HEAT

Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Heat was considered as a weightless and
invisible fluid called caloric which existed in every material body. Hot bodies were said to
contain more caloric than the cold bodies. The caloric theory could explain satisfactorily many
processes such as heat conduction and mixing of substance in a calorimeter. This concept of
heat fluid was refused by count Rumford.

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“Heat is the form of energy that is transferred from one body to another because of difference
in temperature”.

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Heat is not the energy that a body contains in it. It refers to the amount of energy transferred
from hot body to a cold body. Once the heat energy is transferred to a body, it is converted into
the internal energy of the body.
Internal Energy:

molecules in the body.

Units Of Heat And Relation Between Them:
i.
ii.
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The internal energy is the sum of all the microscopic kinetic and potential energies of the

Joule (J); it is the S.I unit of heat.

Calorie (cal.); it is the old unit of heat.
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iii. British Thermal Unit (B.T.U); it is the unit of heat in British Engineering System or F.P.S
system
1 cal = 4.18 J ≈ 4.2J
1 B.T.U = 1055 J
1 B.T.U = 252 cal
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“The quantitative determination of degree of hotness or coldness is called temperature”.

Temperature depends upon the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a body.
It is the property that determines the direction of heat flow, because heat flows from higher
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temperature to lower temperature. It is denoted by “T” and its S.I unit is “Kelvin”
Thermal Equilibrium:
When two bodies of different temperatures are brought in thermal contact with each other.
The heat starts flowing from the hot body to the cold body till the temperature of the bodies
becomes same, then they are said to be in Thermal Equilibrium.
Scales Of Temperature:
Temperature is measured on three different scales;
1. Celsius (or Centigrade) Scale:
On centigrade scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ‘O OC’, whereas the
upper fixed point(boiling point of water) is taken as ‘100 OC’, and the space between the two
points is divided into hundred equal parts, each part measures a temperature of ‘1 OC’.

Page 1 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

2. Fahrenheit Scale:
On Fahrenheit Scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ’32 OF’ whereas the
upper fixed point (boiling point of water) is taken as ‘212 OF’. The space between the two fixed
points is divided into 180 equal parts, each part measures a temperature of ‘1 OF’.
3. Kelvin or absolute scale:
On Kelvin Scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ’273 K’, Whereas the
upper fixed point (boiling point of water) is taken as ‘373 K’. The space between the two points
is divided into 100 equal parts, each part measures a temperature of ‘1 K’.
Hence each division on centigrade scale is numerically equal to each division on the Kelvin
scale. Whereas each division on centigrade scale is equal to “9/5”or “1.8” divisions on
Fahrenheit scale.

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Conversion Of Scales Of Temperature:
1. 𝑇𝐹 = 1.8𝑇𝑐 + 32

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𝑇𝐹 – 32
2. Tc =
1.8
3. 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝑐 + 273
Relation Among Three Scales Of Temperature:
℃ − 0 ℉ − 32 𝐾 − 273

Thermometric Properties:
100 S=
180
=
100

Property of a substance which changes uniformly with the change of temperature is named
thermometric property. For example the volume of a liquid in a vessel, the volume of a fixed
mass of gas kept at constant pressure, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas maintained at
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constant volume, electrical resistance of a metal are some of the many measureable physical
properties which changes with the change of temperature.
Thermometer:
It is a device used to measure the temperature of any substance. Its working is based on the
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thermometric properties.

When materials are heated their size increases, this phenomenon is known as “Thermal
Expansion”.
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Explanation:
When a body is heated the energy gained by the molecules increases their kinetic energy due to
which they vibrate more vigorously and with increased amplitude, as a result of which their
overall size increases or in other words thermal expansion take place.
Types Of Thermal Expansion:
There are three types of thermal expansion;
Linear Expansion:
In this type only the expansion in length is considered.
Superficial Expansion:
In this type, expansion in surface area due to heat is considered.

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Cubical Expansion (or) Volume Expansion:
In this type, expansion in volume, due to heat is considered.
Mathematical Expression For Linear Expansion:
Consider a rod of length “L” of uniform area of cross section, it is heated through a certain
temperature ∆𝑇 so that its new length becomes L’. It has been observed experimentally that
the increase in length ∆𝐿 of the rod is directly proportional to the initial length L and to the rise
in temperature ∆𝑇.

i.e. ∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿--------------------(i) (T1) L

∆𝐿 ∝ ∆𝑇------------------(ii)
∆L
By combining (i) and (ii)
(T )
2 L’
∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿 × ∆𝑇

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∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿 × ∆𝑇
Where “α” is the constant of proportionality, it is known as “Coefficient of linear expansion”.
The above equation may also be written as:

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∆𝐿
∝=
𝐿 × ∆𝑇
Coefficient of linear expansion may be defined as:
“It is the increase in the length per unit length per degree rise in temperature”.

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“It is the fractional change in length per degree change in temperature”.
Value of “α” depends upon material of the rod. Materials that expand more have high value of
“α”. The unit of “α” is per degree Celsius ( OC-1) or per Kelvin (k-1).
Since
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∆𝐿 = 𝐿′ − 𝐿
Where L’ is the final length of the rod
But ∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿 ∆𝑇
𝐿′ − 𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
𝐿′ = 𝐿 + 𝛼𝐿 ∆𝑇
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𝐿′ = 𝐿(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇)
The above formula gives us final length L’ of the rod in terms of its initial length L, coefficient of
linear expansion “α” and the rise in temperature ∆𝑇.
Mathematical Expression Of Cubical Expansion Or Volume Expansion:
Consider a body of volume “V” whose temperature is changed through “∆𝑇". Experimentally it
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has been observed that the change in volume “∆𝑉” is directly proportional to its initial volume
“V” and to the rise in temperature “∆𝑇”,
i.e. ∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉--------------------(i)
∆𝑉 ∝ ∆𝑇------------------(ii) V
By combining (i) and (ii) V’
∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉 × ∆𝑇 (T1)
∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉 × ∆𝑇 (T2)
Where “β” is the constant of proportionality, known as “Coefficient of volume expansion”.
The above equation may also be written as;
∆𝑉
𝛽 =
𝑉 × ∆𝑇

Page 3 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Hence Coefficient of volume expansion may be defined as:
“It is the increase in the volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature”.
Or
“It is the fractional change in volume per degree change in temperature”.
Value of “β” depends upon material of the body. The unit of “β” is per degree Celsius ( OC -1) or
per Kelvin (k-1).
Since
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 ′ − 𝑉
Where V’ is the final volume of the body,
But ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉∆𝑇
𝑉 ′ − 𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉∆𝑇
𝑉′ = 𝑉 + 𝛽𝑉∆𝑇

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𝑉′ = 𝑉(1 + 𝛽∆𝑇)
The above formula gives us final volume V’ of the body in terms of its initial volume V, its
coefficient of volume expansion “β” and the rise in temperature ∆𝑇.

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α β
The coefficient of cubical expansion (𝛽) is three times the coefficient of linear expansion (𝛼) of
a material. i.e.

volume (V) of the box will be:

S β=3α
Consider a rectangular box of initial length (l), height (h) and width (w) at temperature “T 1”. The

V=lwh---------------------------(i)
After heating the box it expands and its dimensions becomes l’, h’ and w’at temperature (T2).
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The final volume of the box will be.
V’=l’ w’ h’----------------------(ii) (T1)
Using the definition of linear expansion. Final dimensions will be: (V)
l’ =l(1+α∆T) h
Similarly, w’=w(1+α∆T)
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h’=h(1+α∆T)
w
where “α” is the coefficient of linear expansion put the values in equation (ii) l (T2)
(ii) ⇒ V’=l’ w’ h’
Or V’ = l(1+α∆T) w(1+α∆T) h(1+α∆T) (V’)
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V’ = lwh(1+α∆T)3 h’
Using formula; (a + b)3= a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3
V’=V [(1)3+3(1)2(α∆T)+3(1)(α∆T)2+(α∆T)3]
∴ 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ V’=V [1+3α∆T+3α2(∆T)2+α3(∆T)3]
Because α is very small, so square and higher powers are neglected. w’
So, l’
V’ = V [1+3(α∆T)+0+0]
V’ =V[1+3α∆T]
Using equation:
𝑉 ′ = 𝑉 (1 + 𝛽∆𝑇) where, β = coefficient of volume expansion.
Comparing above two equations:
𝑉 (1 + 𝛽∆𝑇) = V[1 + 3 α∆T]

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 1 + 𝛽∆𝑇 = 1 + 3 α∆T
β = 3α Proved

Bimetallic strip is a piece of two different metals (or alloys)

length-wise firmly attached together. Since thermal expansion
of different materials is different, some expand more than the
others, therefore when a bimetallic strip is heated, it bends.
The metal which has higher co-efficient of Linear expansion
Expandsmore and is on the outer side of the curve whereas
the metal which expands less is on the inner side of the curved

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strip.
Similarly when a bimetallic strip is cooled the material with high

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co-efficient will be on the inner side of the curve because it will
contract more than the other material for each degree fall of
temperature. Due to these properties bimetallic strips are widely use to control temperature in
various devices.
Bimetallic strips are used in many devices, for example, thermostats, thermometers and fire
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alarms etc. bimetallic thermostats are used as automatic circuit breakers. They automatically
switch on or off, as soon as the desired temperature is attained. For example pressing iron,
refrigerators, room heaters, air conditions, motor car radiator fan etc. As a thermometer it is
commonly used in ovens.
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An ideal or perfect gas is one that obeys the ideal gas laws. At low to moderate pressure and at
temperature not too low, the following common gases can be considered ideal: air, nitrogen,
oxygen, helium, hydrogen and neon.
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In other words, a real gas behaves like an ideal gas when its atoms or molecules are so far apart
that they do not appreciably interact with one another.

Boyle’s Law:
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Statement:
“For a given mass of a gas and at constant temperature volume is inversely proportional to the
pressure”. P1
Mathematical Expression:
If “V” denotes the volume and “P” pressure P2
1
Then 𝑉 ∝ 𝑃
1
V1 T1
𝑉 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) T1
𝑃 V2
PV = constant

Page 5 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Value of the constant depends upon mass and temperature of the gas. For a certain mass and
temperature;
P1V1=P2V2
 Real gasses obey Boyle’s law at low pressure and high temperature.
 Real gases deviate from Boyle’s law at high pressure and low temperature.
Graphical representation:
Graph between pressure and volume of a
gas at constant temperature is a hyperbolic curve.
Graph between “P” and “1/V” of a gas at
constant temperature is a straight line
relation between pressure, volume and mass
of a gas at constant temperature is;

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𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑚1 𝑚2

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Where; m1 = initial mass of the gas
m2= final mass of the gas
Charle’s Law:
Statement:

Mathematically:
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For a given mass and at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.

If “V” and “T” denote the volume and absolute temperature of a gas respectively then;
𝑉 ∝𝑇
S
𝑉 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 )𝑇
𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
Value of the constant depends upon mass and pressure of the gas. For a certain mass and
pressure
P

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Graphical Representation OfCharle’s Law:
Graph between temperature and volume of a gas at
constant pressure is a straight line.
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At very low temperature, all gases get liquefied, hence

Charle’s law not obeyed anymore and the graph deviates
from straight line.
However, if the straight line is extrapolated below the
boiling point of a gas, the straight line meets the axis of
0
temperature at -273OC and the volume of the gas
becomes zero. This would be possible if the gas was cooled to -273OC without changing into
liquid and of course this is not possible. This temperature is called absolute zero. It is the
temperature at which volume of any gas theoretically becomes zero.(-273OC=(0) K). Absolute
zero is also defined as, it is a temperature at which the motion of the molecules of any
substance cease to move.

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Suppose for a given mass of a gas the initial parameters are;
Pressure = P1, Temperature = T1 and Volume = V1
Now suppose temperature is kept constant and pressure is changed such that the final
parameters are:
Pressure = P2, Temperature = T1 and Volume = V’
Applying Boyle’s law we get;
P1V1=P2V’ ∵P1V1=P2V2
𝑃1 𝑉1
V’= --------------(i)
𝑃2
Now keep the pressure constant and change the temperature such that the final parameters

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become;
Pressure = P2, Temperature = T2 and Volume = V2
P2

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P2
P1
T2
V’ T1 V2
V1

Applying Charle’s law we get;

T1 S 𝑉′
= 𝑇2
𝑉
(T2>T1)

𝑉
∵ 𝑇1 =
𝑉2
S
𝑇1 2 1 𝑇2
𝑉2 𝑇1
𝑉′ = ---------------------(ii)
𝑇2
Comparing eq (i) and (ii) we get;
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑉 2 𝑇1
=
𝑃2 𝑇2
P

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
= ------------------(iii)
𝑇1 𝑇2
The above equation can also be written as;
𝑃𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
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𝑃𝑉
= Rm
𝑇
For different gases, value of the constant depends upon the number of molecules of the gas.
For 1 mole of the gas, the constant has the same value for all gases and then it is denoted by
“R”.
Thus for one mole of a gas we have;
𝑃𝑉
=R
𝑇
For “n” moles;
𝑃𝑉
= nR
𝑇

PV= nRT
This is general gas equation. “R” is molar gas constant. R= 8.314J/mole.K

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The properties of gas are described by a set of fundamental assumptions which are given as:
i. A gas consists of particles called molecules. Depending on the gas each molecule will
consist of an atom or group of atoms. All the molecules of a gas in a stable state are
considered identical.
ii. Any finite volume of a gas consists of very large number of these molecules. This
assumption is justified by experiments. At standard conditions there are 3x10 25
molecules in a cubic meter.
iii. The molecules are separated by large distance as compare to their own dimensions. The
diameter of a molecule considered as a sphere, is about 3x10 -10m.

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iv. Molecules move in all directions and with various speeds and making elastic collisions
with one another and with the walls of a container can be considered perfectly smooth.
v. Molecules exert no forces on one another except during collisions. Therefore in

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between collisions with other molecules or with the walls of the container and in the
absence of the external forces, they move freely in straight lines.
vi. Newtonian mechanics is applicable to the motion of molecules.
Interpretation of the pressure of gas on the basis of kinetic molecular theory of
gases. S
The pressure of an ideal gas is given by following equation:
̅̅̅2
P = 1/3 𝜌𝑣
Pressure of the gas is due to those collisions which the molecules have with the walls of the
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container.
Let us consider a container of cubical shape and calculate pressure of the gas on one of its walls
which on the left side of the container. y
Suppose;
Mass of each molecule of the gas = m
P

Length of each side of container = l -Vx l

Total number of molecules = N
Velocity of one of the molecules striking the wall = v Vx
Component of velocity along x-axis =vx x
For One Molecule l
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Initial momentum along x-axis = m (- vx) = - mvx z l

Momentum after collision with the wall = mvx
Change in momentum = mvx–(- mvx) = 2mvx
Suppose a molecule takes “t” seconds for each collision. Then distance covered in that time
along x-axis is 2l. Hence;
S=vt
2l=vxt
t= 2l/Vx
Since change in momentum for one collision = 2mv x
2𝑚𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑥2
Therefore rate of change of momentum = 2l = 2𝑚𝑉𝑥 × =
2𝑙 𝑙
Vx

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Since the rate of change of momentum is equal to force.
Therefore;
𝑚𝑣𝑥 2
Force exerted by one molecule = 𝑙
Total force exerted by N molecules is;
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
F= 1𝑥 + 2𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑚
F= (𝑣1𝑥 2 + 𝑣2𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛𝑥 2 )
𝑙
Multiplying and dividing by “N”
𝑚𝑁 𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 +⋯+𝑣 2
F= ( 1𝑥 2𝑥 𝑛𝑥
)
𝑙 𝑁
𝑚𝑁 ̅̅̅̅2
Or F= (𝑣𝑥 )
𝑙

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Hence, pressure on the wall is
P = F/A
𝑚𝑁 ̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑣𝑥 2)

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𝑙
P= 𝑙2
𝑚𝑁 ̅̅̅̅̅
2
P= (𝑣 𝑥 )
𝑙3
𝑚𝑁 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 )
Where; =
𝑙3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Therefore above equation becomes;

𝑚𝑁
𝑙3
S
= 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑁
𝑙3
= 𝜌
S
P= 𝜌̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 ----------(i)
̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 = average square of x-components of velocity
Now we may write;
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂
P

𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑧 2
Or 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑧 2
For Average Values;
̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = ̅̅̅̅𝑣𝑥 2 + ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 2 + 𝑣 ̅̅̅̅2---------------(ii)
𝑧
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As pressure on each wall of the container is same, therefore;

𝜌𝑣 ̅̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅̅2
𝑥 = 𝜌𝑣𝑦 = 𝜌𝑣𝑧 (from eq i)
̅̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑧 2 ̅̅̅̅
2

Hence, from eq (ii) we may have;

̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = ̅̅̅̅ 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣 ̅̅̅̅
2 ̅̅̅̅2 ̅̅̅̅2
𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 = 3𝑣𝑥
Or 𝑣 ̅̅̅̅2 =𝑣 ̅̅̅2 /3
𝑥
Put this value in eq (i)
̅̅̅̅
𝑣2
P=𝜌
3
Or ̅̅̅2
P = 1/3 𝜌𝑣
This is the equation for pressure of a gas. 𝑣̅ 2is the average square velocity of molecules.
Page 9 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
Average translational K.E of the molecules of an ideal gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
Proof:
The pressure of an ideal gas is given by;
̅̅̅2̅
P = 1/3 𝜌 𝑣
Where;
̅̅̅
𝑣 2= Average square speed of molecules
𝜌= density of the molecule
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝜌=𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑁
𝜌=
𝑉

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Put the value in above equation we get;
P = 1/3 𝑉 ̅̅̅
𝑣̅
𝑚𝑁 2

̅̅̅2

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PV = 1/3 mN𝑣
Where; m = mass of one molecule
N = total No. of molecules
Re-arranging the equation we get;
PV = 1/3 N (m̅̅̅
𝑣 2)

Therefore;
S
Multiplying and dividing by 2 On RHS
PV =2/3 N(1/2m𝑣̅̅̅2 )
But PV = nRT (General gas eq)
S
̅̅̅̅̅
nRT = 2/3 N(K. E ) − − − − − −(𝑖)
where;
n = no. of moles of the gas
R = molar gas constant
T= absolute temperature
P

̅̅̅̅̅
K. E= Average translational K.E
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
But ; n = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑁 𝑁
n = 𝑚𝑁 =
𝐴 𝑁𝐴
Note that molecular mass is the mass of one mole of the gas or the mass of Avogadro number
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of molecules
Put the value of “n” in eq (i)
𝑁
𝑅𝑇 = 2/3𝑁(K. ̅̅̅̅̅
E)
𝑁𝐴
𝑅
𝑇 = 2/3(K. ̅̅̅̅̅
E)
𝑁𝐴
Where NA = Avogadro’s Number = 6.02x1023 molecules/mole
𝑅
But = k= Boltzmann’s constant, therefore;
𝑁𝐴
̅̅̅̅̅
kT =2/3 (K. E)
̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = 3/2kT--------------(ii)
̅̅̅̅̅
K. E= (constant) T
̅̅̅̅̅
𝐊. 𝐄 ∝ 𝑻
Page 10 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
Hence proved the average translational KE of the molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.
Verification Of Boyle’s Law And Charle’s Law:
The pressure of an ideal gas is given by;
̅̅̅2̅
P = 1/3 𝜌 𝑣
Where;
̅̅̅
𝑣 2= Average square speed of molecules
𝜌= density of the gas
P= Pressure of the gas
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝜌=𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑁
𝜌=

I
𝑉
Therefore;
𝑚𝑁 ̅̅̅2
P=1/3 𝑣̅

-I
𝑉
PV=1/3N(m̅̅̅
𝑣 2)
Multiplying and dividing by 2 on R.H.S
PV=2/3 N (1/2m̅̅̅ 𝑣 2)
̅̅̅̅̅
E)
PV = 2/3 N (K.
̅̅̅̅̅
But K. E = 3/2kT
Therefore;
PV=2/3N(3/2kT)
Therefore;
S
S
PV=NkT------------(i)
Where N = Total no. of molecules
K = Boltzmann’s Constant
T = Absolute Temperature
For Boyle’s Law:
P

It is clear that for a given mass of a gas and at constant temperature equation (i) becomes;
PV = Constant
This is Boyle’s law
For Charle’s Law:
As proved in eq (i)
U

PV = NkT
𝑉 𝑁𝑘
= ----------(ii)
𝑇 𝑃
It is clear that for a given mass of a gas and at constant pressure equation (ii) becomes;
𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
This is Charle’s Law
Hence gas laws are proved.
Root Mean Square Velocity:
It is the square root of the average square speed of molecules of a gas and denoted by “𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 ”.
i.e. Vrms = √̅̅̅
𝑣2̅

Page 11 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Relation Between Root Mean Square speed and Absolute Temperature Of a Gas:
̅̅̅̅̅
As;K. E = 3/2kT
̅̅̅2 = 3/2 kT
½ m𝑣
̅̅̅ 3𝑘𝑇
𝑣 2=
𝑚
̅̅̅2̅= √3𝑘𝑇
or√𝑣 𝑚
3𝑘𝑇
Or Vrms =√ 𝑚
Hence for a given mass of a gas;
Vrms ∝ √ 𝑇
Relation Between Vrmsand Pressure of Gas:

I
As; P = 1/3 𝜌̅̅̅
𝑣2̅
3𝑃
2 ̅̅̅ =
𝑣

-I
𝜌
√̅̅̅̅
𝑣2 = √3𝑃 𝜌

3𝑃
Vrms = √ 𝜌
Boltzmann’s Constant (k):

𝑅
k= 𝑁 =
𝐴
S
It is the value of gas constant per molecule i.e.
8.314
𝐽
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠.𝑘
6.02×1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
S
k= 1.380x10-23J/molecules.k

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by unit degree (1oC or 1k) is called
“ Heat Capacity”.
P

Formula:
∆Q = Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
∆T = Change (Increase) in temperature.
Then
∆Q ∝ ∆T
U

∆Q = C∆T
Where C is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Heat Capacity”.
∆Q
C=
∆T
Its unit is JK-1 or J oC-1

Page 12 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through unit
degree (1oC 0r 1K), is called “Specific Heat”.
Formula:
∆Q = Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
∆T = Change (Increase) in temperature.
m = Mass of substance
then
∆Q ∝ ∆T--------------(i)
∆Q ∝ m---------------(ii)
Combining eq (i) and (ii)

I
∆Q ∝ m ∆T
∆Q = cm∆T

-I
Where “c” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Specific Heat Capacity” of a body.
∆Q
c=
m∆T
Its unit is Jkg -1K-1Or Jkg -1oC-1

S
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance through one
degree(1k or 1 OC), is called molar specific heat.
Formula:
∆Q = Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
S
∆T = Change (Increase) in temperature.
n = Number of moles of a substance
Then
∆Q ∝ ∆T--------------(i)
∆Q ∝ n---------------(ii)
P

Combination eq(i) and eq(ii)

∆Q ∝ n∆T
∆Q = Cn∆T
Where “C” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Molar SpecificHeat ” of a
U

substance.
∆Q
C=
n∆T
Its unit is Jmole-1K-1Or Jmol-1oC-1
Types of Molar Specific Heat of Gases:
The molar specific heat of a gas depends whether or not the gas allowed to expand.
There are two types of molar specific heat of a gas.
i. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: (Cp)
ii. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume: (Cv)
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure(Cp):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one degree (1k
or 1 OC), at constant pressure is called molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
Page 13 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 ∆Q p
Formula: Cp =
n∆T
Where, ∆Q p = Amount of heat absorbed by the system at constant pressure.
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume (Cv):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through onedegree (1k
or 1 OC) at constant Volume is called molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv).
Formula:
∆Q v
Cv=
n∆T
Where, ∆Qv = Amount of heat absorbed by the system at constant volume.
Relation Between Specific Heat (c) and Molar Specific Heat (C).
Using definition of molar specific heat;

I
∆Q
and C= ----------------(i)
n∆T
where, n= no. of moles

-I
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠
n= 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
so, eq (i)becames;
∆Q
C= 𝑚
( )∆T

C=S
C= (
C=cM
𝑀
M∆Q
m∆T
∆Q
m∆T
)𝑀 ∴c=
∆Q
m∆T
S
Hence;
molar specific heat = (specific heat) x (Molecular mass)
From above equation; Molar specific heat is defined as:
“The product of molecular mass of a substance and its specific heat is equal to molar specific
heat”.
P

Relation between Specific heat (c) and Heat capacity (C):

Using definition of heat capacity:
∆Q
C= --------(i)
∆T
Using definition of specific heat:
U

∆Q
c=
m∆T
∆Q
cm= -------(ii)
∆T
Comparing eq(i) and eq(ii),
C=cm
Heat capacity = Specific heat x mass
From above equation, heat capacity is defined as:
“The product of specific heat and mass of a substance is equal to its Heat capacity”.

