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WORK DONE
W =  dW =  F .dS =  FdS cos 

[where  is the angle between F & dS ]

➢ Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Joules
➢ For constant force W = F .d = Fd cos 
➢ Work done can be positive, negative or zero depending on the angle between force and
displacement.

➢ For unidirectional force

W =  dW =  Fdx = Area between F − x curve and x-axis
Work Done By Variable Force
➢ A force varying with position or time is
known as the variable force.
F = Fxiˆ + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ

dS = dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ

B xB yB zB
WAB =  F .dS =  Fx dx +  Fy dy +  Fz dx
A xA yA zA

Conservative Forces
➢ Work done does not depend upon path traversed but only on the displacement.
➢ Work done in a round trip is zero.
➢ Gravitational force, spring force, electrostatic force etc. are conservative forces.
Non-conservative Forces
➢ Work done depends upon actual path traversed by the body.
➢ Work done in a round trip is not zero.
➢ Friction, viscous force etc. are non-conservative forces.
ENERGY
Energy is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Joules
➢ Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
1 1
K = mv 2 = m(v .v ) [Here v is speed of the particle]
2 2
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➢ Work energy theorem
Work done by all forces on a body is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
W = KE
POTENTIAL ENERGY
➢ The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or configuration in a conservative force
field.
➢ Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces.
➢ Change in potential energy is taken as negative of work done by conservative forces
 U = −WC
➢ Gravitational Potential Energy
If h is the vertical displacement of a particle of mass m, then
U g = mgh (for upward displacement)
= −mgh (for downward displacement)
➢ Spring Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy stored in spring with spring constant k which is either elongated or
1 2
compressed by distance x is U s = kx
2
➢ Conservation of Energy
Total mechanical (kinetic + potential) energy of a system remains constant if only conservative
forces are acting on the system of particles or the work done by all other forces is zero. From
work energy theorem W = KE
KE + U = constant
➢ Relationship between conservative force and potential energy
dU U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ
F =− =− i− i− k
dr x y z
➢ If force varies with only one dimension (say along x-axis) then
dU
F =−
dx
Potential energy curve and equilibrium
It is a curve which shows the change in potential energy with the position of a particle.

Stable Equilibrium:
➢ After a particle is slightly displaced from its equilibrium position if it tends to come back towards
equilibrium then it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
➢ Potential energy of the particle is minimum

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dU d 2U
➢ =0; = positive
dx dx 2
➢ Point Q corresponds to stable equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium:
➢ After a particle is slightly displaced from its equilibrium position, if it tends to move away from
equilibrium position then it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
➢ Potential energy of the particle is maximum.
dU d 2U
➢ =0; = negative
dx dx 2
➢ Point T corresponds to unstable equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium
➢ After a particle is slightly displaced from its equilibrium position if no force acts on it then the
equilibrium is said to be neutral equilibrium.
dU d 2U
➢ = 0; =0
dx dx 2
➢ Point V corresponds to neutral equilibrium  U = constant
Power
➢ Rate of change of work done or energy is known as power.
➢ Power is a scalar quantity and its SI is Watts
➢ 1 horsepower = 746 Watts
Average power: Pav = W / t (W is total work done in time t)
dW
Instantaneous Power : P = = F .v
dt
➢ The work done by a force can be calculated by the area between the power-time curve and time
axis
d
➢ In rotatory motion : P= = 
dt
VERTICAL CIRCLE
Case-I: Bob attached to a light string
➢ Condition to complete vertical circle u  5 gR

If u = 5 gR , then Tension at Z is equal to 0 and

tension at X is equal to 6 mg

➢ Condition for oscillation in a semi-circle

u = 2 gR
Velocity and tension at Y are zero.

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➢ Condition for Oscillation in a Circular arc (  90)

u  2 gR
Velocity is zero at extreme position but tension is
not zero.

➢ Condition for Leaving Circular path

2 gR  u  5 gR
Particle crosses the point Y but does not complete
the vertical circle.
Tension will be zero in between Y & Z and
velocity will not be zero.
Note : After leaving the circle, the particle will
follow a parabolic path.
Case-II: Particle moving inside a circular track.

All the cases are same as that of a bob attached to a light string. Only difference is that normal
force will act on the particle instead of tension.
Case-III: Bob attached to a light rod.

➢ Condition to complete vertical circle u  4 gR

The particle will just complete the circle if the velocity at top most point just become zero.
• Condition for oscillation in a semi-circle and Condition for Oscillation in a Circular are
same as that of case I.
• The particle will never leave the circular path because the rod cannot become slack.
Case-IV: Particle moving between the surfaces of a pipe or a bead moving on a ring.

