HomeWork-1

Chapter- 2

2.4 Two blue armies are each poised on opposite hills preparing to attack a single red army in the valley.
The red army can defeat either of the blue armies separately but will fail to defeat both blue armies if
they attack simultaneously. The blue armies communicate via an unreliable communications system (a
foot soldier). The commander with one of the blue armies would like to attack at noon. His problem is
this: If he sends a message to the other blue army, ordering the attack, he cannot be sure it will get
through. He could ask for acknowledgment, but that might not get through. Is there a protocol that the
two blue armies can use to avoid defeat?

Sol – No, there is no way to be assured that the last message gets through, except by acknowledging it.
Thus, either the acknowledgment process continues forever, or one army has to send the last message
and then act with uncertainty.

2.6 In Figure 2.5, exactly one protocol data unit (PDU) in layer N is encapsulated in a PDU at layer 1N -
12. It is also possible to break one N-level PDU into multiple 1N - 12-level PDUs (segmentation) or to
group multiple N-level PDUs into one 1N - 12-level PDU (blocking).
a. In the case of segmentation, is it necessary that each 1N - 12-level segment contain a copy of the N-
level header?
b. In the case of blocking, is it necessary that each N-level PDU retain its own header, or can the data be
consolidated into a single N-level PDU with a single N-level header?

Sol-
a) No. This would violate the principle of separation of layers. To layer (N – 1), the N-level PDU is
simply data. The (N – 1) entity does not know about the internal format of the N-level PDU. It
breaks that PDU into fragments and reassembles them in the proper order.
b) Each N-level PDU must hold its own header, for the same reason given in (a).

2.9 IP, TCP, and UDP all discard a packet that arrives with a checksum error and do not attempt to notify
the source. Why?

Sol- In the case of IP and UDP, these unreliable protocols do not guarantee delivery, so they do not notify
the source. TCP does guarantee delivery. However, the technique that is used is a timeout. If the source
does not receive acknowledgment of data within a given period, it retransmits.

2.14 The TFTP specification (RFC 1350) states that the transfer identifiers (TIDs) for a connection should
be randomly chosen, so that the probability that the same number is chosen twice in immediate
succession is very low. What would be the problem of using the same TIDs twice in immediate
succession?

Sol- Using the same TIDs twice in immediate succession in TFTP can lead to conflict in the data transfer. It
may result in incorrect data being sent/received or even cause the transfer to fail.
 Chapter 3
3.6 Decompose the signal (1 + 0.1 cos 5t) cos 100t into a linear combination of sinusoidal functions, and
find the amplitude, frequency, and phase of each component.

Sol- Signal – (1+0.1 Cos 5t)Cos 100t

Simplifying the above equation:
Cos 100t + 0.1 Cos 5t Cos100t
Cos 100t +0.05 Cos 105t + 0.05 Cos 95t
From the equation:
Amplitude A =1, 0.05, 0.05
Frequency f => 2πf=100; f=50/ π
2πf=105; f=105/2π
2πf=95; f=95/ 2π
Phase => 0,0,0

3.11 IRA is a 7-bit code that allows 128 characters to be defined. In the 1970s, many newspapers received
stories from the wire services in a 6-bit code called TTS. This code carried upper- and lower case
characters as well as many special characters and formatting commands. The typical TTS character set
allowed over 100 characters to be defined. How do you think this could be accomplished?

Sol- 6-bit code allows only 64 unique characters to be defined. Several shift lock codes were defined in
various versions of TTS (shift, supershift, unshift). These codes change the meaning of all codes that follow
until a new shift lock code appears. Thus, with two shift locks, 3 × (64 - 3) = 183 different codes can be
defined. The actual number is less, since some codes, such as space, are "don't-cares" for shift locks.

3.14 Given an amplifier with an effective noise temperature of 10,000 K and a 10-MHz bandwidth, what
thermal noise level, in dBW, may we expect at its output?

Sol- N =10 log K+ 10 log T+ 10 log B

= -228.6 + 10 log 104 +10 log 107
= -228.6 + 40 + 70
= -118.6 dBW
3.16 A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps.
a. If a signal element encodes a 4-bit word, what is the minimum required bandwidth of the channel?
b. Repeat part (a) for the case of 8-bit words.
Sol- a) For 4 bit, Log2M = 4
C=2B(4)
9600=8B
B=1200 Hz

b) For 8 bit, Log2M = 8

C=2B(8)
9600=16B
B=600 Hz
3.18 Given the narrow (usable) audio bandwidth of a telephone transmission facility, a nominal SNR of
56 dB (400,000), and a certain level of distortion
a. What is the theoretical maximum channel capacity (kbps) of traditional telephone lines?
b. What can we say about the actual maximum channel capacity?
Sol – a)

b) Due to the fact there is a distortion level (as well as other potentially detrimental impacts to the rated
capacity, the actual maximum will be somewhat degraded from the theoretical maximum. A discussion of
these relevant impacts should be included, and a qualitative value discussed.