Page 14 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

The Latent Heat of Fusion(Lf):
It is the quantity of heat required to melt a unit mass of a solid at constant temperature. It is
also equal to the quantity of heat given off by a unit mass of the molten solid as it crystallizes at
this same temperature.
The latent heat of fusion of water (ice) at 0 oc is about 3.35x105J/kg or 80 cal/g.
The Latent Heat of Vaporization(Lv):
It is the quantity of heat required to vaporize a unit mass of a liquid, at constant temperature.
For water at 100oC, the latent heat of vaporization is about 2.26x10 6J/kg or 540 cal/g.
The Latent Heat of Sublimation:
It is the quantity of heat required to convert a unit mass of substance from the solid to the
gaseous state at constant temperature.

I
“The branch of physics deals with the temperature dependent properties of matter and change

-I
of states, is called thermodynamics”.
The study of thermodynamics also gives an idea about the transformation of heat energy and
mechanical energy.
Laws of Thermodynamics:

Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
S
The basic principles and techniques concern with the transformation of heat energy into
mechanical energy or vice versa, are known as “Laws of Thermodynamics”.

If the thermodynamic co-ordinates (pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy and

entropy etc.) of a system do not change even for an infinite interval of time, the system is said
S
to be in thermodynamic Equilibrium.

This law is based on the experimental research done by the “ROWLAND” and “MAYER” in 1842
and “JOULE” and “HELMHOLTZ” in 1847. This law basically explains the conservation of energy
P

in respect of transformation of heat energy and mechanical energy.

This law states,
“When heat is transferred into mechanical energy or vice versa, the total amount of energy
remains constant”.
U

Explanation:
Suppose that the amount of heat “∆Q” is added to a system which increases the internal energy
of the system by an amount, “∆U” and also helps the system to do some useful work, “∆W”.
according to first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy during thermodynamic
change can be written as,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
This equation is commonly called Equation of First Law of Thermodynamics. It states, “the sum
of change in internal energy and work done by the system is equal to the supplied energy”.
Note that “∆Q” is positive when heat enters the system and negative when it leaves the system.
“∆W” is positive when work is done by the system and negative when it is done on the system.
∆U is positive when internal energy increases and negative when it decreases.

Page 15 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Application of First Law of Thermodynamics:

“A thermodynamic process in which pressure is kept constant during the processing, is called an
Isobaric Process”.

Technique of The Process:

To achieve an isobaric process, a gas is enclosed in a vessel having a movable piston at upper
end.
Explanation of The Process:
Consider a gas as working substance and enclosed within a vessel at volume “v1” and
temperature “T1”. Let the pressure on the piston of vessel is kept constant.

I
When “∆Q” amount of heat is supplied to the system, some part of it used in increasing the K.E.
of molecules and rest of heat is utilized in doing work. Thus, with supply of heat, the gas will

-I
expand and its final parameters becomes “V 2” and “T2” respectively.
During an isobaric process the gas will perform some useful work against the constant pressure.
The magnitude of such a work is given by,
∆W = F x d
∆W = PA x d as; V = Ah as; P=F/A
S
Application of first law of thermodynamics:
∆W = P(Ad)
∆W = P∆V
∆W = P(V2 – V1)
∆V = A(∆h)
∆V = A(h2-h1)
∆V = Ad
F =PA

P
S
By the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W P
Putting ∆W = P∆V d
T2
∆Q = ∆U + P∆V
This Expression shows the modified form of First Law of
V2
T1
P

Thermodynamics in case of an “Isobaric Process”. V1

(T2>T1)
P-V-Diagram of an Isobaric Process:
∆Q
U

The P-V-Diagram of an Isobaric Process will describe a horizontal straight line.

Page 16 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

“A thermodynamic process in which volume is kept constant during processing is called an
Isochoric Process”.
Technique of The Process:
To achieve an isochoric process, the piston of vessel is kept fixed at the initial position. For this,
we increase the external pressure on the piston with the supply of heat energy.

Explanation of The Process:

Consider a gas as working substance and enclosed in a vessel at pressure“P1” and temperature
“T1”. Let the volume of the gas is kept constant.
When “∆Q” heat is supplied to the system, It is directly used in increasing the molecular kinetic

I
energy of the gas and thus the molecular impact with the surface of piston increases. To
balance the increasing intermolecular forces we increases the external pressure up to the limit

-I
so that volume of the gas remains constant. After this process, the final parameters of the gas
will become, “P2” and “T2”.
P1 P2

V1
S T1 V1 T2
(T2>T1 )
S
Condition of The Process:
∆Q
During an isochoric process, the displacement of the piston against the external pressure
remains zero and thus no work is supposed to be done by gas against the external pressure i.e.
∆W = 0
Application of first law of thermodynamics:
P

From the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Putting ∆W = 0
∆Q = ∆U
i.e. in an isochoric process, whole supplied heat is utilized in increasing the internal energy of
U

the working substance.

P-V-Diagram of an Isochoric Process:

The P-V-Diagram of an Isochoric Process will describe a vertical straight line.

Page 17 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

“A thermodynamic process in which temperature of working substance is kept constant
throughout the process, is called an Isothermal Process”.
Technique of The Process:
To perform an isothermal process, the working substance is filled into a vessel of insulated
walls and a conducting base. For processing, this vessel is placed on a heat reservoir of same
initial temperature as that of gas.
Explanation:
Consider a gas as working substance in a vessel having insulated walls and a conducting base.
Let, the initial parameters of the gas are “P1”, “V1” and “T1”.
The vessel is placed on a heat reservoir at “T 1”. P2 (P2<P1)

I
When the pressure on the piston is decreased
to “P2” the gas will expand and its volume is P1

-I
increased by “V2”.Due to expansion the gas will T1
cool down and thus some heat will be conducted
V2
into the gas through conduction base until unless T1
the temperature of gas is maintained to “T 1”. V1
Condition of Process: ∆Q

i.e.
S
During an isothermal process, the initial and final internal energy of the gas equals the other
and thus, the change of internal energy of the system will remain zero.
∆U = 0
Application of first law of thermodynamics:
S
From the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Putting, ∆U = 0
∆Q = ∆W
i.e. The amount of heat entered into the system will be equal to the work done by the gas
P

during isothermal expansion.

P-V Diagram:
(P1,V 1,T1)
U

P Isotherm

(P2,V 2,T1 )

∆V
V
The P-V diagram of an isothermal process will describe a curve, called isotherm curve. This
curve follows the statement of Boyle’s law. Hence, the equation of Boyle’s law, PV= Constant
Holds true in case of an isothermal process.

Page 18 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

“A thermodynamic process in which no heat will enter or reject out of the system, is called an
adiabatic process”.
Technique of The Process:
To perform an adiabatic process, the working substance is filled into a vess el of insulated walls
and conducting base. For processing this vessel is placed on a heat Insulator.
Explanation:
Consider a gas as a working substance in a vessel of insulated walls and a conducting base. For
achieving an adiabatic process the vessel is placed on a heat insulator. Let, the initial
parameters of the gas are P1, V1 and T1.
When the pressure is decreased to “P2” the gas will expand and its volume increase by “V 2”.

I
While this adiabatic expansion, the gas will cool down and its temperature is decreased to “T2”.
Condition of The Process:

-I
As, no heat will enter or eject out of the system, therefore, the change of heat for the system
will remain zero i.e.
∆Q = 0
Application of TheFirst Law of Thermodynamics:

Putting
S
From the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
∆Q = 0
0 = ∆U+ ∆W
∆W = -∆U P2 (P2<P1)
S
OR
- ∆W =∆U
This expresses the first law of thermodynamics in case of an P1 T2
adiabatic process. This shows that the work done by the gas is V2
equal to its own loss of internal energy. And work done on the (T2<T1)
P

gas is equal to the gain in internal energy.

P-V-Diagram: V1 T1
Insulator
(P1,V 1 ,T1)
U

P Adiabatic

(P2 ,V 2 ,T2)

∆V
V
The P-V-Diagram for an adiabatic process will describe a steep curve, called Adiabatic Curve.
The equation 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = Constant holds true for such a curve. Where, “𝛾” is called Adiabatic
Constant and equal to the ratio of “Cp” and C V”.
i.e. 𝛾 = C p/Cv

Page 19 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (T2
(T1 )
P ) c
Proof:
Consider two isotherms (A graph between P and V at constant b
a
temperature is called an isotherm) at temperatures “T 1” and “T2” (T2>T1)
since internal energy depends upon temperature, it changes when there
is a change in temperature. Hence each isotherm represents constant o V
internal energy. If the gas is heated from T 1 to T2 along path “a c” its volume will remain
constant, similarly if the same gas is heated along path “a b” from temperature T 1 to T2, its

I
pressure remains constant. Since change in internal energy is independent of path. Therefore,
change in internal energy of gas will be equal whatever path is followed between these two
isotherms. We know that at constant volume (Isochoric process) no work is done therefore,

-I
∆W=0.
Applying first law of thermodynamics we get
∆Q = ∆W + ∆U
∆QV = ∆U (since ∆W=0)

S
Hence, heat is supplied at constant volume it is totally used to change the internal energy ∆U of
the system. If “n” is the number of moles of the gas and C V represents its molar specific heat at
constant volume then the amount of heat supplied to the system at constant volume is given
by:
∆QV = nC V∆T
S
But ∆QV = ∆U
∆U = nC V∆T-----------------------------------(i)
When a gas is heated under constant pressure (isobaric process) along path “a b”, there will be
some work done by the system. Work done by the system at constant pressure is given by:
∆W=P∆V--------------------------------------(ii)
P

Where ∆V is the change in volume of the gas. In this case heat supplied is partially used to raise
the temperature or internal energy and partially to do work. Heat is supplied at constant
pressure is given by
∆QP = nC P∆T----------------------------------(iii)
According to first law of thermodynamics
U

∆Qp = ∆W + ∆U
The change in internal energy in both cases will be equal because the gas is heated in both
cases from the temperature T1 to T2 therefore, from equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get;
nC P∆T = P∆V + nC V∆T-----------------------(iv)
For initial state of gas:
PV1=nRT1
Similarly for final state (after heating the gas at constant pressure) we have:
PV2=nRT2
The change in state of the gas is given by
PV2-PV1 = nRT2-nRT1
P(V2-V1) = nR(T2-T1)

Page 20 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 P∆V = nR∆T
Substituting this expression in equation (iv) we get.
nC P∆T= nR∆T + nC V∆T
nC P∆T-nC V∆T = nR∆T
n∆T(C P-CV) = nR∆T
CP - Cv= R
The above relation shows that C P>C V and the difference between the two molar specific heats
of a gas is equal to universal gas constant R.
Molar Heat Capacities For a Mono-Atomic Gas:
CV= 3/2 R, Cp = 5/2R and CP = 5/3CV
Proof:

I
For this, consider “n” moles of a mono-atomic gas at constant volume. The amount of heat
supplied to the system is completely used to increase the internal energy of the gas. i.e. to
increase the translational K.E of “nNA” number of molecules.

-I
Mathematically;
3
∆QV = ∆U as; ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑇
2
3
̅̅̅̅̅
∆QV = N(∆𝐾. 𝐸) ̅̅̅̅̅
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝐾∆𝑇
𝑅
̅̅̅̅̅

Substituting R= 8.313 J/mol.k

S ∆QV = nNA(∆𝐾. 𝐸)
nCV∆T = nNA(3/2K∆T)
C V= 3/2 (NAK)
CV= 3/2 R--------------------(i)
as; 𝐾 =

𝑁𝐴 𝐾 = 𝑅
𝑁𝐴
S
C V = 3/2(8.313)
CV= 12.46 J/mol.k
Similarly,
According to the relation between “C P” and C V” of ideal gas,
C P - C v= R
P

Putting C V= 3/2 R
C P- 3/2 R = R
C p = R + 3/2R
C P= (2R + 3R)/2
Cp = 5/2R--------------------(ii)
U

Substituting R= 8.313 J/mol.k

Cp = 5(8.313)/2
C p = 20.78 J/mole.k
Eq1⇒ CV= 3/2 R
2/3C V = R--------------------(iii)
Eq2⇒ C p = 5/2R
2/5C P = R--------------------(iv)
Comparing eq (iii) and (iv)
2/3C V = 2/5C P
3 2
CV=2 × 5 Cp

Page 21 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 3
CV=5 C p
CP = 5/3C V………………………. Proved

Proof:
Consider “n” moles of an ideal gas at constant pressure. When “∆Q p” amount of heat is
supplied to the system of gas, it is sub-divided into two parts i.e. some amount of supplied heat
is used to increase the K.E of molecules of the gas whereas; rest of heat does some useful work
against the constant pressure. Since, only a part of supplied heat is utilized in increasing

I
internal energy of this system, therefore, we must needed greater amount of heat to raise the
temperature of gas up to a constant value of “∆T”.
Now, consider the same system of gas at constant volume. When “∆Q V” amount of heat is

-I
supplied to the system of gas, it is totally utilized in increasing internal energy of this system
and hence much lesser amount of heat is needed to raise the temperature of gas up to same
temperature difference of “∆T”.
As per above analysis we may write mathematically as:

S ∆Qp>∆QV
nC P∆T>nC V∆T
CP>CV
∆Q=nC∆T

It means, the magnitude of molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than
that of at constant volume which is the required relation between the two molar specific heat
S
capacities.
P

The second law of thermodynamics is based on two fundamental principles formulated by

CLAUSIUS and LORD KELVIN to explain the processing of a COLD ENGINE and HEAT ENGINE
respectively.
i. KELVIN’S STATEMENT: T1 Hot Body
Q1
In 1851, LORD KELVIN suggested a basic principle
U

about the working of a HEAT ENGINE. He concluded Heat Engine

that to operate a heat engine continuously, we must
needed a heat source which may provide necessary
∆w
heat energy to the heat engine and a heat sink which
may reject the waste heat energy out of the engine. T2 Q2
Hence, According to the Lord Kelvin’s ideology , Cold Body

“It is impossible to operate a heat engine in a continuous fashion without having a HEAT SINK”.
This ideology leads toward the operation of a perfect heat engine which states,
“It is impossible to construct a perfect heat engine which may convert all the supplied heat into
useful work”.

Page 22 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

The Kelvin’s statement can be expressed by the following schematic diagram.

ii. CLAUSIUS STATEMENT:

In 1850, Clausius expressed a basic principle about T1 Hot Body
Q1
the working of a COLD ENGINE (refrigerator). He
concluded that we must needed some energy or work
Refrigerator
to operate a cold engine.
According to Clausius ideology, “It is impossible to
transfer heat against the natural flow i.e. from a ∆w
cold body at lower temperature to a Hot body at
higher temperature without expenditure of work T2 Q2
Cold Body
(or) energy, supplied by any external means”.

I
The Clausius Statement can be expressed by the following schematic diagram.

-I
Proof:
We can prove that both statements are equivalent Hot body, a heat reservoir at high
by showing that either of these statements is temperature T1

supposed to be false. Suppose that kelvin’s statement

S
is false, that we could have engine with one hundred
percent efficiency, that takes heat from a source and
converts it completely into work. If we connect this
perfect heat engine to a refrigerator, we can take heat
from hot body and convert completely to work, this
Perfect heat
engine
Q1

Refrigerator Q2
Q1 +Q2
S
work can be used to operate refrigerator, which Cold body, a heat reservoir at low
temperature T2
transfers heat from cold body to hot body without
expenditure of external work, which is contrary to Clausius statement. this shows that both
statements are equivalent to each other.
P

In 1824, a French scientist, SADI CARNOT has proposed an ideology of heat engine which is very
close to an IDEAL HEAT ENGINE, as it has maximum theoretical efficiency than rest of all the
HEAT ENGINE, but never be 100%. Infact, the heat engine designed by the Carnot was free from
U

heat losses mainly appear due to FRICTION and CONDUCTION.

Construction:
A Carnot engine consist of a CYLINDER and a PISTON. The walls of the cylinder and piston are
made of insulated material, But base of cylinder is kept conductor. An, Ideal gas is filled into the
cylinder as working substance.
Working: (cycle of Carnot Engine)
The working of a Carnot engine is based on a distinct cycle, consist of four processes that are
done ISOTHERMALLY and ADIABATICALLY in alternative fashion.
Infact, during first two processes the ideal gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the applied
pressure. Similarly, the ideal gas is compressed during last two processes in such a way that it
will attain its initial parameters after doing some useful work.

Page 23 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

The cycle of Carnot engine is further explained by the following four processes.
Process # 1:
It expresses an Isothermal Expansion. During this process, the applied pressure is decreased
from “P1” to “P2” and thus ideal gas will expand from “V1” to the new volume “V2”. During
process the gas will cool down and hence some heat, say “Q 1” will be entered into the system
of gas to maintain its temperature up to initial temperature, “T1”. Hence, P 2<P1, V2>V1,
T1(final)=T1(initial).
Process # 2:
It expresses an adiabatic expansion. During this process, applied pressure is further decreased
from the value of “P2” to “P3”. So that ideal gas with further expand to “V 3” from “V2”. During
adiabatic expansion, ideal gas cool down to a lower temperature of “T 2”.Hence P3<P2, V3>V2
and T2(final)<T1(initial).

I
Process # 3:
It expresses an isothermal compression. During this process, the applied pressure is increased

-I
by“P4” from “P3” and thus the volume of gas will compress to a new volume of “V 4”. During
isothermal compression, ideal gas will heat up to a higher temperature and hence some heat,
say “Q2” will be rejected out from the system to maintain its temperature up to “T 2”.
HenceP4>P3, V4<V3, T2(final) = T2(initial).
Process # 4:
S
It expresses an Adiabatic compression. During this process, the applied pressure is further
increased from “P4” to initial pressure “P1”. The ideal gas is thus compressed to initial volume of
“V1”.
During adiabatic compression, Ideal gas will heat up at a temperature of “T 1”. Hence, P1>P4,
S
V1<V4, T1(final)>T2(initial).
After completing process # 4, Ideal gas will return back to its initial parameters and hence, a
Cycle of Carnot Engine is said to be done by the ideal gas.
P3
P2 P4
P

P1 P1
T2
V2 T1 V3 V4 T2
T1 (T2<T1) T1
V1 V1
U

Q1 Q2

Hot (T1) Insulator Cold (T2) Insulator

(A) (B) (C) (D) (A)

Derivation For The Theoretical Efficiency of Carnot Engine:

We know that the ratio of OUTPUT to INPUT of an engine will describe its EFFICIENCY. It is
symbolized by “E”. Its magnitude is measured by “percentage” (%)
In case of cycle of Carnot engine,
Input = Q1
Output = ∆W = (Q1 – Q2)

Page 24 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Hence, the theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine is given by;
E = Q1 – Q2
Q1
E = Q1 – Q2
Q1 Q1
E = 1 – Q2
Q1 Where, Q1>Q2
This expression represents theoretical Efficiency of Carnot Engine in Term of Heat of Hot
Reservoir And Cold Reservoir.
If “T1” and “T2” be the temperature related to “Q 1” and “Q2” heat respectively, then the above
expression in term of temperature can be written as;
E = 1 – T2

I
T1 Where, T1>T2
According to the equation of theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine, If less be the ratio of heats
or ratio of temperatures, more efficiency Heat Engine can be made.

-I
P-V Diagram of Carnot Cycle:
A (P1,V 1,T1)

Q1

P
S
(P4,V 4,T2)
D
Q2
B (P2,V 2,T1)
S
C (P3,V 3,T2)

O V
The Efficiency of Carnot engine never becomes 100%.
P

i. If T2/T1>1 or Q2/Q1>1, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine cannot be discussed.

ii. If T2/T1= 1 or Q2/Q1= 1, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine becomes zero.
iii. If T2/T1=0 or Q2/Q1=0, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine becomes 100%.
Infact, to attain such a result, the value of “Q 2” or “T2” should be equal to zero and when
we do such an operation, we may not able to complete the cycle of Carnot engine.
U

Because at very low temperature gasses become liquid.

It means, T2/T1≠0 or Q2/Q1≠0 and hence, E ≠ 100%
So, one can say that theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine never becomes 100% even it is an
ideal engine.

“Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder” Or “Entropy is a measure of unavailability of

energy”
A heat engine can be operated only when a source of heat (a hot body) and a heat sink (a cold
body) are available. As long as there is a temperature difference between the two, heat engine
will take heat from the source, convert a part of it into mechanical work and reject the
Page 25 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
remaining heat to the sink. This process continues until the source and the sink attain the same
temperature. As the process proceeds more and more energy becomes unavailable for
conversion into mechanical work. Under this condition we say that entropy (unavailability of
energy) has increased.
Similarly consider two containers, one containing hot water and the other containing cold
water. All high energy molecules are in hot water container and low energy molecules are in
cold water container. Hence there is a kind of order and a heat engine can be operated because
of temperature difference between the two containers. But if hot water is mixed with the cold
one the order will be lost i.e. disorder will increase and at the same time energy will become
unavailable for operating a heat engine because there is no temperature difference. Hence
“Entropy Increases”.
In any thermodynamic process, entropy either increases or remains constant.

I
If “∆Q” is the amount of heat supplied to or removed from a thermodynamic system at
constant absolute temperature “T” then the change in entropy “∆S” is given by;
∆S=∆Q/T

-I
Change in entropy is positive when heat enters the system but if heat is removed from the
system then it is negative.
The unit of Entropy is J/K.
Second Law of Thermodynamics In Terms of Entropy:

either remains constant or increases”.

S
In terms of entropy second law of thermodynamics can be stated as;
“When an isolated system undergoes a thermodynamic change the entropy of the system

“The entropy of the universe increase during an irreversible process”.

Also “ The Entropy of the universe remains constant during reversible process”.
S
P

i. How do you distinguish between temperature and heat? Give example.

