpretation. It encourages researchers to delve deeper into
of future research and the practical foundation for future inquiries their data and recognize underlying themes and patterns, thus
(Crabtree, 1999). Finally, a theoretical framework representing transcending the conventional descriptive approach. The
the study’s major concepts and themes is developed. This format framework culminates in the development of a robust con-
is helpful for sifting through theoretical and primary data because ceptual model that is well supported by empirical evidence.
it guarantees the findings are presented in a style that is both Ultimately, this paper’s unique contribution lies in its rigorous,
logical and defendable by establishing links between relevant well-structured approach to thematic analysis. The method not
terms, codes, and overarching concepts. only enhances the depth of the analysis, but also bolsters the
Building on and improving the thematic analysis technique trustworthiness of the findings to foster robust, evidence-
proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006), the new six-step based research.
strategy presents a disciplined and thoughtful approach to A step-by-step systematic thematic analysis process has
the examination and interpretation of qualitative data. This been introduced, which can be used in qualitative research to
methodical and rigorous methodology not only positions itself develop a conceptual model on the basis of the research
as a potential foundation for future researchers aiming to findings. The embeddedness of a step-by-step thematic
enhance the validity of their thematic analysis, but it also gives analysis process is another feature that distinguishes inductive
a clear technique for increasing the reliability of study find- thematic analysis from Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive
ings. If researchers base their thematic analysis on the data, thematic analysis process. A qualitative researcher can care-
consistently and accurately interpret the data, and zero in on fully use our guidelines to produce a conceptual model. The
the most relevant and important information, they can have inductive thematic analysis process enables a researcher to use
faith in their findings. The developed conceptual model’s their creative imagination and systematic processes to develop
theoretical and primary data landscape can be investigated a conceptual model, and they can answer the following
using this thematic analysis approach. questions.

1. How can this thematic analysis process be used to

Contribution and Conclusion claim rigor in qualitative research findings?
Using a comprehensive framework, this paper gives a flexible 2. How can characteristics of a conceptual model be used
and methodical method for thematic analysis in qualitative as justification of research contribution?
research. This six-stage procedure goes above and beyond a 3. How do presented decision guidelines for different
purely inductive analysis of data by including deductive steps of thematic analysis improve the trustworthiness
features. Of note, the framework brings clarity to the quali- and originality of research findings?
tative researcher and addresses common concerns such as the 4. How can the presented thematic analysis process be
establishment of trustworthiness, coherence in the thematic employed to navigate the theoretical and original data
analysis process, and the ability to substantiate findings with landscape within the developed conceptual model?
solid evidence. It guides the researcher in transitioning 5. How can the 6Rs of keywords, 6Rs of coding, and 4Rs
smoothly from raw data to a well-developed conceptual of theming be used to improve the rigor and trust-
model: worthiness of qualitative research?
6. How can the 6Rs of keywords, 6Rs of coding, and 4Rs
· Step 1: Transcription, familiarization with the data, and of theming be used for reflexivity in thematic analysis?
selection of quotations.
· Step 2: Selection of keywords. This paper’s goal was to give readers a more in-depth
· Step 3: Coding of the data. explanation of thematic analysis in which six steps are adopted
· Step 4: Development of themes. to develop a conceptual model on the basis of thematic
· Step 5: Conceptualization through interpretation of analysis. In summary, the paper’s unique contributions lie in
keywords, codes, and themes. the inclusion of specific guidelines for selecting quotations
· Step 6: Development of a conceptual model. and keywords, a comprehensive approach to code and theme
development, the addition of the step of conceptualization,
Although there is an apparent alignment with Braun and and the emphasis on developing a conceptual model. These
Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic analysis in the initial stages, steps provide researchers with a comprehensive and nuanced
16 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

approach to thematic analysis in qualitative research. This Camp, W. G. (2001). Formulating and evaluating theoretical
study primarily emphasizes the application of a systematic frameworks for career and technical education research. Journal
thematic analysis process in developing a conceptual of Vocational Education Research, 26(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/
framework. However, the potential of such a process to ad- 10.5328/jver26.1.4
dress other research contexts or quantitative methods may Carey, M. (2017). Qualitative research skills for social work: Theory
require further exploration. Additionally, the efficiency of our and practice. Ashgate.
method compared to other model-building approaches has not Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. Sage.
been empirically tested. Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. L. (2015). Basics of qualitative research
techniques and procedures for developing Grounded Theory
Declaration of Conflicting Interests (4th ed.). Sage.
Côté, L., & Turgeon, J. (2005). Appraising qualitative research ar-
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
ticles in medicine and medical education. Medical Teacher,
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
27(1), 71–75.
Crabtree, B. F. (1999). Doing qualitative research. Sage.
Funding
Creswell, J. (2015). 30 essential skills for the qualitative researcher.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, au- Sage.
thorship, and/or publication of this article. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research. Pearson.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Steps in conducting a scholarly mixed
Ethical Statement methods study. DBER Speaker Series.
Ethical Approval Cunningham, D. (2004). Professional practice and perspectives in
the teaching of historical empathy [Unpublished doctoral dis-
This study has been ethically approved and is in compliance with
sertation]. University of Oxford.
ethical standards.
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qualitative research: Theory as resistance. Myers Education
ORCID iD
Press.
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