3.23 If the received signal level for a particular digital system is -151 dBW and the receiver system
effective noise temperature is 1500 K, what is Eb/N0 for a link transmitting 2400 bps?
Sol -

Chapter 4
4.10 In satellite communications, different frequency bands are used for the uplink and the downlink.
Discuss why this pattern occurs.

Sol - Signal loss is proportional to the square of the frequency. Thus, the higher the frequency, the higher
power is needed to obtain a given SNR. Power is much more readily available at earth stations than at
satellites. Therefore, it makes more sense to put the higher power requirements on the earth stations than
on the satellites.

4.12 Section 4.2 states that if a source of electromagnetic energy is placed at the focus of the paraboloid,
and if the paraboloid is a reflecting surface, then the wave will bounce back in lines parallel to the axis
of the paraboloid. To demonstrate this, consider the parabola y2 = 2px shown in Figure 4.15. Let P(x1,
y1) be a point on the parabola, and PF be the line from P to the focus. Construct the line L through P
parallel to the x-axis and the line M tangent to the parabola at P. The angle between L and M is b, and
the angle between PF and M is a. The angle a is the angle at which a ray from F strikes the parabola at
P. Because the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, the ray reflected from P must be at an
angle a to M. Thus, if we can show that a = b, we have demonstrated that rays reflected from the
parabola starting at F will be parallel to the x-axis. a. First show that tan b = (p/y1). Hint: Recall from
trigonometry that the slope of a line is equal to the tangent of the angle the line makes with the positive
x-direction. Also recall that the slope of the line tangent to a curve at a given point is equal to the
derivative of the curve at that point. b. Now show that tan a = (p/y1), which demonstrates that a = b.
Hint: Recall from trigonometry that the formula for the tangent of the difference between two angles
a1 and a2 is tan(a2 - a1) = (tan a2 - tan a1)/(1 + tan a2 * tan a1).
Sol -
4.14 Suppose a transmitter produces 50 W of power. a. Express the transmit power in units of dBm and
dBW. b. If the transmitter’s power is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency,
what is the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m? c. Repeat (b) for a distance of 10
km. d. Repeat (c) but assume a receiver antenna gain of 2
Sol -

4.17 Determine the height of an antenna for a TV station that must be able to reach customers up to 80
km away.

Sol-
 Chapter 5
5.3 A modified NRZ code known as enhanced-NRZ (E-NRZ) is sometimes used for high-density magnetic
tape recording. E-NRZ encoding entails separating the NRZ-L data stream into 7-bit words; inverting bits
2, 3, 6, and 7; and adding one parity bit to each word. The parity bit is chosen to make the total number
of 1s in the 8-bit word an odd count. What are the advantages of E-NRZ over NRZ-L? Any disadvantages?

Sol- First, E-NRZ provides a minimum transition rate that reduces the dc component. Second, under worst
case, E-NRZ provides a minimum of one transition for every 14 bits, reducing the synchronization problem.
-22- Third, the parity bit provides an error check. The disadvantages of ENRZ are added complexity and
the overhead of the extra parity bit.

5.5 Consider the following signal encoding technique. Binary data are presented as input, am, for m = 1,
2, 3, .… Two levels of processing occur. First, a new set of binary numbers are produced: b0 = 0 bm =
1am + bm-12mod 2 These are then encoded as cm = bm - bm-1 On reception, the original data are
recovered by am = cm mod 2
a. Verify that the received values of am equal the transmitted values of am.
b. What sort of encoding is this?
Sol - a. cm = bm – bm–1 = (am + bm–1) – bm–1 = am
b. Bipolar-AMI

5.10 One positive side-effect of bipolar encoding is that a bipolar violation (two consecutive + pulses or
two consecutive - pulses separated by any number of zeros) indicates to the receiver that an error has
occurred in transmission. Unfortunately, upon the receipt of such a violation, the receiver does not
know which bit is in error (only that an error has occurred). The received bipolar sequence + - 0 + - 0 - +
has one bipolar violation. Construct two scenarios (each of which involves a different transmitted bit
stream with one transmitted bit being converted via an error) that will produce this same received bit
pattern.
Sol-

5.12 A sine wave is to be used for two different signaling schemes: (a) PSK; (b) QPSK. The duration of a
signal element is 10-5 s. If the received signal is of the following form: s1t2 = 0.005sin12p106 t + u2V
and if the measured noise power at the receiver is 2.5 * 10-8 watts, determine the Eb/N0 (in dB) for
each case.
Sol-
5.16 Assume that a telephone line channel is equalized to allow bandpass data transmission over a
frequency range of 600 to 3000 Hz. The available bandwidth is 2400 Hz. For r = 1, evaluate the required
bandwidth for 2400 bps QPSK and 4800-bps, eightlevel multilevel signaling. Is the bandwidth adequate?
Sol-