Answer: Heat is the transient form of energy that flow from one body to another due to the difference of
temperature. But temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecule of
a body.
U

ii. Why is the earth not in thermal equilibrium with the sun?
Answer: The earth is not in thermal equilibrium with the sun, because while the earth being warmed by
the absorbed radiant energy, it is also loosing heat in various ways. Moreover they are not in perfect
thermal contact with each other.
iii. It is observed that when mercury-in-glass thermometer is put in a flame, the column of mercury first
descends and then rises. Explain?
Answer: when a mercury-in-glass thermometer is put in flame, the glass blub expends, so the column of
mercury descends. But when the heat reaches the mercury in the blub, it expands, this expansion is
greater than that of the glass bulb. So, now the mercury rises in the column.
iv. Is it correct that unit for specific heat capacity “c” is m 2 .s-2 .oC-1 ?
∆𝑄
Answer: yes, it is correct because 𝑐 =
𝑚∆𝑇
𝑚
The S.I unit of c=JKg-1 .oC-1 = N.m.Kg-1oC-1 = Kg. 2 m.Kg-1oC-1 = m2 .s -2 .oC-1 .
𝑠

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 v. What is the standard temperature?
Answer: The standard temperature is the ice-point of water, i.e. 0 oC or 273k.
vi. When a block with a hole in it is heated, why does not the material around the hole expand into the
hole and make it small?
Answer: thermal expansion of homogenous substance causes increase in all directions with the small
linear thermal expansion coefficient. This increase i n all directions causes an effective magnification of an
object. So heating the block, it expands in all directions and causes a little change in shape of the hole, as
see in the experiments.
vii. A thermometer is placed in direct sunlight. Will it read the temperature of the air, or the sun, or of the
something else?
Answer: this thermometer will record the temperature of the surrounding (thermometric substance).
viii. Will one kilogram of hydrogen contain more atoms than one kilogram of lead?

I
Answer: Yes, one kilogram of hydrogen will contain more atoms than one kilogram of lead, because
hydrogen atoms are much lighter than lead atoms.

-I
ix. The pressure in a gas cylinder containing hydrogen will leak quickly than if it is containing oxygen. Why?
Answer: This is so because the hydrogen molecules are lighter than oxygen molecules (since the
molecular mass of hydrogen is 16 times less than the molecular mass of oxygen). Molecular speed (and
hence rate of diffusion) is inversely proportional to the molecular mass. Hence hydrogen will leak more
quickly than oxygen.
x.



Temperature of hot reservoir
S
What are some factors that affect the efficiency of automobile engine?
Answer: The efficiency of an automobile engine depends upon

Temperature of cold reservoir

 Friction and heat losses (dissipative effect)
S
xi. What happen to the temperature of a room in which an air conditioner is left running on a table in the
middle of the room?
Answer: when an air conditioner is left running on a table in the middle of a room, heat is removed from
the room by the air conditioner. But, heat is radiated on the other side to the room by the coils
(condenser). The heat pumped out back of the air conditioner and into the room is greater than the heat
P

pulled into the front of the unit, as work done to remove the heat from cold to hot into the room an
additional amount of heat Q 1 =Q2 +W. consequently, the air conditioner warms the room.
xii. When a sealed thermos bottle full of hot coffee is shaken? What are the changes, if any in? a)The
temperature of the coffee b)The internal energy of the coffee.
Answer:the temperature of the coffee increases due to shaking.
U

The internal energy of the coffee also increases. Infacts, the work done in shaking the coffee appears as
increase in internal energy. Hence the temperature of the coffee increases. (due to friction of walls of the
flask).
xiii. Why specific heat at constant pressure is greater than specific heat at constant volume (C p>Cv)?
Answer: See in notes.
xiv. Is it possible to cool a room by keeping the refrigerator door open?
Answer: A room cannot be cooled by leaving the door of an electric refrigerator open. Whatever heat Q 2
is removed from the air directly in front of the open refrigerator is deposited directly back into the room
at the rare of the unit. Also, the work done to remove the heat Q 1 =Q2 +W. Consequently the refrigerator
warms the room.
xv. Why the efficiency of Carnot engine less than 100%?
Answer: formula for efficiency of Carnot engine is given by;

Page 27 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑇2
Efficiency (E)= (1 − ) × 100%
𝑇1
It is clear from the formula that if the cold reservoir is at absolute zero temperature (T 2 =0 K) only then
the efficiency can be 100%. Since such reservoir is not available so maximum efficiency is always less than
100%. In most practical cases the cold reservoir is near room temperature.
The greater is the difference between the temperatures of a hot body and cold body the engine will be
𝑇
more efficient. However the ratio ( 2) cannot be zero so the engine does not become 100% efficient.
𝑇1
𝑇
Further ( 2) is always something less than one (1) but more than “0” so in practice there can be no engine
𝑇1
100% efficient.
xvi. Under what condition can heat be added to a system without changing its temperature?
Answer: Heat can be added without changing the temperature of the system.
 For gaseous system, it can be achieved in an isothermal process.

I
 For liquid, it can be achieved at the boiling point of the liquid.
 For a solid, it can be achieved at melting point of the solid.
xvii. When two systems are in thermal equilibrium, do they have the same amount of kinetic energy?

-I
Answer: Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a
system. However, the systems with the same average translational kinetic energy have the same
temperature, even if one has greater internal energy.
xviii. Why is the specific heat of polyatomic gasses higher than that of monatomic gasses?

xix.
S
Answer: In a monoatomic gas, the whole of the supplied heat is used up in increasing the translational
kinetic energy, i.e. its temperature. But in diatomic or polyatomic gasses, the heat energy supplied is
wasted in increasing the rotational kinetic energy and vibration kinetic energy. Thus to obtain the same
range of temperature, more heat is required for polyatomic gasses.
Work can be converted completely into energy, so can heat be converted completely into work?
S
Answer: A given amount of heat cannot be completely converted i nto work, as some of the heat energy is
used up in increasing the thermal energy of the system. If heat is converted completely to work, then
efficiency of heat engine will be 100%. This violates the second law of thermodynamics.
EX # 11.1
Exercise based on the Heat, Temperature and Thermal Expansion:
P

MCQs
i. The average translational Kinetic energy of the molecules of a body determines____________.
a) Heat b) Temperature c) Internal energy d) None of these
ii. The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of the molecules of a body determines___________.
U

a) Heat b) Temperature c) Internal energy d) None of these

iii. The S.I unit of heat is____________.
a) Joule b) Calorie c) Centigrade d) Fahrenheit
iv. In Celsius scale 1 oC in magnitude equal to_____________.
a) 32 oF b) 16 oF c) 1.8 oF d) None of these
v. The formula for interconversion of centigrade and Fahrenheit scale is______________.
32 𝐹−32 𝐶 32 𝐶
a) 𝐶− b) = c) 𝐹 − = d) None of these
9 9 5 9 9
vi. The coefficient of linear expansion is equal to____________.
𝐿 ∆𝐿 𝐿 ∆𝑇
a) 𝛼= b) 𝛼 = c) 𝛼 = d) None of these
∆𝐿∆𝑇 𝐿∆𝑇 ∆𝐿
vii. The coefficient of volume expansion is equal to____________.
𝑉 𝑉∆𝑇 ∆𝑉
a) 𝛽= b) 𝛽 = c) 𝛽 = d) None of these
∆𝑉 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑉 𝑉∆𝑇

Page 28 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 viii. The unit of coefficient of linear expansion or volume expansion is __________.
a) K b) K -1 c) CK-1 d) None of these
ix. Linear expansion occurs in____________.
a) Solid b) Liquid c) Both d) None of these
x. The relation between coefficient of linear expansion and volume expansion is given by_____________.
1
a) 𝛼 = 3𝛽 b) 𝛼 = 𝛽c) 𝛽 = 2𝛼 d) None of these
3
xi. The energy transfer from one point to another due to temperature difference is called_____________.
a) Light b) Heat c) Sound d) None of these
xii. _____________is related to the internal energy of body.
a) Heat b) Temperature c) Both A and B d) None of these
xiii. The S.I unit of temperature is_____________.
a) Degree Celsius b) Degree Fahrenheit c) Kelvin d) None of these

I
xiv. Tk = Tc +_____________.
a) 273 b) 237 c) 372 d) 732
xv. Temperature is measured by_______________.

-I
a) Calorimeter b) Barometer c) Thermometer d) None of these
xvi. In ______________ heat transfer from atom to atom.
a) Conduction b) Convection c) Radiation d) None of these
xvii. The transfer of heat by_________________ requires the movement of molecules from one place to

xviii.

xix.
another.
S
a) Conduction b) Convection c) Radiation d) None of these
The mode of heat transfer in which no material medium is required, is called_________.
a) Conduction b) Convection c) Radiation d) None of these
The heat from sun reaches the earth by ___________.
a) Conduction b) Convection c) Radiation d) None of these
S
xx. _________________ of a substance is a measure of its ability to conduct heat energy.
a) Thermal conductivity b) Thermal resistivity c) Both A and B d) None of these
xxi. The fractional change in length per unit change in temperature is called___________.
a) Coefficient of linear expansion b) Coefficient of cubic expansion c) Both A and B d) None of
these
P

xxii. Coefficient of cubic thermal expansion is _____ times the coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
a) Two b) Three c) Four d) Ten
xxiii. _________ are used in thermostat.
a) Bimetallic strips b) Thermometer c) Fire alarm d) None of these
xxiv. The device which controls temperature in a certain space is called ______________.
U

a) Thermometer b) Thermostat c) Fire alarm d) None of these

xxv. 1 calori=________.
a) 4.1 J b) 4.2 J c) 4.3 J d) None of these
xxvi. 1 B.T.U=__________.
a) 1055 J b) 252 J c) 4200 J d) None of these
xxvii. 1 B.T.U=__________.
a) 225cal b) 525cal c) 252cal d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv.
B C A C B B C B A B B B C A
xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. a.
C A B C C A A B A B B A C

Page 29 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Questions from Past Papers:
i. Differentiate between heat and temperature in the light of molecular concept of matter. (1993)
ii. Explain the terms coefficient of linear expansion “𝛼” and coefficient of cubic expansion “𝛽”.
(1995)
iii. Establish a relationship between the above two terms. (1995)
iv. Define coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of cubic expansion. Give their units. Show that 𝛽 =
3𝛼 where 𝛽 and 𝛼 have their usual meanings. (1997)
v. What is the example of a device based on thermal expansion. Describe its working. (1997)
vi. Prove that the coefficient of cubical expansion is three times the coefficient of linear expansion.
(2001)
vii. Show that 𝛽 = 3𝛼 where 𝛽 and 𝛼 have their usual meanings. (2002)Pre Med
viii. Describe the working of a bimetallic strip as thermostat. Draw necessary diagram. (2002)Pre Eng
ix. What is thermal expansion? Derive an expression for coefficient of linear expansion. (2003)Pre Med

I
x. Define coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of cubic expansion and prove that relation between
them. (2003)Pre Eng

-I
xi. Derive the relation 𝛽 = 3𝛼 where 𝛼 = coefficient of linear expansion and 𝛽 = coefficient of volume
expansion. (2004)
xii. What do you understand thermal expansion? What is the relation between coefficient of linear expansion
and coefficient of volume expansion? Derive the relation for the length of a rod at a given temperature t
oC when l is its length at 0 o C. (2005)
xiii.

xiv.

xv.
o

S
Define linear expansion. How does the concept of linear expansion help the fabrication of bimetallic
strips? (2008)
It is observed that when a mercury bulb of a glass thermometer is put in a flame, the column of mercury
first descends and then rises. Explain it. (2012)
1
Define the coefficient of linear and cubical expansion. Also prove that 𝛼 = 𝛽.(2013)
S
3
xvi. What happen to the temperature of a room in which an air conditioner is left runn ing on a table in the
middle of the room?(2014)
1
xvii. Define Thermal Expansion. Prove that 𝛼 = 𝛽. (2016)
3
1
xviii. What is thermal expansion? Show that 𝛼 = 𝛽 (2019)
3
P

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. A metre bar of steel is correct at 0 oC and another at -2.5 oC what will be the difference between their
lengths at 30 oC? (for steel 𝛼 = 1.1 × 10 −5 oC-1 ).(1995)Ans: 2.75x10 -5 m
ii. A glass flask is filled to the mark with 60cm3 of mercury at 20 oC. if the flask and its content are heated at
U

40 oC, how much mercury will be above the mark? 𝛼for glass = 9x10 -6 /oC and 𝛽 for mercury = 182x10 -
6 /oC.(1997)Ans: 0.186cm3

iii. A cylinder of diameter 1cm at 30 oC is to be slide into a hole in a steel plate. The hole has a diameter of
0.99970 cm at 30 oC. To what temperature must the plate be heated? 𝛼 = 1.1 × 10−5 oC-1 (2002)Pre
EngAns: 57.28 oC
iv. A brass ring of 20cm diameter is to be mounted on a metal rod of 20.02cm diameter at 20 oC. To what
temperature should the ring be heated? (𝛼brass =19x10 -6oC-1 ). (2005)Ans: 72.63 oC
v. Find the change in volume of a brass sphere of 0.6m diameter when it is heated from 30 oC to 100 oC?
(𝛼=19x10 -6oC-1 ). (2006)Ans: 4.5x10 -4 m3
vi. A Celsius thermometer in a laboratory reads surrounding temperature as 30 oC, what is the temperature
on Fahrenheit and Absolute scale? (2006)Ans: 86 oF, 303K

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 vii. A steel bar is 10cm in length at -2.5 oC. what will be the change in its length when it is at 25 oC? (𝛽for steel
= 3.3x10 -5 K-1 ). (2008)Ans: 3.025x10 -3 m
viii. Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere 0f 0.4m radius when it is heated from 0 to 100 oC.
(𝛼=2.4x10 -5 K-1 ) (2019) Ans: 0.0019m3

Numericals Form Book:

i. A normal body temperature is 98.4 oF. what is this temperature on Celsius scale? Ans: 36.88 oC
ii. At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales coincide? Ans: -40 o
iii. A steel rod has length of exactly 0.2cm at 30 oC. what will be its length at 60 oC? (𝛼= 1.1x10 -5 K-1 ).
Ans: 0.20066cm
iv. Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere 0f 0.4m r adius when it is heated from 0 to 100 oC.
(𝛼=2.4x10 -5 K-1 ) Ans: 0.0019m3
v. A steel rod has length of 10cm at a temperature of 25 oC. What will be the increase in length if the

I
temperature is raised to 35 oC? given 𝛼=1.1x10 -5 K-1 . Ans: 1.1x10 -3 cm
Assignment # 11.1

-I
i. Differentiate between heat and temperature.
ii. What is thermal expansion? Define coefficient of linear and cubic thermal expansion and derive their
expressions.
iii. Derive the relation between coefficient of linear and cubic thermal expansion.
iv. What is bimetallic strip? Explain its working in thermostat and fire alarm.
v.

vi.

vii.
(𝛼=1.7x10 -5 oc -1 ).
S
A copper bar is 80cm long at 15 oc. What is the increase in length when it is heated to 35 oc?
Ans: 2.7x10 -4 m
A measurement steel tape is calibrated at 20 oc. On a cold day when the temperature is -15 oc, what will be
the percentage error in the tape? (𝛼=1.1x10 -5 oc -1 ) Ans: -0.039%
A copper rod (𝛼=1.70x10 -5 oc -1 ) is 20 cm longer than an aluminum rod (𝛼=2.20x10 -5 oc -1 ). How long should
S
the copper rod be if the difference in their lengths is to be independent of temperature? Ans: 0.88m
viii. A glass flask is filled to the mark with 50cm3 of mercury at 18 oc. If the flask and its contents are heated to
38 oc, how much mercury will be above the mark? 𝛼glass =9.0x10 -6 oc -1 and 𝛽mercury=182x10 -6 oc -1Ans:
0.15cm3
ix. A rod 3m long is found to have expanded 0.091cm in length after a temperature rise of 60 oC. What is the
P

coeff. of linear expansion for the material of the rod. Ans: 5.1x10 -6 oc -1
x. At 15 oc, a bare wheel has a diameter of 30cm and the inside diameter of steel rim is 29.93cm. To what
temperature must the rim be heated so as slip over the wheel? (𝛼steel=1.1x10 -5oc -1 ) Ans: 227 oC
xi. 𝛼 For glass is 9.0x10 -6oc -1 . If a specific gravity bottle holds 50mL at 15 oc, find its capacity at 25 oc. Ans:
50.014mL
U

Ex# 11.2
Exercise based on Gas Laws and General Gas Equation:
MCQs
i. Volume is inversely proportional to pressure of a given mass of a gas provided that its temperature is kept
constant is called____________.
a) Charles’s Law b) Boyle’s Law c) General Gas Law d) None of these
ii. Volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportion to absolute temperature of gas provided pressure is
kept constant is called_____________.
a) Charles’s Law b) Boyle’s Law c) General Gas Law d) None of these
iii. The value of universal gas constant R is_____________.

Page 31 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) 8.314 JK-1 mole b) 8.314 Jmole-1 K-1 c) 83.14 Jmole-1 K-1 d) None of these
iv. The temperature at which al l gases becomes liquid is ________.
a) 273K b) -273K c) Absolute zero(0 k) d) None of these
v. In the formula PV=nRT “n” denotes____________.
a) Number of molecules b) Number of moles c) Avogadro Number d) None of these
vi. -273 oC is called_______________.
a) Absolute zero b) Absolute temperature c) Bothe A and B d) None of these
vii. At -273 oC the volume of a gas is ___________.
a) 273m3 b) Maximum c) zero d) None of these
viii. According to general gas equation PV=______________.
a) Constant b) RT c) nRTd) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.
B A B C B A C C

I
Questions From Past Papers:
i. State perfect gas laws and show that they may be combined to give the equation of state of an ideal gas.

-I
(1993)
ii. State and explain Boyle’s law and Charles’s law. (2000)
iii. Deduce the General gas equation PV=nRT. (2001)
iv. State the gas laws. How are they combined to give the equation of an ideal gas? (2006)
Numericals From Past Papers:
i.

ii.
the gas in centigrade.
S
One gram mole of a gas occupies a volume of 24.93m3 at a pressure of 500N/m2 . Find the temperature of

o 5 2
(1991)Ans: 1226.27 oc
A tank contains 20.0 liters of air at 30 C and 5.01x10 N/m pressure. What is the mass of air and what
volume will it occupy at one atmospheric pressure at 0 oC? the average molecular mass of air is 28.8
gmole-1 . (1993)Ans: 0.1145kg, 89.38liters
S
iii. Calculate the volume occupied by a gram mole of gas at 10 oC and pressure of one atmospheric.
(2000)Ans: 0.023m3
iv. An air storage tank whose volume is 110liters contains 2Kg of air at a pressure of 15atm. How much air
would have to force into the tank to increased the pressure to 18atm, assuming no change in
temperature. (2003)Pre MedAns: 0.4Kg
P

v. A scientist stores 22gm of a gas in a tank at 1200 atmospheres. Overnight the tank developed slightly
leakage and the pressure drops to 950 atmospheres. Calc ulate the mass of the gas escaped.
(2009)Ans: 4.58gm
Numericals From Book:
i. An air storage tank whose volume is 112 liters contains 3Kg of air at a pressure of 18 atmospheres. How
U

much air would have to be forced into the tank to increase the pressure to 21 atmospheres assuming no
change in temperature.Ans: 0.5Kg
ii. Calculate the volume occupied by a gram mole of a gas at 0 oC and a pressure 0f 1 atmosphere.Ans:
0.0225m3
Assignment # 11.2
i. State the gas laws. How are they combined to give the equation of an ideal gas?
ii. A mass of oxygen occupies 0.02m3 at atmospheric pressure of 101Kpa and 5 oc. Determine its volume if its
pressure in increased to 108Kpa while its temperature is changed to 30 oc. Ans 0.0204m3
iii. The gauge pressure in a car tire is 305Kpa when its temperature is 15 oc. After running at high speed the
tire has heated up and its pressure is 360Kpa . What is then the temperature of the gas in the tire? Assume
atmospheric pressure to be 101Kpa. [Hint: P 1 =305+101=406Kpa, P 2 =360+101=461Kpa]. Ans: 54 oc

Page 32 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iv. An ideal gas has a volume of exactly 1 liter at 1atm and -20 oc. To how many atms. pressure must it be
subjected to be compressed to 0.5 liter when the temperature is 40 oc? Ans: 2.47atm
v. A 3-liter tank contains oxygen gas at 20 oc and a pressure of 26x10 5 pa. What mass of oxygen gas is in the
tank? The molecular mass of oxygen gas is 32g/mol. Ans: 0.10Kg
vi. Determine the volume occupied by 4.0g of oxygen (M=32g/mol) at STP. Ans 2.8x10 -3 m3
vii. A 2mg droplet of liquid nitrogen is present in a 30mL tube as it is sealed off at very low temperature.
What will be the nitrogen pressure in the tube when it is warmed to 20 oc? Express your answer in
atmospheres. (M=28Kg/Kmol). Ans: 0.057atm
viii. 100gm of a gas are in a tank at 500 atm. Some gas is leaked from the tank and pressure drops to 300atm.
Calculate the mass of the gas escaped. Ans: 40gm
Ex# 11.3
Exercise based on Kinetic Molecular theory of Gases:

I
MCQs

-I
i. The average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of gasses at absolute temperature T
is_____________.
2 3 1
a) 𝑘𝑇 b) 𝑘𝑇 c) 𝑘𝑇 d) None of these
3 2 2
ii. Root mean square velocity of a gas molecules in a container can be calculated as__________.

iii.

iv.
a) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
3𝑚
𝑘𝑇
b) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
S 3𝑘𝑇
𝑚
c) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √

The universal gas constant per molecule is called____________.

𝑘𝑇
𝑚
d) None of these

a) Stefen’s constant b) Boltzmann’s constant c) Gravitational constant d) None of these

The value of Boltzmann’s constant is__________.
a) 1.6x10 -23 Jk-1 b) 3.85x10 -23 Jk-1 c) 1.38x10 -23 Jk-1 d) None of these
S
v. If a molecule with momentum mv x strikes a wall and rebound then the change in Momentum will
be___________.
a) 2mvx b) -2mvxc) mvx d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v.
B B B C B
P

Question From Past Papers:

i. State the basic assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases. Show that the pressure of an ideal
1
gas is 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ 2 where “𝜌”is the density of gas. (1996)
3
ii. What are the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases?
1
Starting from the equation 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ 2, show that the absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly
U

3
proportional to the average transla tion kinetic energy of the molecule. Verify Charles’s law on the basis of
the kinetic theory of gases. (1998)
1
iii. Using the equation of pressure 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑛𝑣 𝑣̅ 2 . Verify Boyle’s law and Charles’s law on the basis of kinetic
3
theory of gases. (2000)
1 2
iv. Using the equation of pressure 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ . Prove that the absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly
3
proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules.
(2002)Pre Med
v. Verify Boyle’s law and Charles’s law on the basis of kinetic theory of gasses.
(2002)Pre Eng
1
vi. Show that the pressure of an ideal gas is 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ 2, where “𝜌”is the density of the gas. (2003)Pre Med
3
vii. State the basic assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases. (2003)Pre Eng
Page 33 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 1
viii. Using the equation of pressure 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ 2. Prove that the absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly
3
proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules.
(2006)
ix. State the basic assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases. (2007)
1
x. Show that the pressure of an ideal gas is 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ 2, where “𝜌” represents the density of the gas. Verify
3
the Boyle’s law on the basis of the kinetic theory. (2007)
1 2
xi. Using the relation 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑣̅ deduce the expressions of the Boyle’s law and the Charles’s law.
3
(2008)
xii. Show that the average translational kinetic energy per molecule is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. (2009)
xiii. Derive the relation for the pressure of an ideal gas in terms of its density and mean square velocity.
(2009)

I
xiv. On the basis of kinetic molecular theory of gases. Derive an expression for the pressure of a gas. Also
show that the absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the average translation

-I
kinetic energy of the molecules. (2010)
xv. Derive the relation for the pressure on an ideal ga s in terms of its density and mean square velocity.
(2012)
1
xvi. On the basis of kinetic molecular theory of gases, show that 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉̅ 2 .(2014)
3
1
̅̅̅2 = 3 𝐾𝑇.(2015)
xvii.
xviii. S
On the basis of KMT of gases, show that: 𝑚𝑣
2 2
Derive an expression for the pressure of an ideal gas in term of its density and mean square
speed.