All the cases are same as that of a bob attached to a light rod. The only difference here is that
normal force will act on the particle instead of tension.

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MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
➢ The momentum of a system of particles psystem = m1v1 + m2v2 + ........................

➢ If Fexternal on a system is zero, the momentum of the system remains constant but the
momentum of individual particles can change
➢ For a bullet gun system, Fext = 0
−mb vb
 mbvb + mGvG = 0  Recoil velocity of gun =
mG
➢ For an explosion the initial momentum of the exploding particle should be equal to final
momentum of exploded particles.

➢
If m1 is given velocity & left on a smooth surface, then maximum compression will come when
velocity of both the blocks are same m1v1 = (m1 + m2 )v
1 1 1 2
For maximum compression, m1v12 = (m1 + m2 )v 2 + kxmax
2 2 2
Collision of bodies
➢ A phenomenon in which two bodies come in contact with each other for a very small time
duration & apply a very large force on each other is known as collision of bodies.
Common Normal: A line joining centers of two body with the point of collision.
Common Tangent: A line perpendicular to common normal passing through point of collision.
Coefficient of restitution (Newton’s law)
velocity of separation along common normal v2 − v1
e= =
velocity of approach along common normal u1 − u2
Value of e is 1 for elastic collision, 0 for perfectly inelastic collision and 0 < e < 1 for inelastic collision.
In elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved. In inelastic collision, there is a loss in kinetic energy.
Maximum loss occurs in perfectly inelastic collision (particles stick and move together)
➢ Head on collision

Let the coefficient of restitution for collision is e

• Momentum is conserved m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ... (i)
v −v
• According to Newton’s law e = 2 1 … (ii)
u1 − u2
Special cases of Head-on Collision
• After head-on elastic collision between two identical particles, their velocities get exchanged.
• After head-on collision between a light and a very heavy body, the velocity of the heavy body
remains unchanged and velocity of the light body can be found using coefficient of restitution.
• After hitting a wall/floor normally, with speed u.

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Oblique Collision

Conserving the momentum of system in directions along common normal

m1u1 cos 1 + m2u2 cos 2 = m1v1 cos 1 + m2v2 cos 2
and keeping the velocities along common tangent to same if friction is not present
m1u1 sin 1 = m1v1 sin 1 & m2u2 sin 2 = m2v2 sin 2
v2 cos 2 − v1 cos 1
e=
u1 cos 1 − u2 cos 2
Special cases of Oblique Collision
• After oblique elastic collision between two identical particles, their velocities get exchanged
along common normal. If one of the particles is initially at rest, then finally the two particles
move in perpendicular direction.
• If a particle hits a wall/floor with speed u at angle 
tan 
v = u sin 2  + e2 cos2  ; tan  =
e
If e = 1  v = u and  = 
Centre of mass
➢ Centre of mass of discrete particles system
mi xi mi yi
xcm = , ycm =
mi mi
mi zi
and zcm =
mi
➢ Centre of mass of continuous distribution of
particles

xcm =
 x dm , y =  y dm
 dm  dm
cm

and zcm =
 z dm
 dm
x, y, z are the co-ordinate of the COM of the dm mass.
➢ For uniform bodies, COM lies at their geometrical centres.
➢ To find COM of a combination of two bodies, replace the bodies by particles of same masses
located at their respective COM and then apply formula for two particle system.
➢ To find centre of mass after removal of a part of a body, add a mass of negative density &
positive density in the removed part to form two regular bodies, one of positive mass & other of
negative mass. Then use the normal formula for two body system

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CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON OBJECTS
Body Shape of body Position of centre of mass

Triangular plane lamina Centroid

2R
Half ring ycm =


4R
Half disc (plate) ycm =
3

R
Hollow hemisphere ycm =
2

3R
Solid hemisphere ycm =
8

h
Hollow cone ycm =
3

h
Solid cone ycm =
4

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS

➢ For a system of particles, velocity and acceleration of centre of mass is calculated as
m1v + m2v2 + .... m1a1 + m2a2 + ....
vCM = ; aCM =
m1 + m2 + .... m1 + m2 + ....
dp
➢ For a system of particles, momentum is p = Mvcm and Fext = = Macm
dt
➢ If Fext = 0 along any direction & initial velocity of COM = 0 in that direction, the centre of
mass cannot move in that direction (individual particles can move).

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