Numericals From Past Papers:

(2017)
S
i. At a certain temperature the average kinetic energy of hydrogen molecule is 6.2x10 -21 J, the mass of the
hydrogen molecule is 3.1x10 -27 Kg. Find a) The temperature and b) RMS speed.
(1990)Ans: 299.5K, 2x10 3 m/s
ii. Find the rms speed of nitrogen molecules at 27 oC. given the mass of nitrogen molecules to be
4.67x10 -26 Kg, K=1.38x10 -23 Joules/K. (1996)Ans: 515.71m/s
Find the root mean square velocity of a hydrogen molecule at 7 oC. take the mass of hydrogen molecule to
P

iii.
be 3.32x10 -27 Kg and Boltzmann’s constant=1.38x10 -23 J/K. (1998)Ans: 1868.57 m/s
iv. Find the Vrms of hydrogen molecules at 100 oC. take mass of molecule 3.32x10 -27 Kg. (2002)Pre MedAns:
2156.66m/s
v. Calculate the density of the hydrogen gas, considering it to be an ideal gas, when the V rms of its molecule
is 1850m/s at 0 oC and 1atm. (2004)Ans: 0.08853Kg/m3
U

vi. Calculate the density of hydrogen gas, considering it to be an ideal gas, when the V rms of its molecule is
1850m/s at 0 oC and 1atm. (2007)Ans: 0.08853 Kg/m3
vii. Calculate root mean square speed of oxygen molecules at 800K. its molar mass is 32gm and universal gas
constant R=8.31J/mole-K.(2014) Ans: 789.6 m/s
viii. Calculate the temperature at which the root mean square speed of hydrogen molecules is
3300m/s. give your answer in degree Celsius (m=3.32x10-27kg) (2017) Ans: 600oC

Numericals From Book:

i. Calculate the root mean square speed of hydrogen molecule at 800K.Ans: 3158.6 ms -1
ii. a) Determine the average value of the kinetic energy of the particles of an ideal gas at 0 oC and at 50 oC. b)
What is the kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas at these temperature?Ans: 5.65x10 -21 J, 6.68x10 -21J,
3404.5J/mole, 4026.2 J/mole.

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 iii. Calculate the Vrms of hydrogen molecules at 0.00 oC and 1.00 atm pressure, assuming hydrogen to be an
ideal gas. Under these conditions hydrogen has density 𝜌 of 8.99x10 -2 Kg/m3 .Ans: 1835.86 ms -1
Assigment # 11.3
i. State the basic assumptions of the K.M.T of gasses.
ii. Derive the expression for the pressure of an ideal gas.
iii. Show that the average translational KE of a molecule is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
of the gas.
iv. Verify Boyle’s law and Charle’s law.
v. Ordinary nitrogen gas consists of molecules of N2 . Find the mass of one such molecule. The molecular
mass is 28g/mol. Ans: 4.7x10 -26 Kg
vi. Helium gas consists of separate He atoms rather than molecules. How many helium atoms, He, are there
in 2g of helium? M=4g/mol for He. Ans: 3x10 23

I
vii. Find the rms speed of nitrogen molecule (M=28g/mol) in air at 0 oc. Ans: 493m/s
viii. Air at room temperature has a density of about 1.29kg/m3 at 1atm assuming it to be entirely one gas,

-I
find Vrms for its molecules. Ans: 484m/s
Ex # 11.4
Exercise based on Specific heat and First law of thermodynamics:
MCQs
i.

ii.
S
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by unit degree is called_____________.
a) Specific heat capacity b) Heat capacity c) Molar heat capacity d) None of these
The quantity of heat requi red to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by unit degree is
called____________.
S
a) Specific heat b) Heat capacity c) Molar heat capacity d) None of these
iii. The unit(s) of heat capacity is___________.
a) Jk-1 b) JoC-1 c) Both d) None of these
iv. The unit(s) of specific heat capacity is___________.
a) JKg-1 K-1 b) JKg-1oC-1 c) Both d) None of these
P

v. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of substance by unit
Kelvin______________.
a) Specific heat b) Heat capacity c) Molar specific heat d) None of these
vi. The unit of molar specific heat is___________.
a) Jmole-1 K-1 b) Jmole-1oC-1 c) Both d) None of these
U

vii. For gases___________.

a) Cp>Cvb) Cp<Cvc) Cp=Cvd) None of these
viii. The difference between Cp and Cv is equal to______________.
a) Universal gas constant b) Boltzmann constant c) Stefen’s constant d) None of these
ix. Specific heat of polyatomic gases___________.
a) Less than monoatomic gases b) Higher than monoatomic gases c) Equal than monoatomic
gases d) None of these
x. To determine molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) a required system has___________.
a) A cylinder with movable piston b) A cylinder with fixed piston c) Both d) None of these
xi. To determine molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv) a required system has___________.
a) A cylinder with movable piston b) A cylinder with fixed piston c) Both d) None of these
xii. First law f thermodynamics is merely a statement of law of conversion of__________.

Page 35 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Angular momentum b) Energy c) Linear momentum d) None of these
xiii. The system in which transformation of neither matter nor energy take place is called_________.
b) Open system b) Closed system c) Isolated system d) None of these
xiv. Mathematical expression for first law of thermodynamics_______________.
a) ∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 + ∆𝑊 b) ∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑊 c) ∆𝑊 = ∆𝑄 + ∆𝑈 d) None of these
xv. When work is done by the system. It is taken as_______________.
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) None of these
xvi. When work is done on the system it is taken as_____________.
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) None of these
xvii. In an isothermal process the internal energy of the system____________.
a) Increases b) Decreases c) Remains constant d) None of these
xviii. The maximum work done can be measured in the process called____________.
a) Isobaric b) Adiabatic c) Isothermal d) None of these

I
xix. First law of thermodynamics when applied to an adiabatic process becomes___________.
a) ∆𝑊 = ∆𝑈 b) ∆𝑊 = ∆𝑄c) ∆𝑊 = −∆𝑈d) None of these

-I
xx. For an isobaric process__________.
a) ∆𝑊 = 0b) ∆𝑊 = ∆𝑈c) ∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉d) None of these
xxi. For an isochoric process____________.
a) ∆𝑊 = 0 b) ∆𝑈 = 0 c) ∆𝑄 = 0 d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv.

A
B
xv.
A
xvi.
B
C
xvii.
C
C
xviii.

Questions From Past Papers:

i.
C
C
xix.
C
C
S
xx.
C
A
xxi.
A
A B A B

Define molar specific heat of gasses at constant volume and constant pressure.
B

(1994)
C B
S
ii. Prove that for mono atomic gases Cp-Cv=R. (1994)
𝐶𝑝
iii. Calculate (1994)
𝐶𝑣
iv. State and explain the first law of thermodynamics. (1994)
v. Apply this law to explain any two of the following. (1994)
a) Isobaric process
P

b) Isochoric process
c) Isothermal process
d) Adiabatic Process
vi. State first law of thermodynamics and explain the terms in it. Explain isobaric process and isothermal
process. (1996)
U

vii. What is thermodynamics? State the two laws of thermodynamics? Explain what do you mean by
isothermal and adiabatic process. (1998)
viii. What is molar specific heat? Why does a gas have two molar specific heats? Define them. Derive an
expression for the difference of two molar specific heat of a gas. (1999)
5
ix. Show that for a mono atomic gas Cp = R, where the symbols Cp and R have their usual meanings.
2
(1999)
x. What is thermodynamics? State and explain the first law of thermodynamics. (2000)
xi. On the basis of the first law of thermodynamics. Explain a) Isobaric process b) Isothermal process.
(2000)
xii. Show that Cp-Cv=R. (2001)

Page 36 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xiii. On the basis of the first law of thermodynamics. Explain a) Isobaric process b) Isothermal process.
(2002)Pre Med
xiv. Explain any one of the following. a) Isobaric process b) Adiabatic process (2002)Pre Eng
xv. Show that the difference between molar specific heat of gas at constant pressure and mo lar specific heat
of a gas at constant volume is equal to the universal gas constant. (2003)Pre Med
xvi. Using the first law of thermodynamics prove the relation Cp-Cv=R. where the symbols are usual meanings.
(2003)Pre Eng
xvii. State the first law of thermodynamics and apply this law to a) Isobaric process b) Isochoric process.
(2004)
xviii. Derive the expression ofCp-Cv=R. where the symbols are usual meanings. (2004)
xix. Briefly describe any two processes of thermodynamics. Draw the graph and give the mathematical
equation of each. (2005)
xx. Define heat capacity, specific heat and molar specific heat. Write down their formula and the unit,

I
Establish the relation between molar specific heat and common specific heat.
(2005)

-I
xxi. State 1 st and 2 nd law of thermodynamics. Describe briefly Isobaric process or Adiabatic process with
graphical representation. (2006)
xxii. Using the first law of thermodynamics. Show that sum of molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume
and the molar gas constant is equal to the mola r specific heat of the gas at constant pressure.
(2006)
xxiii.

xxiv.
(2007)
S
Define heat capacity, specific heat and molar specific heat. Write down the mathematical relations a nd
their units. Establish the equation of relation between the molar specific heat and common specific heat.

Employing the 1 st law of thermodynamics in two isotherms at different temperatures obtained on PV

diagram. Show that Cp-Cv = R. why is the specific heat at constant pressure greater than the specific heat
S
at constant volume? (2008)
xxv. State and explain the 1 law of thermodynamics. On the basis of the 1 st law explain Isothermal or Isobaric
st

process. (2009)
xxvi. Using first law of thermodynamics in two isotherms of an ideal gas at different temperatures. Show that
Cp-Cv=R. (2010)
P

xxvii. Give the two statements of the second law of thermodynamics. On the basis of the first law of
thermodynamics, explain Isobaric process and derive its equation. (2013)
xxviii. State the first law of thermodynamics and explain on its basis i) Isobaric process ii) Isothermal process.
(2015)
xxix. Show that the difference of molar specific heat capacity a constant pressure and molar specific
U

heat capacity at constant volume for an ideal gas is equal to the universal gas constant. (2018)

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. 10kg of water falls through a height of 854m and all the energy is effective in heating the water. To what
temperature will the water be raised if it was initially at 20 oC? (1986)Ans: 21.99 oC
ii. A cylinder contains an ideal gas below frictionless piston in it. If the gas in the cylinder is supplied 3000J of
heat and the pistons rise by 0.35m, while the internal energy of the system increases by 400J. Calculate
the work done by the piston. (1991)Ans: 2600J
iii. The molar specific heat of a monatomic gas at constant volume is 3/2R. find its molar specific heat at
constant pressure. Also show that 𝛾 =1.66 for monatomic gases. (1993)

Page 37 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iv. 1200 Joules of heat energy are supplied to the system at constant pressure. The internal energy of the
system is increased by 750 joules and the volume by 4.5 cubic meters. Find the work done against piston
and the pressure on the piston. (1994)Ans: 450J, 100N/m2
v. In an isobaric process when 2000J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder, the piston moves
through 0.1m under a constant pressure 1.01x10 5 N/m2 . If the area of the piston is 5x10 -2 m2 , calculate the
work done and the increase in the internal energy of the system.
(1996)Ans: 505J, 1495J
vi. Show that for a monatomic gas Cp=5/2R, where the symbols Cp and R have their usual meanings.
(1999)
vii. When 2000J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder at constant pressure of 1.01x10 5 N/m2 , piston
of area of cross section 2x10 -2 m2 , moves through 0.5m, calculate work done and increase in internal
energy. (2000)Ans: 1010J, 990J
viii. If one mole of monatomic gas is heated at constant pressure from -30 oC to 20 oC, find the change in its

I
internal energy and the work done during the process. (2001)Ans: 625J, 415J
ix. When 2000J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder at constant pressu re of 1.01x10 5 N/m2 , piston

-I
of area of cross section 2x10 -2 m2 . Moves through 0.5m, calculate work done and increase in internal
energy. (2002)Pre MedAns: 1010J, 990J
x. 1200J of heat energy are supplied to a system at constant pressure. The internal energy of the system is
increased by 750 Joules and the volume by 4.5 cubic meter, find the work done on piston and pressure on
piston. (2003)Pre EngAns:450J, 100N/m2
xi.

xii.
S
A 100gm copper block is heated in boiling water for 10min and then it is dropped into 150gm of water at
30 oC in a 200gm calorimeter. If the temperature of water is raised to 33.6 oC. determine the specific heat
of the material of the calorimeter. (S c = 386J/Kg.K). (2005)Ans: 409.77J/KgoC
In an isobaric process when 2000J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder, the piston of area
2.0x10 -2 m2 moves through 40 cm under a pressure of 1.01x10 5 N/m2 . Calculate the increase in internal
S
energy of the system. (2009)Ans: 1192J
xiii. o
A 200gm piece of metal is heated to 150 C and then dropped into an aluminum calorimeter of mass
500gm, containing 500gm of water initially at 25 oC. find the final equilibrium temperature of the system if
the specific heat of metal is 128.100 J/Kg.K, specific heat of aluminum is 903 J/Kg.K, while the specific heat
of water 4200 J/Kg.K. (2011)Ans: 26.243 oC
P

xiv. A system absorbs 1147 joules of heat, loses 233 joules of heat by conduction to the
surroundings and delivers 614 joules of work. Calculate the change in the internal e nergy of the
system. (2018) Ans: 600J

Numericals From Book:

U

i. A 2kg iron block is taken from a furnace where its temperature was 650 oC and placed on a large block of
ice at 0 oC. Assuming that all the heat given up by the iron is used to melt the ice, how much ice is melted.
(for iron, c= 499.8 JKg-1 K-1 ) (Latent heat of fusion of ice at 0 oC is Lf=3.35x10 5 J/kg) Ans: 1.93Kg
Hint: [Heat lost by iron block = Heat gained by melted iron, cm∆T = mLf]
ii. In a certain process 400J of heat are supplied to a system and at the same time 150J work is done by the
system. What is the increase in the internal energy of the system.Ans: 250J
iii. There is an increase of internal energy by 400J when 800J of work is done by a system. What is the
amount of heat supplied during this process?Ans: 1200J
iv. A 50gram piece of metal is heated to 100 oC and then dropped into a copper calorimeter of mass 400gram
containing 400gram of water initially at 20 oC. if the final equilibrium temperature of the system is 22.4 oC.
find the specific heat of the metal. Specific heat of copper is 386JKg -1 K-1 .Ans: 1134.68JKg-1 K-1

Page 38 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 v. A system absorbs 1000J of heat and delivers 600J of work while losing 100J of heat by conduction to the
atmosphere. Calculate the change in the internal energy of the system.Ans: 300J
vi. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases by 300J. if at the
same time, 120J of work is done on the system, find the heat transferred to or from the system.Ans: -
420J
Assigment # 11.4
i. Define heat capacity, Sp. Heat and molar Sp. Heat. Write their units and formulae. Derive the relation
between i) Heat capacity and sp heat ii) Sp heat and Molar sp heat.
ii. For a monoatomic gas show that:
a) Cp-Cv=R b) Cv=3/2R c) Cp=5/2R d) Cp=5/3Cv e) 𝛾=1.66
iii. State and explain the first law of thermodynamics. On the basis pf this law explain the following
processes. a) Isobaric b) Isochoric c) Isothermal d) Adiabetic

I
Derive their equations and draw their graphs.
iv. How much heat does 25g of aluminum give off as it cools from 100 oc to 20 oc? For aluminum, Sp
heat=880J/Kg.oc. Ans: -1760J

-I
v. A certain amount of heat is added to a mass of aluminum (c=0.21cal/g. oc) and its temperature is raised by
57 oc. Suppose that the same amount of heat is added to the same mass of copper (c=0.093cl/g. oc). How
much does the temperature of the copper rise? Ans: 129 oc
vi. Two identical metal plates (have same mass and same sp.heat) have different temperature one is at 20 oc

vii.

viii.
55 oc S
and the other is at 90 oc. They are placed in good thermal contact. What is their final temperature? Ans:

A thermos bottle contains 250g of coffee at 90 oc. To this is added 20g of milk at 5 oc. After equilibrium is
established what is the temperature of the liquid? Assume no heat loss to the thermos bottle. Sp heat of
coffee and milk is same. Ans: 84 oc
A 200g copper calorimeter can contains 150g of oil at 20 oc. To the oil is added 80g of aluminum at 300 oc.
S
What will be the temperature of the system after equilibrium is established? c for copper = 0.093cal/g.oc.
c for aluminum = 0.21cal/g.oc and c for oil = 0.37cal/goc. Ans: 72 oc
ix. What will be the final temperature if 50g of water at exactly 0 oc is added to 250g of water at 90 oc? Ans:
75 oc
x. In a certain process 8Kcal of heat is furnished to the system while the system does 6KJ of work. By how
P

much does the internal energy of the system change during the process? Ans: 27.5KJ
xi. For each of the following adiabatic process, find the change in internal energy. a) A gas does 5J of work
while expanding adiabatically. b) During an adiabatic compression 80J of work is done on a gas. Ans: -5J,
80J
xii. How much work is done by an ideal gas in expanding from a volume of 3 liters to 30 liters against a
U

constant pressure of 2atm? Ans: 5.5KJ

Ex # 11.5
Exercise based on Second Law of Thermodynamics:
MCQs
i. It is impossible to cause heat to flow from a cold body to hot body without expenditure of work
is______________.
a) Clausius’ statement b) Kelvin statement c) Both d) None of these
ii. the statement which shows that two bodies at different temperatures are essential for working of a heat
engines___________.
a) Clausius’ statement b) Kelvin statement c) Both d) None of these

Page 39 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iii. The law of thermodynamics which discusses the condition under which heat energy is converted into an
equivalent amount of work is____________.
a) 1 st law b) 2 nd law c) 3 rd law d) None of these
iv. Carnot cycle is_____________.
a) Reversible b) Irreversible c) Both d) None of these
v. The efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon__________.
a) Temperature of source only b) Temperature of source and sink c) Both d) None of these
vi. The ratio of output work per cycle to input energy per cycle is called____________.
a) Entropy b) Internal energy c) Efficiency d) None of these
vii. If the temperature difference between the hot body and cold body is greater the heat engine is
_____________.
a) Less efficient b) More efficient c) Not efficient d) None of these
viii. If the temperature of the sink is decreased efficiency of Carnot engine___________.

I
a) Remains constant b) Increase c) Decrease d) None of these
ix. The efficiency of practical Heat engine____________.

-I
a) Can be 100% b) Cannot be 100% c) Is always zero d) None of these
x. The efficiency of Carnot engine is______________.
𝑄1 𝑇1
a) (1 − ) × 100 b) (1 − ) × 100 c) Both d) None of these
𝑄2 𝑇2

xi. Entropy measures the_____________.

xii.

xiii.
a) ∆𝑆 =
𝑄
b) ∆𝑆 =
𝑇
S
a) Disorder of the system b) Orderliness of the system c) Energy of the system d) None of these
When disorder of the system increases, its entropy______________.
a) Increases b) Decrease c) Remains same d) None of these
The change in disorder of the system is equal to___________.
∆𝑇 ∆𝑄
c) ∆𝑆 =
∆𝑄
∆𝑇
d) None of these
S
xiv. Entropy change for reversible process remains constant in_____________.
a) Isothermal process b) Isobaric process c) Adiabatic process d) None of these
xv. Total entropy change during any reversible cycle is_____________.
a) Zero b) Infinite c) Both d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
P

A B B A B C B B B D A A B C A

Question From Past Papers:

i. Give Kelvin’s and Clausius statements for the second law of thermodynamics. (1995)
ii. Describe Carnot cycle. Derive an expression for the efficiency of the Carnot engine. (1995)
U

iii. State Kelvin’s and Clausius statements of the second law of thermodynamics. (1997)
iv. Describe Carnot cycle. Derive an expression for the efficiency of the Carnot engine. (1997)
v. Give the two statements of second law of thermodynamics. (1999)
vi. Describe Carnot engine? Describe the various operation of a Carnot engine and obtain an expression for
its efficiency. (1999)
vii. Derive an expression for the efficiency of the Carnot engine. Draw the labeled graphical representation of
the Carnot engine. (2001)
viii. What is thermodynamics? Give two statements of the second law of thermodynamics. (2002)Pre Med
ix. Describe construction and working of a Carnot engine. (2002)Pre Eng
x. Give Kelvin’s and Clauses statements for the second law of thermodynamics and prove that they are
equivalent. (2003)Pre Med

Page 40 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xi. Explain the concept of Entropy. Also state the second law of thermodynamic in terms of Entropy.
(2003)Pre Eng
xii. What is Carnot engine? Describe the working of a Carnot engine and derive the equation for its efficiency.
(2005)
xiii. Describe the complete operation of a Carnot engine and obtain an expression for its efficiency.
(2007)
xiv. What do you mean by Entropy? Describe the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy.
(2009)
xv. What is Carnot engine? Describe its working cycle. Prove that the efficiency of a Carnot engine is less than
100 percent above absolute zero temperature of the sink. (2009)
xvi. Write down two statements of second law of thermodynamics and prove their equivalence.
(2010)
xvii. What is Carnot engine? Describe its construction, working and derive an expression for its efficiency.

I
(2011)
xviii. What is a Carnot Cycle? Drive expression for its efficiency.

-I
(2014)
xix. Describe Carnot cycle and derive an expression for the efficiency of Carnot engine. (2016)
xx. Write the two statements of the second law of thermodynamics and prove their equivalence.
(2018)
xxi. What is Carnot engine? Give its construction and working. Also derive mathematical expansions

i.
for its efficiency.

Numericals From Past Papers:

S (2019)

The efficiency of a heat engine is 50%. If the temperature of the cold reservoir is 300K, find the
temperature of the hot reservoir. (1987)Ans: 600K
S
ii. A heat engine performs work 0.4166 watts for one hour and rejects 4500J of heat energy to the sink.
What is the efficiency of the engine? (1990)Ans: 25%
iii. A heat engine performs work at the rate of 500K.W. The efficiency of the engine is 30%. Calculate the loss
of the heat per hour. (1995)Ans: 4.2x10 9 J
iv. A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir is at 200K has an efficiency of 50%. It is desired to
P

increase this 75%. By how many degrees mus t the temperature be decreased, If higher temperature of
the reservoir remains constant? (1997)Ans: 100K
v. 540 calories of heat is required to vaporize 1gm of water at 100 oC. Determine the entropy change
involved in vaporizing 5gm of water. (1 calori = 4.2Joules) (1998)Ans: 30.40J/K
vi. Find the efficiency of a Carnot engine working between 100 oC and 50 oC. (1999)Ans: 13.4%
U

vii. An ideal heat engine operate in Carnot’s cycle between temperature 227 C and 127 oC and it absorbs 600
o

Joules of heat energy, find the a) work done per cycle b) efficiency of the engine. Ans: 120J,
20%(2002)Pre Med
viii. A heat engine performs 1000J of work and at the same time rejects 4000J of heat energy to cold reservoir.
What is the efficiency of the engine if the difference in the temperature between sink and source of this
engine is 75 oC, find temperature of its source.Ans: 20%, 375K(2002)Pre Eng
ix. The low temperature reservoir of Carnot engine is at 5 oC and has efficiency of 40%. It is desired to
increase the efficiency to 50%. By how much degrees should the temperature of hot reservoir be
increased? (2003)Pre MedAns: 92.67K
x. The low temperature reservoir of Carnot engine is at 5 oC and has efficiency of 40%. It is desired to
increase the efficiency to 50%. By how much degrees should the temperature of hot reservoir be
increased? (2003)Pre EngAns: 92.67K

Page 41 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xi. The low temperature reservoir of Carnot engine is at -3 oC and has efficiency of 40%. It is desired to
increase the efficiency to 50%. By how much degrees should the temperature of hot reservoir be
increased? (2004) Ans: 90K
xii. A heat engine performs work at the rate of 500KW. The efficiency of the engine is 30%. Calculate the loss
of the heat per hour? (2007)Ans: 4.2x10 9 J
xiii. A Carnot engine performs 2000J of work and rejects 4000J of heat to the sink. If the difference of
temperature between the source and the sink is 85 oC, find the temperatures of the source and the sink?
(2008)Ans: 255K, 170K
xiv. A heat engine performing 400J work in each cycle has an efficiency of 25%. How much heat is absorbed
and rejected in each cycle? (2010)Ans: 1600J, 1200J
xv. The difference of temperature between hot and a cold body is 120 OC. if the heat engine is 30% efficient,
find the temperature of the hot and cold body. (2013)Ans: 400k, 280k
xvi. A heat engine performs 200J of work in each cycle and has efficiency of 30%. For each cycle of operation,

I
a) How much heat is absorbed? B) How much heat is expelled?(2015) Ans: 666.6 J, 466.6 J
xvii. The high temperature reservoir of a Carnot engine is at 200 oC and has an efficiency of 35%. To increase

-I
the efficiency to 45%, by how many degrees should the temperature of cold reservoir be decreased if the
temperature of the high temperature reservoir remains constant? (2016) Ans: 47.3 K
Numericals From Book:
i. A heat engine performs 200J of work in each cycle and has efficiency of 20 percent. For each cycle of
operation a) How much heat is absorbed and b) How much heat is expelled? Ans: 1000J, 800J
ii.

iii.
efficiency for this engine?Ans: 48%
S
A heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperatures of 25 oC and 300 oC. what is the maximum

The low temperature reservoir of a Carnot engine is at 7 oC and has an efficiency of 40%. It is desired to
increase the efficiency to 50%. By how much degrees the temperature of hot reservoir be increased.Ans:
93.4K
S
Assigment # 11.5
i. State and explain two statements of second law of thermodynamics. Show that these are equivalent to
each other.
ii. Explain the concept of entropy. Also state the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy.
iii. What is Carnot engine? Describe its working cycle derive the equations for its efficiency and draw PV-
P

diagram of Carnot cycle. Show that the efficiency of Carnot engine is less then 100%.
iv. 20g of ice at precisely 0 oc melts to water with no change in temperature. By how much does the entropy
of the 20g mass change in this process? Lf=3.35x10 5 J/Kg. [Hint: ∆Q=mLf ]. Ans: 25J/K
v. An ideal gas is confined to a cylinder by a piston. The piston is pushed down slowly s o that the gas
temperature remains at 20 oc. During the compression, 730J of work is done on the gas. Find the entropy
U

change of the gas. [Hint: for isothermal process ∆u=0 and ∆Q=∆w]. Ans: -2.49J/K
vi. Compute the entropy change of 5g of water at 100 oc as it changes to steam at 100 oc under standard
pressure. Lv=540cal/g. Ans: 30.4J/k
vii. A Heat engine performing 1000J work in each cycle has an efficiency of 30%. How much heat is absorbed
and rejected in each cycle? Ans: 3333.3J, 2333.3J
viii. The difference of temperature between hot and cold bodies is 100 oc. If the heat engine is 40% efficient,
find the temperature of the hot and cold bodies. Ans: 250k, 150k
ix. The efficiency of het engine is 75%. If the temperature of the hot reservoir is 100 oc, find the temperature
of cold reservoir. Ans: 93.25K
x. A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir is at -10 oc, has an efficiency of 30%. It is desired to
increase this 50%. By how many degrees must the temperature of sink be decreased, if temperature of
source remains constant? Ans: 75K

Page 42 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 MCQs From Past Papers: (complete chapter)
(2001)
i. The pressure exerted by the gas molecules on the walls of a vessel increases if the:
a) Temperature of the gas decreases b)Velocity of the molecule of the gas decrease c) Collision
of the molecules of the gas with its walls increases d) None of the above happens
ii. The net change in entropy of a system in a natural process is:
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Infinite
iii. Which of the following statements is true:
a) Heat can be converted completely into work
b) Work can be converted completely into heat
c) Both work and heat are inter-convertible
d) Neither heat nor work is inter-convertible

I
iv. The K.E of the molecules of an ideal gas at absolute zero temperature will be:
a) Infinite b) Zero c) Very high d) Below zero
v. In an isothermal process, the internal energy of the system:

-I
a) Remains the same b) Increases c) Decreases d) None of them happen
vi. Real gas molecules do not strictly obey gas laws at:
a) High pressure and low temperature
b) Low pressure and high temperature

vii.
d) None of the above

Chose the correct statement:

S
c) High pressure and high temperature

(2002)Pre Eng

a) The product of P and T is constant if the volume is constant

b) The ratio of P and V is constant if the temperature is constant
S
c) The product of P and V is constant if the temperature is constant
d) The product of V and T is constant if the pressure kept constant
viii. The S.I unit of heat:
a) Joule b) Calorie c) Centigrade d) Fahrenheit
ix. Zero on the Celsius is equal to:
P

a) 273K b) 32K c) 100K d) 212K

x. The internal energy of the system depends on:
a) Pressure b) Volume c) Temperature d) Entropy
xi. The entropy of the universe:
a) Always remains constant b) Always decreases c) Either remains constant or increases
U

d) Always increases
xii. The process during which no external work is performed i s:
a) Isothermal b) Isochoric c) Isobaric d) Adiabatic
(2002)Pre Med
xiii. The temperature on Fahrenheit scale corresponding the absolute zero is :
a) 32 oF b) -180 oF c) -460 oF d) 212 oF
xiv. o
The pressure exerted by a column of mercury 76cm high at 0 C is called :
a) 1 liter b) 1cm3 c) 1 atmosphere d) 1 N/m2
xv. The universal gas constant per molecule in 1 mol is called:
a) Plank’s constant b) Stefan’s constant c) Avogadro’s constant d) Boltzmann’s constant
xvi. The quantity of heat required for per degree rise in temperature of a body is called :
a) Heat of vaporization b) Heat of fusion c) Specific heat capacity d) Heat capacity

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 xvii. The P-V diagram shown in the figure is for:
P
a) An isothermal change b) An adiabatic change c) An isochoric change d) None of these
xviii. In isobaric process the work done is equal to: V
a) Cv/n∆T b) Cp/n∆T c) R∆T/n d) nR∆T
(2003)Pre Eng
xix. According to Charles’s Law:
a) PV = constant b) V/T = constant c) VT = constant d) P/V = constant
xx. The temperature at which centigrade scale is equal to Fahrenheit scale:
a) 0 o b) -32 o c) -40 o d) -273 o
xxi. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance through 1 oC is known as:
a) Specific heat b) Latent heat c) Calories d) Joule
xxii. The maximum efficiency of a heat engine is obtained by:
a) Increasing the temperature of hot and cold body simultaneously, keeping other factors constant

I
b) Decreasing the temperature of the sink and increasing the temperature, of the source, keeping
other factors constant

-I
c) Decreasing the temperature simultaneously
d) None of these
xxiii. The change of entropy is given by:
a) ∆S=∆Q/T b) ∆S =T/∆Q c) ∆S =∆Q/∆T d) ∆S=∆U/T
(2003)Pre Med
xxiv.

xxv.

xxvi.
273 Kelvin corresponds to:
a) 273 oC
One cubic meter is equal :.
a) 10 6 cm3
b) -32 oC
S
b) 10 2 cm3
c) 0 oC

c) 10 3 cm3
d) 273 oC

d) 10 -3 cm3
If the pressure of a gas is doubled, keeping the temperature constant, the volume of the gas is :
S
a) Reduced to 0ne-forth b) Double c) Reduced to one-half of the original volume d) Increased
four times
xxvii. According to Charle’s Law:
a) VT= constant when the pressure is constant
b) V/T=constant when the pressure is constant
P

c) PV=constant when the temperature is constant

d) None of these
xxviii. If the volume of the system remains constant during the process, it is called:
a) Isochoric b) Isothermal c) Isobaric d) Adiabatic
xxix. Boltzmann constant is equal to:
U

a) RNA b) R/NA c) NA/R d) √𝑅/NA

(2004)
xxx. During the Adiabatic change, the pressure and the volume formula of gas is given by:
a) PV = constant b) 𝑃𝛾 V= constant c) (𝑃𝑉) 𝛾 =constant d) 𝑃𝑉𝛾 =constant
xxxi. Centigrade and Fahrenheit scale can never be equal at any temperature. (True, False)
xxxii. The coefficient of linear expansion is_________ times the coefficient of volume expansion.(fill in the
blank)
xxxiii. The unit of specific heat is :
a) JKg-1oC-1 b) JKgK-1 c) JKgoC d) JKg-1oC
xxxiv. If heat is removed from the system, the change in entropy is positive. (True, False)
xxxv. In an isobaric process the work done is :

Page 44 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2005)
xxxvi. RMS velocity of a gas molecule at absolute zero temperature is:
a) 9x10 6 m/sec b) 3x10 3 m/sec c) 273m/sec d) Zero
xxxvii. The value of Boltzmann constant is :
a) 3.85x10 -23 JK-1 b) 2.185x10 -12 JK-1 c) 1.62x10 -22 JK-1 d) 1.38x10 -23 JK-1
xxxviii. The heat required to produce a unit change in the temperature of a unit mass of substance is called :
a) Heat capacity b) Molar heat c) Specific heat d) Latent heat
xxxix. The difference of molar specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume p er mole is called:
a) Molar heat b) Heat constant c) Boltzmann constant d) Gas constant
xl. A domestic pressure cooker is based on:
a) Adiabatic process b) Isothermal process c) Isobaric process d) Isochoric process
xli. The absolute temperature corresponding to 212 oF is:
a) 485K b) 373K c) 161K d) 100K

I
(2006)
xlii. In Celsius scale 1 oC in magnitude is equal to:

-I
a) 32 oF b) 16 oC c) 0 oC d) 1.8 oF
xliii. The maximum work done can be measured in the process called:
a) Isobaric b) Isochoric c) Isothermal d) Adiabatic
xliv. The change in disorder of the system is equal to:
∆𝑇 ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
a) ∆𝑆 = b) ∆𝑆 = c) ∆𝑆 = d) ∆𝑆 = ∆𝑄. 𝑇
xlv.

xlvi.

xlvii.
𝑄
One cubic metre volume is equal to:
a) 10 2 cm3
S
b) 10 3 cm3
𝑇

In C.G.S system one calorie of heat is equal to:

a) 11.184J b) 2.184J
The efficiency of Carnot engine is given by:
c) 10 6 cm3

c) 3.164J
∆𝑇

d) 10 -3 cm3

d) 4.184J
S
𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇2
a) 1− b) −1 c) −1 d) None of them
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇1

(2007)
xlviii. Fahrenheit and Celsius scales of temperature coincide at:
a) 0 o b) 273 o c) -273 o d) -40 o
P

xlix. The volume of a given gas at constant pressure become zero at:
a) 273K b) 273 oC c) -273K d) -273 oC
l. According to the kinetic theory of gases the absolute temperature of a perfect gas is :
a) Inversely proportional to the K.E of the molecules
b) Independent of the kinetic energy of the molecules
U

c) Equal to the kinetic energy of the molecules

d) Directly proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules
li. The area of a Carnot cycle represents :
a) Useful work b) Energy loss due to leakage c) Heat rejected d) Heat absorbed
lii. Two ends “A” and “B” of a rod are at temperatures -10 oC and -30 oC. the heat will flow from:
a) -30 oC to -10 oC b) Will not flow at all c) -10 oC to -30 oC d) None of the above
liii. 273 K is equal to:
a) 0 oF b) -32 oC c) -273 oF d) 32 oF
(2008)
liv. The kinetic energy per mole of gas is :
a) 3/2 kT b) 2/3 kT c) 3/2 RT d) nRT

Page 45 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 lv. If the volume of a given mass of a gas is double without changing its temperature, the pressure of the gas
is______________.
a) Reduced to ½ of the initial value
b) The same as the initial value
c) Reduced to ¼ of the initial value
d) Double of the initial value
lvi. A bimetallic thermostat works on the principle of:
a) Linear expansion b) Bulk expansion c) Differential linear expansion d) All the these
lvii. The area bounded by an isothermal and an adiabatic curve in a PV diagram for a heat engine represents :
a) Heat intake b) Heat rejected c) Work done d) Total kinetic energy
lviii. Entropy has been called the degree of disorder because:
a) The entropy of the universe remains constant
b) The entropy of the universe always increase

I
c) The entropy of the universe always decrease
d) None of these

-I
lix. A thermodynamic process in which the change in volume of the system is zero tells that:
a) The work done by the system is maximum
b) The work done on and by the system is zero
c) The work done on the system is maximum
d) None of the above

lx.

lxi.
Heat energy cannot be measured in:
a) Joule
S
b) B.T.U
(2009)

c) Kelvin
Boyle’s law holds good for an ideal gas in a process called:
a) Isobaric b) Isochoric c) Isothermal
d) Calorie

d) Adiabatic
S
lxii. According to the second law of thermodynamics 100 percent conversion of heat energy into work is :
a) Possible b) Not possible c) Possible when conditions are ideal
d) Possible when conditions are not ideal
lxiii. If no heat flows into or out of a system, the process is called:
a) Isobaric b) Isochoric c) Isothermal d) Adiabatic
P

lxiv. The molar heat capacities of polyatomic gases as compared to mono atomic gases are:
a) Greater b) Smaller c) Equal d) Infinite
lxv. Thermostat is a device used to keep the:
a) Temperature constant b) Entropy constant c) Heat constant d) Pressure constant
U

(2010)
lxvi. Two steam engines A and B have their sources at 600 oC and 400 oC and their sinks at 300 oC and 200 oC
respectively:
a) They are equal efficient b) A is more efficient than B c) B is more efficient than A
d) If their sinks are interchanged, their efficiencies will not change
lxvii. On Fahrenheit scale the temperature of 50 oC will be:
a) 40 oF b) 10 oF c) 122 oF d) 105 oF
(2011)
lxviii. Kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas is :
a) 3/2 kT b) 2/3 kT c) 3/2 RT d) 2/3 RT
lxix. In an Adiabatic expansion the internal energy of the gas :
a) Remains the same b) Decreases c) Increases d) Becomes zero

Page 46 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2012)
lxx. The maximum work done is possible in this process:
a) Isobaric b) Isothermal c) Isochoric d) Adiabatic
lxxi. Absolute zero correspond to this temperature on Fahrenheit scale:
a) 32 F b) -180 F c) -460 F d) 212 F
lxxii. One kilowatt hour energy is equal to:
a) 3.6x10 5 J b) 36x10 5 J c) 746 watt d) 6.3x10 5 J
(2013)
lxxiii. The sum of all the energies of the molecules in a substance is called:
a) Heat energy b) Temperature c) Kinetic energy d) Internal energy
lxxiv. The kinetic energy per mole of a gas is:
a) 3/2 kT b) nRT c) 2/3 kT d) 3/2RT
(2014)

I
lxxv. In this process no heat enters or leaves the system:
a) Isochoric b) Isobaric c) Adiabatic d) Isothermal

-I
lxxvi. Heat energy cannot be measured in:
a) Joule b) B.T.U c) Kelvin d) Calorie
lxxvii. The average internal energy of an ideal gas is called:
a) Pressure b) Volume c) Temperature d) Heat
(2015)
lxxviii.

lxxix.
a) 3/2KT
S
Kinetic energy per mole of an iden gas is:
b) 2/3KT c) 3/2RT d)2/3RT
If the temperature of a cold body is decreased the efficiency of Carnot engine will:
a) Increase b) Decrease
(2016)
c) Remain constant d) None of these
S
lxxx. A temperature of 50 oC is equal to:
a) 105 oF b) 60 oF c) 122 oF d) 120 oF
lxxxi. In an isothermal expansion, the entropy of the system:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Becomes zero d) Remains constant
(2017)
P

lxxxii. The area enclosed by P-V diagram of a Carnot cycle represents:

a) Useful work b) energy loss due to leakage c) heat absorbed d) heat rejected
lxxxiii. The ratio of molar specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and molar specific heat at constant
volume is:
a) Equal to one b) less than one c) greater than one d) equal to zero
U

(2018)
lxxxiv. Heat energy cannot be measured in:
a) Joule b) kelvin c) calorie d) British thermal energy
lxxxv. The kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas molecules is:
3 2 3
a) 𝑅𝑇 b) 𝑘𝑇 c) 𝑛𝑅𝑇 d) 𝑘𝑇
2 3 2

Page 47 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2019)
lxxxvi. The average translational kinetic energy per mole of molecules of a gas is:
a) 3/2 kT b) 2/3 kT c) 3/2 RT d) 2/3 RT
lxxxvii. A container is filled with a simple of an ideal gas at a pressure of 1.5atm. The gas is compressed
isothermally to one-fourth of its original volume. Its new pressure will be:
a) 2 atm b) 4 atm c) 6 atm d) 9 atm

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv.
C C C B A A C A A C C B C C
xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii.
D D C D B C A B A C A C B A
xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii.xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xli. xlii.

I
FALS
B D 1/3 A FALSE P∆V OR
nR∆T D D C D D B D
E
xliii. xliv. xlv. xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix. l. li. lii. liii. liv. lv. lvi.

-I
C B C D D D D D A C D C A C
lvii. lviii. lix. lx. lxi. lxii. lxiii. lxiv. lxv. lxvi. lxvii. lxviii. lxix. lxx.
C A B C C B D A A B C C B B
lxxi. lxxii. lxxiii. lxxiv. lxxv. lxxvi. lxxvii. lxxviii. lxxix. lxxx. lxxxi. lxxxii. lxxxiii. lxxxiv
C B D
lxxxv lxxxvi l xxxvii
A C C
D C C
S C D A C A A C B
S
P
U

Page 48 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ELECTROSTATICS

It is the branch of physics deals with the behaviors and characteristics showed by an electric
charge at rest.
Conduction Electrons:

I
In metals, atoms are so closely associated that arrangement of their valence electrons are
affected by the neighboring atoms. In such substances, valence electrons leaves their atoms

-I
due to interaction of neighboring atoms and wander from an atom to the other without having
any association with the atoms. The electrons with such a behavior are called. “Conduction
Electrons”.

S
“The positive or Negative electrical behavior showed by an atom or a substance due to deficit
or excess of conduction electrons, is often referred as Electric Charge”. It is denoted by ‘q’.
Quantization of Electric Charge:
S
The minimum magnitude of electric charge appears either on an atom or a substance due to
transfer of a valence electron (Conduction Electron). The value of which will be equal to
±(1.6x10-19) coulomb. It is symbolized by “e”.
Thus, if “n” number of conduction electrons are transferred from a substance to the other, then
P

magnitude of charge on them is given by:

q = ±ne
where, n=1,2,3,4,5,6……and e = 1.6x10-19c
The phenomenon of producing charge shows Quantization of Electric Charge in which charge
U

on electron is said to be “Quantized”.

“A charge whose distribution of charges shows no effect on any other charge, is called a Test
Charge”. It is considered as a Positive Charge and mathematically expressed as;
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = lim (𝑞0 )
𝑞 0→0
Where, “q0” represents a test charge.
Unit of Electric Charge:
In S.I system, the magnitude of charge is measured by “Coulomb”. It is symbolized by “C”.

Page 49 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

It is defined as,
“The magnitude of charge on a substance is said to be 1 coulomb when 6.25x10 18 number of
conduction electrons are transferred into or out of the substance”.
i.e. q = ne
q = (6.25x1018)(1.6x10-19)
q = 1C
(OR)”If two equal charges placed in vacuum, the distance between them is 1m and the
electrostatic force between them is 9x10 9N, then the magnitude of each charge is 1 Coulomb”.

I
In 1785, Sir Charles Augustine de Coulomb, generalized a force of attraction and repulsion
between two charged bodies by using torsion balance. “The force of attraction or repulsion

-I
exists between two charged bodies is referred as Electrostatic Force”.

Statement:
S
“The force of attraction or repulsion between two static point charges is directly proportional
to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them”.
Mathematically:
S
r
q1 q2
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 placed at a distance “r” from each other. The electrostatic
force (F) between them will be:
P

F ∝ q1q2 --------------------------------(i)
F ∝ 1/r2--------------------------------(ii)
Combining equation i and ii
F ∝ q1q2/r2
U

𝐾 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 = ----------------------------(iii)
r2
where “K” is the constant of proportionality. Its value depends upon the nature of medium
between two charges.
1. For Space (Vacuum):
If the medium is free space (vacuum) between two charges then value of “K” is given as:
K = 1/ 4𝜋𝜖 o
And its value is approximately is 9x10 Nm2/C2.
9

Where “𝜖 o” is called “permittivity of free space”. Its value is 8.85x10-12 C 2/Nm2.

So equation (iii) will be

Page 50 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 1 𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹 =
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 r 2
And vector form is:
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 r2
Where; “𝑟̂ ” is the unit vector specifies the direction of force.
2. For Dielectric Medium:
If the medium between charges is not a free space (vacuum) then the value of “K” is given as:
K = 1/4𝜋𝜖 m -------------------(iv)

I
Where “𝜖 m” is the permittivity of the dielectric medium. Let “𝜖 r” is the relative permittivity of
the medium it is given as:
𝜖 r = 𝜖 m/𝜖 o

-I
𝜖 m =𝜖 o 𝜖r
So, equation (iv) will became;
K = 1/4𝜋 𝜖o 𝜖r

S
So, the equation (iii) will have the form
𝐹 =
𝐹 =
𝐾 𝑞1 𝑞2
r2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝜖r r 2
S
And the vector form is:
1 𝑞 1𝑞 2
𝐹⃗ = . 𝑟̂
4𝜋 𝜖𝑜 𝜖r r2

Electric Field:
P

An electric field is a region around a charged body in which any other charge experiences
electrostatic force.
Electric Lines of Force:
The existence of electric field around a source charge can be examined by drawing imaginary
U

lines with the help of a test charge called, “Electric Lines of Force”.
Characteristics of Electric Lines Of Force:
Some essential characteristics of electric lines of force are given below:
1. The electric lines of force always direct away from the centre of a Positive Source
Charge.
2. The electric lines of force always direct towards the centre of a Negative Source Charge.
3. The electric lines of force never intersect each other.
4. In case of variable electric field, the region of electric field will be stronger enough
where separation between electric lines of force is found less.

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 5. In case of variable electric field, the region of electric field will be weaker enough where
separation between electric lines of force is found large.
6. The electric lines of force between two oppositely uniformly charged plates remains
perpendicular onto the plane of charged sheet, but remains parallel to each other. The
electric lines of force with such an electrical behavior produces Uniform Electric Field.

- + + -

I
-I
In general, the strength of electric field examined at a point is referred as, Electric Intensity at

S
that point. It is symbolized by𝐸⃗⃗ . Physically, it is a vector quantity and directs along the action of
electrostatic force of the field acted upon test charge.
Suppose that a test charge is set inside an electric field of a source charge at point “p”.
“The electrostatic force experienced by unit charge, is referred as Electric Intensity of the Field
at that point”.
S
Mathematically,
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐹⃗/qo ; where, limit(qo)→0
Unit of electric intensity;
As; 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐹⃗/qo
P

E = F/qo
E = Newton/Coulomb
E = N/C
Hence the unit of electric intensity is Newton per Coulomb.
U

Electric Intensity in Terms of Electric Lines of Force:

Intensity of electric field at a point may also be defined as the number of electric lines of force
per unit area of a very small surface placed perpendicular to the electric lines at that point.

Page 52 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

General Expression For Electric Intensity at a Point:
For this, consider an electric field around a source charge of magnitude, “q”. let, a test charge
of magnitude “qo” is set at point “p” lies at a distance of “r” from the centre of source charge. If
“F” be the magnitude of electrostatic force on test charge “q o”, then electric intensity of the
field at point “p” is given by,
E = F/qo

𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐹⃗/qo--------------------(i)

Substituting 𝐹⃗ = 1___ . _ q qo_(𝑟̂ )

I
4𝜋𝜖 o r2
Where, (𝑟̂ ) is a unit vector drawn along the direction of𝑟⃗. 𝑟̂
r
𝐹⃗

-I
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜 𝑟⃗ p
( . )𝑟̂ q
4𝜋𝜖o 𝑟2
Eq(i)=>𝐸⃗⃗ = Source
(𝑞𝑜 )
Charge
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜 1
S
𝐸⃗⃗ =(

𝐸⃗⃗ =
4𝜋𝜖o
.
𝑟 2 )𝑟̂ x ( )

1___ . _ q _(𝑟̂ )
4𝜋𝜖 o r2
𝑞𝑜
S
This expression represents Electric Intensity of the field at point “p”, lies at a distance of “r”
from the centre of a source charge of magnitude “q”.
According to this equation,
𝐸 ∝q
P

𝐸 ∝ 1/r2

Electric Flux:
Suppose that an element area is set inside a uniform electric field in a manner that some
electric lines of force are said to be passed through the surface of element area. At this
U

condition, one can say that Electric Flux is appeared through the element area. It is a Scalar
Quantity and depends on total number of electric lines of force that are appeared across the
surface of element area. It is symbolized by “𝜑𝑒 ”.
Mathematical Explanation:
Suppose that an element surface of area∆𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗is set inside a uniform electric field of strength, 𝐸⃗⃗ in
a manner that its element area (vector) makes an angle “𝜃” with the direction of electric field.
The magnitude of electric flux through the surface directly depends on following two factors:
1. The magnitude of electric intensity of the field.
i.e. ∆𝜑𝑒 ∝ (𝐸)---------------------(i)

Page 53 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 2. The component of element area acts parallel to the direction of electric field.
i.e. ∆𝜑𝑒 ∝ (∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)-------------(ii)
by combining the two relations under a single expression we have,
∆𝜑𝑒 ∝ (𝐸)(∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
∆𝜑𝑒 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 )𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Putting; Constant = 1
∆𝜑𝑒 = (1)𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗ ∴ 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Mathematical Definition of Electric Flux:

I
As, ∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗
It, means , “The Dot-Product of electric intensity of the field and element area of a surface will

-I
describe electric flux though surface of element area”.
This ideology shows that electric flux is a Scalar Quantity.
Special Cases of electric Flux:

S
Case#1: Maximum Electric Flux Through the Surface of Element Area:
When surface of an element area is oriented parallel to the direction of electric field the
maximum number of electric lines of force are appeared through the surface of element area
and thus Maximum Electric Flux is said to appear through the surface.
Verification:
S
According to the expression of electric flux,
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ---------------(i) ∆𝐴⃗
In this case, 𝐸⃗⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴⃗, therefore, 𝜃=0o
P

𝐸⃗⃗
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0o
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴(1)
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴
Hence the magnitude of maximum flux will be equal to “𝐸∆𝐴”. i.e. maximum.
U

Case#2: Minimum Electric Flux Through Surface of Element Area:

When surface of an element area is oriented normal to the direction of electric field then no
electric lines of force are seemed to appear across the surface of element area and thus
Minimum Electric Flux is said to appear through the surface. The magnitude of which remains
zero.
Verification:
∆𝐴⃗
According to the expression of electric flux, 𝐸⃗⃗

∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗

∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ---------------(i)

Page 54 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 In this case, 𝐸⃗⃗ ⊥ ∆𝐴⃗, therefore, 𝜃=90o
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠90o
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴(0)
∆𝜑𝑒 = 0
Hence the magnitude of minimum flux will remain “zero”.
Electric Flux Through a Closed Spherical Surface:
Consider a closed sphere of radius, “r” enclosing a point charge of magnitude, “q” at its centre.
To determine electric flux appearing at the surface of sphere, the entire surface of the sphere is
sub-divided into “N” number of element surfaces each of area, ∆𝐴⃗ so that the strength of

I
electric field within surfaces of each of element area remains same, say 𝐸 ⃗⃗ . Thus, the electric
flux through an element area will be (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) and sum of (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) from first component to the

-I
Nth component of surface area will describe total electric flux through the sphere.
Mathematically,
𝜑𝑒 = ∆𝜑𝑒1 + ∆𝜑𝑒2 + ∆𝜑𝑒3 + ⋯ + ∆𝜑𝑒𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) 1 + (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) 2 + (𝐸
⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) 3 + ⋯ + (𝐸
⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) N

Since, 𝐸⃗⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴⃗, therefore, 𝜃=0o

S ⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗)
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸

𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴cosθ)
S
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴cos0o)

𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴)

𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝐴)
P

𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟2 )-------------(i)
1 𝑞
Substituting 𝐸 = × 𝑟2
4𝜋𝜖 𝑜
1 𝑞
U

𝜑𝑒 = ( × 2 ) × (4𝜋𝑟2 )
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
𝒒
𝝋𝒆 =
𝝐𝒐
This expression represents total electric flux through the surface of a sphere, encloses a point
charge of magnitude “q” at the centre. According to this expression;
1. The magnitude of total electric flux through a sphere is directly proportional to the
magnitude of point charge. i.e. 𝜑𝑒 ∝ 𝑞.
2. The magnitude of total electric flux through a sphere is independent of size of sphere.

Page 55 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Electric Flux Through an Arbitrary Closed Surface:
Suppose that an arbitrary closed surface, “S” is set inside an electric field of a source charge. To
determine electric flux through the surface, “S” let us sub-divides the closed surface into “N”
number of element patches each of surface area, “∆𝐴⃗” so that the strength of electric field
within surface of each element area remains constant, say 𝐸⃗⃗ . thus,
the electric flux through the surface of each element area
will be equal to (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) and hence, sum of electric ∆𝐴⃗
flux through all individual patches from first to Nth
component will express total electric flux through

I
the closed arbitrary surface.
Mathematically,
𝜑𝑒 = ∆𝜑𝑒1 + ∆𝜑𝑒2 + ∆𝜑𝑒3 + ⋯ + ∆𝜑𝑒𝑁

-I
𝜑𝑒 = (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) 1 + (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) 2 + (𝐸
⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) 3 + ⋯ + (𝐸
⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) N S
𝑖 =𝑁

⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) i
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸

S 𝑖 =1
This expression represents total electric flux through an Arbitrary closed surface. The
magnitude of which depends on the magnitude of 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴⃗.
S
“A hypothetical closed surface encloses a system of a point charges, is referred as Gaussian
Surface”.
P

This law shows a relation between total electric flux through a Gaussian Surface and total
charges enclosed by that surface. According to this law, “the total electric flux through a
Gaussian Surface is equal to the product of 1/𝜖𝑜 and total amount of charges enclosed by that
surface”.
U

Verification:
To verify the statement of Gauss’ Law in electrostatics, let us consider a Gaussian Surface, “S”
enclosing a system of charges of magnitude, (q1,q2,q3,……..,qn).
To determine the electric flux through Gaussian Surface due to the system of charges, let us
assume charge of magnitude “q1” by neglecting rest of others. Now, draw an imaginary sphere
around the charge, “q1” by considering it as the centre of sphere. The electric flux through
imaginary sphere due to charge, “q1” will be “q1/𝜖𝑜 ”. As, the total number of electric lines of
force appearing through the imaginary sphere and Gaussian Surface “S” remains same,
therefore, the electric flux through the Gaussian Surface, “S” due to charge, “q1” will be equal
to “q1/𝜖𝑜 ”.

Page 56 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

In the same fashion, the electric flux through the same Gaussian Surface due to charge of
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
magnitude, (q2,q3,q4,……..,qn) will be equal to (𝜖 2 , 3 , 4 , … . . , 𝑛 ) respectively.
𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜

Hence, the total flux through Gaussian Surface due to the system of charges is given by;
Total electric flux through Gaussian Surface = 𝜑𝑒1 + 𝜑𝑒2 + 𝜑𝑒3 + ⋯ + 𝜑𝑒𝑛
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝜑𝑒 = 1 + 2 + 3 … . . + 𝑛
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑞 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛 )
𝜖𝑜 1
𝑖 =𝑛
1
𝜑𝑒 = (∑ 𝑞𝑖 )

I
𝜖𝑜
𝑖=1
𝑖 =𝑛

-I
∑ 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑄
𝑖 =1
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄)
𝜖𝑜
This statement verifies Gauss’ law in electrostatics.
Application of Gauss’ Law: S
1. Electric Intensity At A Point Due To A Charged Sheet of Infinite Extent:
consider a thin non-conducting sheet
S
having uniform distribution of positive
charges on its surface. The surface charge
density of the sheet is “𝜎”.
To determine electric intensity at point “p” lies
at a distance of 𝑟⃗ from the plane of sheet,
P

assume a closed cylinder of cross-sectional area,

“A” through the sheet so that it remains
perpendicular on to the plane of sheet and contains
point ”p” at its one end at which electric intensity is to be determined.
U

Now, by considering imaginary cylinder as Gaussian Surface and apply Gauss’ Law
which states;
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄)-------------(i)
𝜖𝑜

To Find Total Electric Flux Through Gaussian Cylinder:

The Gaussian cylinder contains three surfaces, two at the ends of same cross -sectional
area, ”A” (S1 and S2) and the third is curved surface (S3).
The electric flux through each end of cylinder will be “EA”, 𝐸 ⃗⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴⃗ at the surface “S1”
and “S2”, lies at the ends. Similarly, the electric flux through curved surface of cylinder
remains “zero”, as 𝐸⃗⃗ ⊥ ∆𝐴⃗ at the surface “S3”, lies curved portion of the cylinder.

Page 57 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Hence, the total electric flux through the Gaussian cylinder is given by,
𝜑𝑒= 𝜑𝑒(𝑆1) + 𝜑𝑒 (𝑆2) + 𝜑𝑒(𝑆3)
𝜑𝑒 = (EA) + (EA) + (0)
𝜑𝑒 = 2EA
To Find Charges Enclosed By The Gaussian Cylinder:
According to the definition of surface charge density,
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴
Where, “A” is the cross-sectional area of the Gaussian cylinder, and “Q” is the amount of

I
charge enclosed by the Gaussian Cylinder.
Application Of The Law:

-I
For this, substituting the value of “𝜑𝑒 ” and “Q” in eq (i).
1
Eq(i)=> (2EA) = (𝜎𝐴)
𝜖𝑜
𝜎
(2E) =

Or
S 𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝜖𝑜
E=
𝜎
2𝜖𝑜
𝜎
2𝜖𝑜

(𝑟̂ )
S
Where, 𝑟̂ is a unit vector along to the direction of Electric Field Intensity and as well as
along the direction of position vector drawn from the plane of sheet to the point “p” at
which electric intensity is determined.
2. Electric Intensity At A Point Due To A Charged Spherical Shell:
P

Considera non-conducting spherical shell of

radius, “a” having uniform distribution of
positive charges on its outer surface. Let, surface
charge density of charge shell is “𝜎”. + +
+
U

To determine electric intensity at point “p” +

lies at a distance of 𝑟⃗from the centre of a +
+ +
charged spherical shell, assume a concentric
+ + 𝑟⃗
sphere around the charged shell of radius “r”. + p
Now, by considering imaginary sphere “S” as
Gaussian Surface and apply Gauss’ Law which States,
1 S
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄)-------------(i)
𝜖𝑜

To Find Total Electric Flux Through Gaussian Sphere “S”: For this, the entire
surface of Gaussian Sphere “S” is sub-divided into “n” number of element patches each

Page 58 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 of surface area, “∆𝐴⃗” so that the strength of electric field within each element area
remains same, say “𝐸⃗⃗ ”. Thus, the electric flux through the surface of each an individual
element area will be equal to (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) and hence the electric flux through surface of
entire Gaussian Sphere “S” is given by;
𝑖 =𝑁

𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗) i
𝑖 =1
𝑖=𝑁

𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴cosθ) i
𝑖=1

I
Since, 𝐸⃗⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴⃗, therefore, 𝜃=0o
𝑖=𝑁

𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴cos0o) i

-I
𝑖 =1
𝑖 =𝑁

𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴) i
𝑖 =1

S 𝑖 =𝑁

𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝐴) i
𝑖 =1
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟2 )
S
To Find Total Magnitude Of Charges Enclosed By The Gaussian Sphere “S”:
According to the definition of surface charge density,
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
P

𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴
𝑄 = 𝜎(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
∴𝑟=𝑎
𝑄 = 𝜎(4𝜋𝑎2 )
Application of the law:
U

For this, substituting the value of “ 𝜑𝑒 ” and “Q” in equation (i)

1
Eq(i)=> 𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄)
𝜖𝑜
1
𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟2 ) = (𝜎4𝜋𝑎2 )
𝜖𝑜
𝜎 𝑎2
𝐸= ×
𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
𝜎 𝑎2
Or 𝐸⃗⃗ = × (𝑟̂ )
𝜖𝑜 𝑟2
Where “𝑟̂ ” in the unit vector along to the direction of electric intensity.

Page 59 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Special Cases:
i. If Point “P” Lies On The Surface Of Sphere:
Then r=a
𝜎 𝑎2
⃗⃗ =
As: 𝐸 × (𝑟̂ )
𝜖𝑜 𝑟2
Putting r=a
𝜎 𝑎2
𝐸⃗⃗ = × (𝑟̂ )
𝜖𝑜 𝑎2

I
𝐸⃗⃗ = (𝑟̂ )
𝜖𝑜
ii. If Point “P” Lies Inside The Charged Shell:

-I
Since, no electric charge exists inside the charged sphere, therefore 𝜎 = 0. Thus, the
intensity at point “P” remains “zero”
i.e. E = 0
3.Electric Intensity Between Two oppositely Charged Plates:
S
Consider two oppositely charged plates separated by a certain small distance “d” and held
parallel to each other. When there is air or vacuum between the two plates the field will be
uniform. At any point “p” between the plates, electric intensity “𝐸⃗⃗ 1” due to positive plate will
be directed away from the plate and it’s magnitude is given by;
S
𝜎
E1 =
2𝜖𝑜
Where “𝜎” is the surface charge density. Electric intensity due to the negative plate is directed
towards the plate and it’s magnitude is given by:
P

𝜎
E2 =
2𝜖𝑜
⃗⃗ 1” and “𝐸⃗⃗ 2” are in the same direction, therefore, the magnitude of net electric
Since, “𝐸
intensity “𝐸⃗⃗ ” will be;
U

E = E 1 + E2
𝜎 𝜎 +𝜎 −𝜎
Or E= +
2𝜖𝑜 2𝜖𝑜
𝜎
E=
𝜖𝑜
𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂
𝜖𝑜
The above formula shows that the electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates,
separated by a small distance, is uniform and is directed form positive to negative plate.

Page 60 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

If an insulator (a dielectric medium) is present between the two plates then. Because of
“Polarization” of atoms of the medium. Magnitude of “E” decreases by “𝜖 r” times. Where “𝜖 r” is
𝜎
the “Relative permittivity” or “ “Dielectric constant” of the medium.⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸= 𝑟̂
𝜖𝑟 𝜖𝑜

Potential Difference:
Suppose that a test charge is displaced from a point “P” to a point “p’ ” inside an electric field of
a source charge. The amount of work done in shifting a test charge against the direction of
electric field Intensity expresses change of Potential Energy of test charge between the same
two points. It is symbolized by “∆U”.
Definition:

I
“The change of potential energy per unit test charge will describe Potential Difference between
the two points, when test charge is shifted between same two points against the direction
of electric intensity of a source charge.”

-I
It is a Scalar quantity and symbolized by "∆𝑉" .Its magnitude is measured by “VOLT” after the
name of a scientist.
Formula :
If “∆U” be the change of P.E of a test charge “q0” in displacing between two points against

two points is given by ;

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃.𝐸.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE = 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
S
electrostatic force of a source charge, then by the definition of Potential Difference between
S
∆𝑈
∆V = ; where,Lim(𝑞𝑜 ) 0
𝑞𝑜
Unit:
According to the equation of P.D between two points,
∆𝑈
∆V =
P

𝑞𝑜
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
∆V =
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
∆V = VOLT
Definition Of “VOLT”:
U

“If a Positive test charge of magnitude 1 Coulomb gains 1 Joule of potential energy in moving
between the two points, then Potential Difference of 1 Volt is said to be established between
same two points”
Mathematical Explanation:
Suppose that a test charge of magnitude “qo” is displaced by ∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ from a point “P” to point “P’”,
against the direction of electric field formed by a Source Charge of magnitude “q”.
The amount of work done on the test charge in displacing between the two points is given by;
∆W = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . ∆𝑟
∆W = (𝑞𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝐸 ). (∆𝑟 ∵𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐹⃗ /𝑞𝑜
∆W/𝑞𝑜 =⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸.∆𝑟 here ∆W = ∆U

Page 61 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ∆U/𝑞𝑜 =⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸.∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∵ ∆V=∆U/𝑞𝑜
∆V= ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸.∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
This expression represents Potential Difference between the two points.

Mathematical Definition:
As , ∆V = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
This equation implies, ”The Dot Product of electric intensity of the field and element
displacement of a test charge between the two points will express Potential Difference
between the same two points.”
This ideology shows that potential difference between two points is a Scalar quantity.

I
Relation Between Electric Intensity And Potential Difference:
According to the equation of potential difference between the two points,
∆V = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

-I
∆V = E∆𝑟cos 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗remains opposite to 𝐸
Since ,∆𝑟 ⃗⃗ ,therefore,𝜃=180°
∆V = 𝐸∆𝑟cos 180°
∆V = 𝐸∆𝑟 (-1)

Here,
∆𝑉
∆𝑟
∆V = - 𝐸∆𝑟
∆𝑉
∆𝑟
= -E
S
represents change of electric potential with respect to the change of position called
S
“GRADIENT OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL” and symbolized by “Grad V”. It shows a vector quantity
⃗⃗ mathematically,
i.e. -𝐸
∆𝑉
= - 𝐸⃗⃗
∆𝑟
𝑑𝑉
Or = - 𝐸⃗⃗
P

𝑑𝑟
Grad V = - 𝐸⃗⃗
Or ⃗∇⃗𝑉 = -𝐸⃗⃗
Relation Between K.E And Potential Difference:
Since Potential Difference = Work (or change in potential energy)
U

Charge
∆V = ∆U/q
∆U = q∆V---------------(i)
Hence, if charge “q” is accelerated through potential difference “∆V” then it will lose potential
energy and at the same time gain an equal amount of K.E, which is given by,
½ mv2 = ∆U
∆U=½ mv2 -----------------(ii)
By comparing eq (i) and (ii)
½ mv2=q∆V

Page 62 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Electron Volt:
“Electron Volt” is the unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear physics.
“One electron volt (1ev) is the amount of energy gained by electron when it is accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 volt”.
Hence, ∆V = 1 Volt
q = e = 1.6x10-19 coulomb
½ mv2 = 1.6x10-19 x 1
½ mv2 = 1.6x10-19 J = 1ev

Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and energy.

I
A simplest capacitor consists of two similar metal plates held parallel to each other and
separated by a small distance. The space between the two metal plates is filled by an insulator

-I
called a “Dielectric medium”. Charge “Q” stored on any one plate of the capacitor is directly
proportional to the potential difference “V” across the two plates.
Q∝V + -
Q = CV
Where “C” is a constant of proportionality, it represents “Capacitance of the capacitor”.
S
Capacitance of the capacitor may be defined as;
“The charge stored on a capacitor when unit potential difference is applied across its plates is
S
called capacitance of the capacitor”.
Unit of Capacitance:
Unit of capacitance is “Farad”. Capacitance of the capacitor is said to be one farad (1F) if on
giving one volt P.D between the plates, each plate stores one Coulomb (1C) charge.
1 Farad = 1 Coulomb
P

1 Volt
Or 1 Farad = 1 Coulomb
Volt
Capacitance of A Parallel Plates Capacitor:
To find the capacitance of a parallel-plates capacitor, consider a parallel-plates capacitor with
U

the following geometric constant;

1. Area of each plate = A
2. Distance between plates = d
3. P.D Applied between plates = V
4. Amount of charge on each plate = Q
𝜎 𝑄/𝐴 𝑄
5. The strength of electric field between plates = E = = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝐴𝜖𝑜
6. Medium between plates is “AIR”.

Page 63 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 To Find P.D Between Plates: For this, assume that a charged particle is displaced against
the field from ‘a’ to ‘b’. The total distance is divided into N equal element displacements each
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.According to the eq of P.D, i.e. ∆V = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝑟
equal to ∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. Thus P.D between two charged plates
of capacitor is given by;
𝑏

V = ∑ (𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
𝑎
𝑏

V = ∑(𝐸∆rcos180°)
𝑎
+ - V = ∑𝑏𝑎 (𝐸∆r(−1))

I
𝑏
+ V _ V = −E ∑ (∆r)
+ _ 𝑎

-I
𝑏 𝑎
+ _
∵ ∑ 𝑓(𝑥) = − ∑ 𝑓(𝑥)
+ _
b a
𝑎 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎
+ ∆𝑟⃗ _
+ _ V = E ∑ (∆r) ∴ ∑ (∆r) = 𝑑

+
+
+

d
_
_
_
_
S V=Ed

By putting E=

V=(
𝑄
𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐴𝜖𝑜
)d
𝑏

𝑄
𝑏
S
𝑄𝑑
V=
𝐴𝜖𝑜
As, Q = CV
C = Q/V
P

𝑄𝑑
C = Q/
𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐴𝜖𝑜
C = Qx
𝑄𝑑
U

𝐴𝜖𝑜
C=
𝑑
This eq represents capacitance of a parallel plates capacitor, when air is filled between the
plates.
According to this eq;
1. Capacitance is directly proportional to the Area of Plates. i.e. “C ∝ A”
2. Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between Plates. i.e. “C ∝ 1/d”
When A Dielectric Medium Is Set Between Plates:
If a dielectric medium of permittivity, “ 𝜖 m” is filled in the space between two plates, then
capacity of parallel plate capacitor is given by;

Page 64 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝐴𝜖𝑚
C’ = ----------------------(i)
𝑑
Substituting 𝜖 m = 𝜖 o𝜖 r. where 𝜖 r is called “Dielectric Constant”. Its value depends on the nature
of material of insulated medium.
𝐴𝜖o𝜖r
C’ =
𝑑
𝐴𝜖𝑜
C’ =( ) 𝜖𝑟
𝑑
C’ = C.𝜖𝑟
Definition of Dielectric Constant:

I
“The ratio of capacitance of a parallel plates capacitor in the presence of a Dielectric medium to
the capacitance of same capacitor in the presence of Air is known as Dielectric Constant”.

-I
As C’ = C. 𝜖𝑟
C’/C = 𝜖𝑟

Combinations of Capacitors:
ways :
1. In Series
2. In Parallel
S
Any two or more capacitors can be combined with the opposite terminals of a battery in two
S
1. Combination Of Capacitors In Series:
If two or more capacitors are connected with the opposite terminals of a battery in such a way
that:
a) The magnitude of charges on plates of each capacitor remains same.
P

b) The P.D across the plates of any one capacitor differs the P.D of any other capacitor
then capacitors are said to be connected in series.
A series combination of three capacitors of capacitance “C 1”, ”C 2” and “C 3” is shown by the
following circuit diagram:
U

Q
a e
a b d e
Ce
C1 C2 C3
Derivation For The Equivalent Capacitance Of Series Combination Of Capacitors:
For this, let us assume that:
i. The magnitude of charges on plates of each one capacitor is “Q”.
ii. The P.D across the plates of capacitor of capacitance “C 1”, “C 2”, “C 3” and “Ce” is “Vab”,
“Vdb”, “Vde ” and “Vae ” respectively.
iii. The capacitance of equivalent capacitor=Ce=?

Page 65 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

According to the characteristics of series combination of capacitors
Vae = Vab+ Vdb+ Vde ∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + + ∴𝑉=
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶
𝑄 1 1 1
= 𝑄( + + )
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1 1
=( + + )
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
If “n” number of capacitors are connected in series then reciprocal value of their equivalent
capacitance is given by;

I
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛
𝑖 =𝑛

-I
1 1
= ∑( )
𝐶𝑒 𝐶𝑖
𝑖=1

2. Combination Of Capacitors In Parallel:

If two or more capacitors are connected with the opposite terminals of a battery in such
a way that: S
a) The P.D across the plates of each one capacitor remains same.
b) The magnitude of charges on plates of any one capacitor differs the magnitude of
charges on plates of any other capacitor then the capacitors are said to be connected in
S
parallel.
A parallel combination of three capacitors of capacitance
“C1”, “C 2” and “C 3” is shown by the following circuit
diagram:
P

Q a b
a b
Ce
U

Derivation For The Equivalent Capacitance Of Parallel Combination Of

Capacitors:
For this, let us assume that:
i. The P.D across the plates of each one capacitor is “V ab”.
ii. The magnitude of charges on plates of capacitor of capacitance “C 1”, “C 2” ,“C 3” and
“C e ” is “Q1”, “Q2”, “Q3” and “Q” respectively.
iii. The capacitance of equivalent capacitor = C e = ?

Page 66 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

According to the characteristics of parallel combination of capacitors,
Q = Q1+ Q2+ Q3∴ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
C e Vab = C 1Vab + C 2Vab + C 3Vab
Ce Vab = Vab(C1 + C 2+ C 3)
Ce = C1 + C2+ C3
If two or more capacitors are combined in parallel, then their equivalent capacitance will equal
to the sum of capacitance of individual capacitors that are connected in parallel .
Hence, if “n” number of capacitors are connected in parallel then their equivalent ca pacitance
is given by:
C e = C 1 + C 2+ C 3 +…………….+C n

I
𝑖 =𝑛

𝐶𝑒 = ∑(𝐶𝑖)

-I
𝑖 =1

A compound capacitor is one where the space between the plates is partially filled with a
dielectric medium.
S
Consider a capacitor containing air and slab of dielectric medium between the plates.
Let
t = thickness of dielectric medium slab.
+
+
_
_
S
d = distance between the plates. + _
do= thickness of air (do= d – t) + Dielectric _
This system serves as two capacitors in series as shown in fig. + Air _
let “C’” is the capacitor with dielectric medium and “C” is + _
the capacitance of capacitor with air and C d is the capacitance + _
P

+ _
of the compound capacitor.
+ _
Then
+ _
1 1 1 d0
= ′+ t
𝐶𝑑 𝐶 𝐶
d
U

Using relation
𝐴𝜖𝑜
C=
𝑑𝑜
𝐴𝜖𝑚
C’ =
𝑡
Where, A = area of the plates
𝜖𝑚 = permittivity of the dielectric medium
1 1 1
= ′+
𝐶𝑑 𝐶 𝐶

Page 67 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 1 𝐶 + 𝐶′
=
𝐶𝑑 𝐶 ′𝐶
𝐶𝐶′
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐶 + 𝐶′
𝐴𝜖 𝐴𝜖
( 𝑑 𝑜 ) ( 𝑡𝑚 )
𝑜
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝐴𝜖
( 𝑑 ) + ( 𝑚)
𝑜 𝑡
𝐴2 𝜖𝑚𝜖𝑜
𝑑𝑜 𝑡
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐴𝜖0 𝑡+𝐴 𝜖𝑚𝑑𝑜
𝑑𝑜 𝑡

I
𝐴 𝜖𝑚 𝜖𝑜
2
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴(𝜖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜖𝑚 𝑑𝑜 )
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑚

-I
𝐶𝑑 =
𝜖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜖𝑚 𝑑𝑜
∵ 𝜖𝑚 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 .
𝐴𝜖𝑜 (𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 )
𝐶𝑑 =
S 𝐶𝑑 =

𝐶𝑑 =
𝜖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝑑𝑜
𝐴𝜖𝑜 2 𝜖𝑟
𝜖𝑜 (𝑡 + 𝜖𝑟 𝑑𝑜 )
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟
𝜖𝑟 𝑑𝑜 + 𝑡
S
𝐴𝜖
𝐶𝑑 = 𝜖 𝑑 𝑜+𝑡
𝑟 𝑜
𝜖𝑟
𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐶𝑑 = 𝜖𝑟 𝑑𝑜 𝑡
+
P

𝜖𝑟 𝜖𝑟
𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑡 ∴ 𝑑𝑜 = 𝑑 − 𝑡
𝑑𝑜 +
𝜖𝑟

𝑨𝝐𝒐
U

𝑪𝒅 =
(𝒅 − 𝒕) + 𝒕/𝝐𝒓

The above equation gives the capacitance of compound capacitor.

Effect Of Dielectric On The Capacitance Of A Capacitor:
1. When Plates Of Capacitor Are Disconnected From The Battery After Charging:
Under the influence of electric field of capacitor + - + -
the atoms of dielectric get polarized and thus + - + -
produce an electric field which is opposite to the + - + -
electric field of capacitor. Due to this intensity + - + -
+ - + -

Page 68 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 between the plates of capacitor is decreased and
this reduces potential difference between the
plates (V = Ed) or (V ∝ E).
Now
Q =CV or C = Q/V
Since the capacitor is disconnected from the battery therefore, the charge on the
capacitor remains unchanged, therefore the decrease in potential difference causes an
increase in capacitance.
2. When The Plates Of Capacitor Remain Connected With The Battery:
Due to the influence of electric field of capacitor, the atom of

I
dielectric get polarized. Opposite poles are produced + - + -
close to the charged plates which pull some charge + - + -

-I
+ - + -
from the plates. As a result some space is produced
+ - + -
on the plates and the battery supplies more charge
+ - + -
to fill this space. Hence the charge on the capacitor
is increased while the intensity and potential difference
remain unchanged, thus; S C = Q/V
C ∝Q
It is clear that an increase in the amount of charge, increase the capacitance.
S
i. Repulsion is the sure test of electrification. Explain.
P

Answer: Electrostatic attraction is observed between oppositely charged bodies and also between a
charged (+ve or –ve ) and an uncharged body. But, however, only two charges of the same kind (both +ve
or –ve ) can repel each other. Hence, repulsion up to some extent is the sure test of electrification.
ii. Will a solid metal sphere hold a large electric charge than a hollow sphere of the same diameter?
Where does the charge reside in each case?
U

Answer: A solid metal sphere will hold the same amount of charge as it is held a hollow sphere of the
same diameter. This is due to the fact that any excess electric charge resides only on the outer surface of
a conductor.
iii. Explain why is it so much easier to remove an electron from an atom of a large atomic mass than it is to
remove a proton?
Answer: In an atom of a large atomic mass, the number of electron is large. This big atom contains many
orbits (or shells). So it is easier to remove an electron from its outermost orbit, because the heavy nucleus
exerts weaker coulomb attractive force on it as compare to an electron in the inner most shell. However
protons are in the nucleus which is held very strongly by strong nuclear forces.

Page 69 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iv. Why is it not correct to say that potential difference is the work done in moving a unit positive charge
between the points concerned?
Answer: The potential difference is the increase electric potential energy (or work) per unit charge. So if
small positive charge (q o) is moved against the electric field between the two points, then the work
𝑤
divided by the amount of charge i.e.( ) gives the P.D.
𝑞𝑜
v. Why is it logical to say that the potential of an earth connected object is zero? What can be said about
the charge on the earth?
Answer: Practically, the earth is taken to be at zero potential. If a charge body is connected to the earth
by a conductor, electron flow takes place. Such that the charge of the body is neutralized.
vi. Can an electric potential exist at a point in a region where the electric field is zero?
Can the potential be zero at a place where the electric field intensity is not zero? Give example to

I
illustrate your reasoning.
Answer: i) Yes, electric potential can exist where the electric intensity is zero. For example, the electric
charge resides on the outer surface of a hollow sphere. At all points inside the s phere, the electric field

-I
intensity is zero. Hence, potential is the same at all points throughout the sphere, and equals that the
surface, i.e. potential is constant inside and on the surface.
ii) electric potential can be zero at a point where electric i ntensity is not zero. For example, consider a
point in the middle of two equal and opposite charges. There the electric potential is zero at that point,

vii.
such that
𝑉=
𝐾𝑞
𝑟
−𝐾𝑞
+(
𝑟
S
) = 0 (the absolute potential at a point due to charge ‘q’ at a distance ‘r’ is equal to
But the net electric intensity is towards the negative charge.
Note: Both the potential and intensity are zero for a point at infinity.
An air capacitor is charged to a certain potential difference. It is then immersed in oil. What happens to
𝐾𝑞
𝑟
).
S
its A. charge B. potential and C. capacitance?
Answer: The dielectric constant 𝜖𝑟 of oil is greater than that of air. When an air capacitor is immersed in
oil (after disconnecting the battery) then:
A) Its charge remains constant(since there is no path for charge transfer)
B) P.D between the plates decreased (and also the electric field is weakened) by a factor 1/𝜖𝑟 .
P

C) The capacitance increases (since C=q/V) by a factor 𝜖𝑟 .

viii. Two unlike capacitors of different potential and charges are joined in parallel. What happens to their
potential difference? How are their charges distributed? Is the energy of the system affected?
Answer: When two unlike capacitors of different potentials and charges are joined in parallel, then:
i) The resultant P.D will be less than the highest applied P.D on one capacitor. This resultant P.D
U

will be the same for the two capacitors in parallel.

ii) The charge is redistributed and the capacitor of higher capacitance will have more charge (since
q=CV).
iii) The energy of the system will decrease. The missing energy is used in heating the wires.
ix. Four similar capacitors are connected in series and joined to a 36v battery. The midpoint of the group is
earthed. What is the potential of the terminal of the group?
Answer: If four similar capacitors are connected in series, joined to a 36V battery and if the midpoint of
the group is earthed, then there is no transfer of charge. This midpoint is between two oppositely charged
plates (of C2 and C3). Hence P.D across the ends of the group will remains the same (i.e. 36V).

Page 70 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 x. A point charge is placed at the centre of a spherical Gaussian surface. Is the flux changed?
A) If the spherical Gaussian surface is replaced by a cube of the same volume.
B) If the sphere is replaced by a cube of 1/10 of this volume.
C) If the charge is moved from the centre in the sphere.
D) If the charge is moved outside the sphere.
E) If a second charge is placed inside the sphere.
Answer: A). No B). No C). No D). Yes E). Yes
xi. Four capacitors each of 2µF, connected in such a way that the total capacitance is also 2µF. show what
combination gives this value.
Answer: To get an equivalent capacitance of 2µF, the four capacitors, each of 2µF, can be combined in i)
two pairs of parallel capacitors combine in series. ii) two pairs of series capacitors combined in parallel.

I
a b
a b c

-I
a c a
b b
a c
a b
xii.
S
A capacitor is charged by a battery. The battery is disconnected and a slab of some dielectric is slipped
between the plates. Describe what happens to the charge, potential difference and capacitance?
Answer: When capacitor is charged, battery is disconnected, and a slab of some dielectric (of relative
permittivity 𝜖𝑟 ) is inserted, then;
i) The charge remain same.
S
ii) The P.D decreases.
iii) The capacitance increases.
xiii. If the battery is not disconnected.
Answer: When a capacitor is charged and the battery is not disconnected, and a slab of some Dielectri c
(of relative permittivity 𝜖𝑟 ) is inserted, then:
P

i) The charge is increases (additional charge is delivered by the battery).

ii) The P.D remain same.
iii) The capacitance increases (due to increases of charge)
xiv. A capacitor is connected across a battery why does each plate receive a charge of the same magnitude?
Will it be true even if the plates are of different sizes?
U

Answer: when a capacitor is connected to a battery such that +ve terminal “b” is at higher potential than
the plate B, then electrons are drawn towards “b” from “B”. however the –ve terminal “a” is at lower
potential than the plate “A”, so the electrons are drawn to the plate “A” from “a”. thus B is positively
charged and A is negatively charged. The charging stops when V AB=V. if the sizes of the plates are different
then the plate of larger area will receive more amount of charge.

B + _ A
+ _
+ _
+ _

+ _
b a
Page 71 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 Ex # 12.1
Exercise based on Electric charge, Electrostatic Force, Electric field,
Electric flux and Gauss’ Law:
MCQs
i. The law is used to determine electrostatic force between two point charges is called_____________.
a) Faraday’s law b) Gauss’ law c) Coulomb’s law d) None of these
ii. Mathematical expression for coulomb law is______________.
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑞1𝑞2 𝑚1 𝑚2
a) 𝐹=𝐾 b) 𝐹 = 𝐾 c) 𝐹 = 𝐺 d) None of these
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟2
iii. Coulomb law most closely resembles with_______________.

I
a) Law of conservation of energy b) Newton’s second law of motion c) Newton’s law of
Gravitation d) None of these
iv. The value of K is___________.

-I
a) 8.85x10 -12 C2 Nm-2 b) 9x10 9 Nm2 C-2 c) 9x10 9 Nm2 C2 d) None of these
v. ∈𝑜 is called_________.
a) Permittivity of free space b) Relative permittivity c) Dielectric constant d) None of these
vi. ∈𝑟 is called _________.

vii.

viii.
The unit of charge in S.I unit system___________.
a) Ampere b) Volt c) Coulomb d) None of these
S
a) Permittivity of free space b) Relative permittivity c) Dielectric constant d) Both b and c

If the distance between two charge bodies is halved the force between them becomes___________.
a) One forth b) Double c) Four times d) None of these
S
ix. The space around a charged body in which its influence can be felt is called an______________.
a) Atmosphere b) Electric field c) Gravitational field d) None of these
x. Electric intensity of a charged body is equal to_____________.
a) Work done by unit charge b) Force experienced by a unit charge c) force between the two
charged bodies d) None of these
P

xi. The S.I unit of Electric intensity is __________.

a) NC-2 b) NC-1 c) N2 C-2 d) None of these
xii. The direction of the electric field intensity is_____________.
a) Away from all negative charge b) Toward all negative charges c) The same as the direction of
an electric force d) None of these
xiii. The electric intensity at a point at a distance “r” from the source charge is__________.
U

𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞
a) 𝐾 b) 𝐾 c) 𝐾 d) None of these
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟2
xiv. The nature of test charge is__________.
a) Negative b) Neutral c) Positive d) None of these
xv. The path along which a unit positive charge moves in an electric field is ___________.
a) Magnetic field line b) Electric field c) An electric field line d) None of these
xvi. The lines of force can be never___________.
a) Interchange b) Intersect c) Exchange d) None of these
xvii. The electric field lines terminate on a ______________.
a) Negative charge b) Positive charge c) Both d) None of these
xviii. The electric field lines originate from a_____________.
a) Negative charge b) Positive charge c) Both d) None of these

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 xix. The measure of the number of field lines passing through a certain element of area in an electric field is
called_____________.
a) Electric intensity b) Electric flux c) Electric force d) None of these
xx. Electric flux is =___________.
a) ∆∅ = 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴⃗ b) ∆∅ = 𝐶⃗. ∆𝐴⃗ c) ∆∅ = 𝐵 ⃗⃗. ∆𝐴⃗ d) None of these
xxi. The electric flux through any closed surface depends upon_____________.
a) Shape of the surface b) Medium only c) Charge only d) None of these
xxii. Flux passing through an area will be maximum when the angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ and ∆𝐴⃗ is____________.
a) 90 o b) 180 o c) 0 o d) None of these
xxiii. Flux passing through an area will be minimum when the angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ and ∆𝐴⃗ is____________.
a) 90 o b) 180 o c) 0 o d) None of these

I
xxiv. The flux through any closed surface is 1/∈ 𝑜 times the total charge enclosed in it. Is known
as________________.
a) Ampere’s law b) Gauss’ law c) Ohm’s law d) None of these

-I
xxv. The S.I unit of electric flux is______________.
a) N2 m2 C-1 b) Nm2 C-1 c) Nm2 C2 d) None of these
xxvi. Gauss’ law is applicable only on___________.
a) Spherical surface b) Cylindrical surface c) any closed surface d) None of these
xxvii.

xxviii.
Gauss’ law can be used to evaluate____________.

a) 𝑞 ∈ 𝑜 b)
∈𝑜
𝑞
c)
𝑞
∈𝑜
S
a) Electric intensity b) Electric flux c) Both d) None of these
If the charge +q is placed at the center of sphere then flux through the surface of sphere
is______________.
d) None of these
S
xxix. Electric intensity of a charged sphere on its surface is______________.
2σ σ σ
a) b) c) d) None of these
ϵo 2ϵo ϵo

xxx. The value of electric field intensity i nside the charged sphere if charge is uniformly distributed over the
surface is____________.
𝐹
a) 𝐸= b) 𝐸 = 0 c) infinite d) None of these
P

xxxi. Charge per unit area is called___________.

a) Charge density b) Flux density c) Electric intensity d) None of these
xxxii. The S.I unit of charge density is_____________.
a) NC-1 b) Cm-2 c) C-1 m-2 d) None of these
xxxiii. Electric intensity due to infinite sheet of charge is equal to____________.
U

σ σ σ
a) b) c) d) None of these
2ϵo ϵo 3ϵo

xxxiv. Electric intensity between two oppositely charged parallel plates is_______________.
σ σ σ
a) b) c) d) None of these
2ϵo ϵo 3ϵo
xxxv. The value of resultant electric intensity at a point between two parallel pla tes with similar and equal
charges is____________.
a) Zero b) infinite c) Both d) None of these

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
C B C B A D C C B B B C C C C
xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx.

Page 73 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 B A B B A C C A B B C A C C B
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv.
A B A B A
Questions From Past Papers:
i. Name the quantity whose units are volt/meter or Newton/coulomb. (1994)
ii. State and prove Gauss’ law. Calculate the electric intensity at a point close to a positively charged sheet.
(1996)
iii. Explain electric flux passing through a closed surface. (1998)
iv. State and prove Gauss’ law.(1998)
v. Apply the law to determine the electric intensity at a point close to a uniformly di stributed positive
electric charge on a large plain surface. (1998)
vi. State and prove Gauss’ law. (2000)

I
vii. Calculate the electric intensity at a point to a thin sheet of uniformly distributed positive charge.
(2000)

-I
viii. Apply Gauss’ law to find electric intensity due to a charged metallic sphere at a point outside the sphere.
(2001)
ix. Apply Gauss’ law to find electric intensity closed to a insulated charged positive sheet positively.
(2002)Pre Med
x. Derive an expression for electric intensity close to a non-conducting infinite sheet of charge.

xi.
xii.
xiii.
(2002)Pre Eng
State and prove Gauss’s law.
Define Coulomb law.
S (2003)Pre Eng
(2003)Pre Eng
Explain Gauss’ law. Apply it to determine the electric intensity due to an infinite sheet of charge.
(2004)
S
xiv. Write down the definition and unit of: (2005)
a) Intensity of an electric field
b) Electric flux
c) Electric potential difference
xv. State Gauss’ law. Using this law, find the electric intensity E due to an infinite sheet of charge.
P

(2006)
xvi. Explain electric flux. Under what conditions will the flux through the surface be:
i) Zero? ii) Maximum (2007)
xvii. State coulomb law and give its mathematical relation for the force between the charges when placed:
i) In a free space ii) In a medium of relative permittivity (∈ 𝑟) (2007)
U

xviii. State Gauss’ law and apply it to determine the electric intensity at a point due to the infinite sheet of
charge. (2008)
xix. State Gauss’ law and apply it to determine the electric intensity at a point due to the infinite sheet of
charge. (2010)
xx. State Coulomb’s and Gauss’ laws. (2011)
xxi. State Gauss’ law. Apply the law to find electric intensity due to a uniformly charged metallic sphere at a
point P lying outside the charged sphere. (2012)
xxii. Prove that 1volt/meter = 1Newton/Coulomb, name the physical quantity which has these units.
(2013)
xxiii. State Gauss’ law. Derive an expression for electric intensity at a point close to infinitely large sheet having
uniform positive charge distribution.(2014)
xxiv. Explain electric flux. Under what condition is the flux through a surface i) Zero ii) Maximum? (2015)

Page 74 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xxv. State Gauss’ law. Derive an expression for electric intensity at a point close to infinitely large sheet having
uniform positive charge distribution.(2016)
1𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 1𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
xxvi. Prove that = , name the physical quantity. (2016)
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
xxvii. State Gauss’s Law. Derive an expression for electric intensity at a point close to a thin, infinite
sheet of positive charge. (2018)
1𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 1𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
xxviii. Prove that = and name the physical quantity. (2018)
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. An oil drop having a mass of 0.002kg and charge equal to 6 electron’s cha rge is suspended stationary in a
uniform electric field. Find the intensity of electric field. (Charge of electron = 1.6x10 -19 C) (1990)
Ans: 2.04x10 16 v/m

I
ii. -6
A thin sheet of positive charge attracts a light charged sphere having a charge 5x10 C with a force 1.69N.
calculate the surface charge density of the charged sheet. (𝜖0 =8.85x10 -12 C2 /Nm2 ) (1996)
Ans: 5.98x10 -6 C/m2

-I
iii. Calculate the force of repulsion on +2x10 -8 C charge. If it is placed before a large vertical charged plate whose
charge density is +20x10 -4 Coulombs/m2 . (1998)Ans: 2.26 N
iv. A charged particle of -17.7 µC is close to a positively charged thin sheet having surface charge density 2x10 -
8 C/m2 . Find the magnitude and direction of the force acting on the charged particle. (2000)Ans: 0.02N,

v.

vi.
Towards the thin sheet.
S
A small sphere of weight 5x10 -3 N is suspended by a silk thread which is attracted to a point on a large charge
insulating plane. When a charge of 6x10 -8 C is placed on the ball the thread makes an angle of 30 o with the
vertical. Find the charge density on the plate. (2002)Pre Eng Ans:7.355x10 -7 C/m2
An electron has a speed of 10 6 m/s. find its energy in electron volts. (2004)Ans : 2.8125ev
S
vii. How many electrons should be removed from each of the two similar spheres, each of 10gm, so that
electrostatic repulsion is balanced by the gravitational force. (2006) Ans: 5.39x10 6
viii. How many electrons must be placed on each of the small spheres placed 3.0cm apart if the fore of repulsion
between the spheres is 10 -19 N? (2007) Ans: 625
ix. How many electrons should be removed from each of the two similar spheres, each of 10gm, so that
P

electrostatic repulsion is balanced by the gravitationa l force. (2010)Ans: 5.4x10 6

x. Two point charge of +2x10 -4 C and -2x10 -4 C are placed at a distance of 40cm from each other. A charge of
+5x10 -5 C is placed midway between them. What is the magnitude and direction of force on it?
(2012) Ans: 4.5x10 3 N, Towards from q 1 to q2 .
xi. -6 2
The surface charge density on a vertical metal plate is 25x10 C/m . Find the force experienced by a charge of
U

2x10 -10 C placed in front of close to the sheet. (𝜖𝑜 =8.85x10 -12 C/Nm2 ) (2013)Ans:
2.824x10 -4 N
xii. A thin infinite sheet of uniformly distributed positive charge attracts a light sphere having a charge -
5x10 -6 C with a force of 1.695N. Calculate the surface charge density of the sheet (𝜖𝑜 =8.85x10 -12 C/Nm2 ).
(2015) Ans:
xiii. How many electrons should be removed from each of the two similar spheres, each of 10g, so that
electrostatic repulsion is balanced by the gravitational force?
(Gravitational constant = G = 6.67x10 -11 Nm2 /Kg2 and K = 9x10 9 Nm2 /C2 ) (2015)Ans: 5.4x10 6
xiv. Two unequal charges repel each other by a force of 10 newtons when they ar 10cm apart. Find the
force which they exert on each other when they are 1cm apart. If the magnitude on one charge is
-4.25x10-4C, find the magnitude of other. (2018) Ans: 1000N, 2.61x10-8 C

Page 75 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Numericals From Book:
i. Two unequal point charges repel each other with a force of 0.2 Newton when they are 10cm apart. Find
the force which each exerts on the other when they are;
a) 1cm apart
b) 5cm apartAns:20N,0.8N
ii. Two point charges of +1x10 -4 and -1x10 -4 Coul. are placed at a distance of 40cm from each other. A charge
+6x10 -5 Coul is placed midway between them. What is the magnitude and direction of force on it. Ans:
2700x10 3 N towards –ve charge
iii. Three point charges each of 4µC are placed at the three corners of a square of side 20cm. find the
magnitude of the force on each.Ans: 5.03N, 5.04N
iv. Three charges q1 =+7x10 -6 C, q2 =-4x10 -6 C and q3 =-5x10 -6 C are placed at the vertices of the triangle as
shown in the diagram. The sides of the triangle measure 3,4 and 5cm. determine the magnitude and

I
direction of the force on the charge q 1 . A
q1

-I
3cm 4cm

q2 q3
B 5cm C
Ans: 342.24N in the direction making an angle of 35.10 with BA
v.

vi.
S
Two small spheres each having mass of 0.1gm are suspended from the same point by silk threads each
20cm long. The spheres are given equal charges and they are found to repel each other, coming to rest
24cm apart. Find the charge on each.Ans: 6.86x10 -8 C
Two charges of +2x10 -7 C and -5x10 -7 C are placed at a distance of 50cm from each other. Find the point on
the line joining the charges at which the electric field is zero.
S
Ans: 86cm away from 2x10 -7 C charge
vii. A small sphere of weight 5x10 -3 N is suspended by a silk thread 50cm long which is attached to a point on a
large charged insulating plane. When a charge of 6x10 -8 C is placed on the ball the thread makes an angle
of 30 o with the vertical. What is the charge density on the plane.Ans: 𝜎=7.35x10 -7 cm-2
viii. How many electrons should be removed from each of the two similar spheres, each of 10gm, so that
P

electrostatic repulsion can be balanced by the gravitational force.

Ans: n=5.4x10 6
ix. -6 -6 -6
A point charge +4x10 C is placed on a line between charges B of +8x10 C and C of -9x10 C. The charge A
is 4m from B and 10m from C. what is the force on A?
Ans: 0.0212N; Towards C
U

x. Two charges of magnitude +10µC and +8µC are placed on the corners A and B of an equilateral triangle of
sides 10cm. find the force on a charge of +15µC placed at the third corner C.
Ans: 210.86N, Making an angle 33.67 o with BC
xi. The distance between the electron and the proton of hydrogen atom is about 5.3x10 -11 m. compare
the electric and the gravitational forces between these two particles.
Ans: 2.2x10 39
xii. Charges each of +3µC are placed at three corners of a square whose diagonal is 6cm long. Find the field
intensity at the point of intersection of the diagonals. Ans 3x10 7 NC-1
xiii. Find the electric intensity midway between the charges +1.67x10 -7 coul and -1.67x10 -7 coul separated by a
distance of 60cm.Ans: 3.33x10 4 NC-1
xiv. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field that will counter balance the gravitational force on a
proton. Ans: 1.02x10 -7 NC-1

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 Assignment # 12.1
i. State coulomb’s law and derive its mathematical expressions for the force between the charges when
placed: a) In free space b) In a medium of relative permittivity (𝜀r).
ii. Explain electric flux. Under what conditions will the flux through the surface be: a) Maximum b)
Minimum
iii. State and prove the Gauss’s law.
iv. By applying Guass’s law, determine the electric intensity at a point: a) Close to a uniform charge sheet,
b) Lying outside a metallic charged sphere.
v. Two coins lie 1.5m apart on a table. They carry identical charges. How large is the charge on each if a
coin experiences a force of 2N? Ans: 2.2x10 -5 C
vi. Repeat Q#5 if the coins are separated by a distance of 1.5m in water. The dielectric constant of water is

I
80. Ans: 2x10 -4 C
vii. A helium nucleus has charge +2e and a neon nucleus +10e. Find the repulsive force on one by the other

-I
when they are 3nm apart. Assume the system to be in vacuum. Ans: 5.1x10 -10 N
viii. In the Bohr model of hydrogen atom, an electron circles a proton in an orbit of radius 5.3x10 -11 m. The
attraction of the proton for the electron furnishes the centripetal force needed to hold the electron in
orbit. Find a) The force of electrical attraction between the particles b) The electron’s speed. The mass
of electron is 9.1x10 -31 Kg Ans: 8.2x10 -8 N, 2.2x10 6 m/s
ix.

3 𝜇c
S
Three point charges are placed on the x-axis as shown in figure. Find the net force on -5𝜇c charge due to
the two other charges. Ans: 0.6N

20cm
-5 𝜇c 8 𝜇c
S
30cm

x. Find the ratio of (or compare) the electric force to the gravitation force between two electrons in
vacuum. Ans: 4.2x10 42
xi. Two charges of magnitude +2 𝜇c and +3 𝜇c are placed on the corners A and B of an equilateral triangle
of sides 20cm. find the force on a charge of +4 𝜇c place at the third corner C. Ans: 3.9N
P

xii. Two charges are placed on the x-axis: +3 𝜇c at x=0 and -5 𝜇c at x=40cm. where must a third charge q be
placed if the force it experiences is to be zero? Ans: 1.4m from +3 𝜇c charge.
Hint:
q +3 𝜇c -5 𝜇c
U

A C
d B 40cm
xiii. Compute a) The electric field (E) in air at distance of 30cm from a point charge q 1 =5x10 -9 c, b) The force
on a charge q2 =4x10 -10 c placed 30cm from q 1 and c) The force on charge q 3 =-4x10 -10 c placed 30cm from
q1 (in the absence of q 2 ). Ans: a) 500N/c, directed away from q 1, b) 2x10 -7 N; directed away from q 1
c) 2x10 -7 N; directed towards q 1
xiv. How many electron should be placed on each of the two similar spheres, each of 5gm, so that
electrostatic repulsion is balanced by the gravitational attraction? Ans: 2.69x10 6 electrons
xv. How many electrons should be removed from each of two similar spheres placed 5cm apart, if the force
of repulsion between the spheres is 5x10 -18 N? Ans: 7313 electrons
xvi. A thin sheet of positive charge attracts a light charged sphere having a charge 3x10 -4 c with a force of
0.5N. Calculate the surface charge density of the charged sheet. Ans: 2.9x10 -8 C/m2

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 Ex # 12.2
Exercise based on Potential Difference and Capacitors:
MCQS
i. The work done on a unit charge moving against electric field intensity is called___________.
a) Electric field b) Electric potential c) Electric current d) None of these
ii. Electric potential due to point charge q at a distance r is_____________.
𝑞 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
a) 𝐾 b) . c) . d) None of these
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖 𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋 𝜖 𝑜 𝑟2

iii. The S.I unit of Electric potential is__________.

a) Ampere b) Ohm c) Volt d) None of these

I
iv. Electric potential is a ____________.
a) Vector b) Scalar c) Neither scalar nor vector d) Both
v. The relation between electric field intensity “E” and electric potential is_____________.

-I
𝑑𝑉
a) 𝐸= b) 𝐸 = ∆𝑉𝑟 c) 𝐸 = 𝑟/𝑉 d) None of these
𝑑𝑟
vi. Work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to a point against the electric field intensity
is_____________.
a) Absolute potential b) Electric current c) Electric potential d) None of these
vii.

viii.

ix.
Absolute potential at any point p at a distance r is_________________.
a)
1
4𝜋 𝜖 𝑜 𝑟2
.
𝑞
b)
1
4𝜋 𝜖 𝑜 𝑟
.
The earth’s potential is considered as______________.
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) None of these
The charge on capacitor is expressed a s____________.
𝑞
S
c) Both d) None of these
S
𝑄 𝐶
a) 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 b) 𝐶 = c) 𝑉 = d) None of these
𝑉 𝑄

x. Capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to___________.

a) Area of plates b) Separation between the plates c) Thickness of plates d) None of these
xi. Capacitance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to___________.
a) Force between the plates b) Separation between plates c) Thickness of plates d) None of
P

these
xii. S.I unit of capacitance is____________.
a) Volt b) Ohm c) Farad d) None of these
xiii. One farad is equal to______________.
a) 1coulomb/1volt b) 1joule/1volt c) 1volt/1coulomb d) None of these
U

xiv. The presence of a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor results in _____________.
a) Decrease in capacitance b) Increase in capacitance c ) Remains same d) None of these
xv. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with air or vacuum as medium between the plates
is______________.
𝜖 𝑜𝜖 𝑟 𝜖𝑜 𝑑
a) 𝐴 b) 𝐴 c) d) None of these
𝑑 𝑑 𝜖𝑜
xvi. Capacitance of capacitors with dielectric as medium between the plates is___________.
𝜖 𝑜𝜖 𝑟 𝜖𝑜 𝑑
a) 𝐴 b) 𝐴 c) d) None of these
𝑑 𝑑 𝐴𝜖 𝑜
xvii. We can increase the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor by____________.
a) Increasing the area of the plates b) Decreasing the distance between the plates c) Using
dielectric of higher permittivity d) All of them

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xviii. The capacitance of two capacitors increases when they are connected in__________.
a) Series b) Parallel c) Both d) None of these
xix. The capacitance of two capacitors decreases when they are connected in__________.
a) Series b) Parallel c) Both d) None of these
xx. When the capacitance C 1 ,C2 ,C3 are connected in parallel equivalent capacitance is equal to____________.
1 1 1 1
a) = + + b) 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 × 𝐶2 × 𝐶3 c) 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 d) None of these
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

xxi. When the capacitance are connected in series equivalent capacitance is equal to____________.
1 1 1 1
𝑎) = + + b) 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 × 𝐶2 × 𝐶3 c) 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 d) None of these
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

xxii. Two capacitors of 4µF are joined in series the combined capacitance is_________.
a) ½ µF b) 2µF c) 8µF d) None of these
xxiii. If two capacitors of 5µF and 7µF are joined in parallel the combined capacitance is____________.

I
a) 12µF b) 0.12µF c) 2.9µF d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.

-I
B B C B A A B C A A B C A B B
xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii.
A D B A C A B A
Questions From Past Papers:
i. What is capacitor? On what factors does the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depend. Determine

ii.
iii.

iv.
the capacitance of a parallel plates capacitor.
S
(1993)
Explain the term capacitance of a capacitor and give its units. (1995)
Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when air is present between the
plates.
Define capacitance of a capacitor and give its units.
(1995)
(1997)
S
v. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when: (1997)
a) The air is between the plates
b) It is partially filled by a dielectric
vi. Write short note on: Potential difference and absolute potential. (1998)
vii. What is capacitor? On what factors does the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depend. What is the
P

unit of capacitance? Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when there is:
a) Air b) An insulated material as a medium between the two plates.
(1999)
viii. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when: (2001)
a) The space between the two plates is completely filled with air.
U

b) The space between the two plates is completely filled with dielectric slab.
ix. Derive a relation to find the equivalent capacitance of three capacitors connected in parallel.
(2002)Pre Med
x. Define electric intensity and potential difference and obtain the relation between them. (2002)Pre Eng
xi. Derive a relation to find the equivalent capacitance of three capacitors connected in series.
(2003)Pre Med
xii. Define potential difference between two points in an electric field and derive expression for it.
(2003)Pre Med
xiii. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when:
a) Air is the medium between the plates
b) An insulating medium is between the plates (2003)Pre Eng

Page 79 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xiv. Define electric potential. Derive a relation between an electric field and potential difference.
(2004)
xv. What do you understand by the capacitance of a capacitor? Derive an expression for the capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor with some dielectric between the plates. (2005)
xvi. Define the capacity of capacitor. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate ca pacitor
having some dielectric between its plates. (2006)
xvii. Derive a relation to find the equivalent capacitance of three capacitors connected in series.
(2009)
xviii. What is capacitor? Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when:
a) Air exist between the plates
b) Space between plates is partially filled by a diel ectric medium. (2011)
xix. What is compound capacitor? Derive an expression for its capacitance, if the space between the plates is

I
partially filled with a slab of dielectric. (2013)
xx. What is capacitor? Define its unit. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

-I
when there is i) air between the plate ii) some dielectric medium between the plates. (2015)
xxi. Derive the relation between the electric intensity and electric potential. (2015)
xxii. Derive the expression for the equivalent capacitance when three capacitors are connected in series or in
parallel. (2016)
xxiii. What is mean by the capacitance of a capacitor. Derive an expression for the capacitance of
S
parallel plate capacitor. When there is:
a) Air between the plates b) some dielectric medium

Also prove that the ratio of both capacitance is equal to dielectric constant ∈𝑟 . (2017)
S
xxiv. Define potential gradient. Derive mathematical relation between electric field intensity and
potential difference. (2017)
xxv. Explain the term capacitance of a capacitor and give its S.I unit. Derive the expression
for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with:
a) Free space between the plates
P

b) A dielectric medium between the plates (2019)

xxvi. What is meant by equipotential surface? Describe two properties of equipotential
surface. (2019)
U

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. Calculate the potential difference between two plates when they are separated by a distance of 0.005m
and are able to hold an electron motionless between them. (Mass of electron=9.1x10 -31 Kg).
(1991)Ans: 2.79x10 -13 V
ii. Calculate the equivalent capacitance and charge on 5µF capacitors as shown in the figure. C 1 =3µF C2 =2µF
C3 =5µF C4 =4µF V=10volts (1993)Ans: 6.1µF, 15µc
C2
C1
C3
C4

V
iii. Two horizontal metallic parallel plates, separated by a distance of 0.5cm are connected with a battery of
10volts. Find (1994)Ans: 2000V/m, 3.2x10 -16 N

Page 80 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) The electric field intensity between the plates.
b) The force on a proton placed between the plates.
iv. Two capacitors of capacitances 400µF and 600µF are charged to the potential difference of 300volts and
400volts respectively. They are then connected in parallel. What will be the resultant potential difference
and charged on each capacitor? (1995) Ans: 360V, 0.144C, 0.216C
v. -6
A particle of mass 0.5g and charge 4x10 C is held motionless between two oppositely charged horizontal
metal plates. If the distance between them is 5mm, find;
a) The electric intensity b) The potential difference between the plates. (1996)Ans: 1225V/m,
6.125V
vi. A capacitor of 200pF is charged to a P.D of 100volts. Its plates are then connected in parallel to another
capacitor and are found that the P.D between the plates falls to 60volts. What is the capacitance of the
second capacitor? (1997)Ans: `133.3pF

I
vii. The capacitor of 2.0 µF and 8.0 µF capacitance are connected in series and a potential difference of 200
volts is applied. Find the charge and the potential difference for each capacitor.

-I
(1999)Ans: 3.2x10 -4 C, 160V, 40V
viii. A parallel plate capacitor has the plates 10cmx10cm separated by a distance of 2.5cm. it is initially filled
with air, what be the increase in its capacitance if a dielectric slab of the same area and thickness 2.5cm is
placed between the two plates? The dielectric constant is 2. (2001)Ans: 3.54pF
ix. Find the equivalent capacitance in the given circuit and charge on each capacitor. (2002)Pre Med

C1=6µF
S C2=2.0µF

C3=4µF
S
V= 10v Ans: 3µF, 30µC, 10µC, 20µC
x. A proton of mass 1.67x10 -27 Kg and a charge of1.6x10 -19 C isto be held motionless between two horizontal
parallel plates 10cm apart. Find the voltage required to be applied between the plates.
(2002)Pre Eng Ans: 1.0228x10 -8 V
xi. A particle carrying a charge of 10 -5 C starts from rest in a uniform electric field of intensity 50Vm -1 . Find the
P

force on the particle and the kinetic energy it acquires when it is moved 1 m.
(2003)Pre MedAns: 5x10 -4 N, 5x10 -4 J
xii. A capacitor of 12 µF is charged to a potential difference of 100V. its plates are then disconnected from the
source and are connected parallel to another capacitor. The potential difference in this combination
comes down to 60V what is the capacitance of the second capacitor?
U

(2008)Ans: 8µF
xiii. A proton of mass 1.67x10 -27 Kg and a charge of 1.6x10 -19 C is to be held motionless between two horizontal
parallel plates 6cm apart. Find the voltage required to be applied between the plates.
(2009)Ans: 6.137x10 -9 V
xiv. A proton of mass 1.67x10 -27 Kg and a charge of 1.6x10 -19 C is to be held motionless between two horizonta l
parallel plates. Find the distance between the plates when the potential difference of 6x10 -9 Volts is
applied across the plates. (2011)Ans: 5.86cm
xv. A 10µF capacitor is charged to a potential difference of 220V. it is then disconnected from the battery. Its
plates are then connected in parallels to another capacitor and it is found that the potential difference
falls to 100V. what is the capacitance of the second capacitor?(2014)Ans: 12µf
xvi. An 𝛼-particle of charge 3.2x10 -19 C and mass 6.68x10 -27 kg is held motionless between two horizontal
parallel plates separated by 10cm. Find the potential difference between the plates.

Page 81 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2016) Ans: 2.04x10 -8 V
xvii. A particle of mass 1.67x10-27kg and charge 1.6x10-19 C is to be held motionless between two
horizontal parallel plates, the voltage applied between the plates is 14.32x10 -4volt. Calculate the
distance between the plates. (2017) Ans: 13999.75 m
xviii. Two capacitors of 2𝜇F and 4 𝜇F are connected in series to a volt battery. Calculate the
charge on these capacitors and potential difference across each. (2019)

Numericals From Book:

i. What are the electric field and potential at the centre of a square whose diagonals are 60cm each when a)
charges each of 2µC are placed at the four corners. b) charge of +2µC are placed on the adjacent corners
and -4µC on the other corners.

I
Ans: a) 0, 2.4x10 5 Volts, b) 8.5x10 5 J/C, -1.2x10 5 Volts
ii. A particle carrying a charge of 10 -5 C starts from rest in uniform electric field of intensity 50Vm-1 . Find the
force on the particle and the kinetic energy it acquires when it has moved 1m.Ans: 5x10 -4 N, 5x10 -4 J

-I
iii. A proton of mass 1.67x10 -27 Kg and a charge of 1.6x10 -19 C is to be held motionless between two horizontal
parallel plates 10m apart. Find the voltage required to be applied between the plates. Ans: 1.02x10 -8 Volts
iv. There is a potential difference of 150volts between two conductors of a power line. A charge of 600C is
carried from one conductor to the other. What work is required? If the time necessary to transport the

v.

vi.
charge is 1.25s how much power is used?
S Ans: 9x10 4 J, 7.2x10 4 watt
A metal sphere of 100mm radius has a charge of 4.25x10 -9 C. what is the potential? a) at its surface b) at its
centre. What is the potential energy if a charge of 2..5x10 -6 C at a point 150mm from the centre of sphere?

+3 -1
Ans: 3.825x10 2 volts, 3.825x10 2 volts, 1.43x10 -3J
An electron having initial velocity of 10 cms is directed from a distance of 1mm at another electron
S
whose position is fixed. How close to the stationary electron will the other approach.Ans: 0.5 06m
vii. Find the equivalent capacitance and charge on each of the capacitor show in the figure.
Ans: 1.2µF, q1 =144µC, q2 =96µC, q3 =48µC
C2 =2µF
C1=2µF
P

D A B
V2
V1
C3=1µF
U

V=120v
viii. Two capacitors of 2µF and 8µF are joined in series and potential difference of 300volts is applied. Find the
charge and potential difference for each capacitor.
Ans: q1 =q2 =4.8x10 -3 C, V1 =240volts and V2 =60volts
ix. A capacitor of 100pF is charged to a potential difference of 50 Volts. Its plates are then connected in
parallels to another capacitor and it is found that the potential difference between its plates falls to
3µF 3µF
35volts. What is the capacitance of the second capacitor. Ans:42.85pF
x. Find the equivalent capacitance of 3µF
the combination shown in diagram.
3µF 2µF
Ans: 1µF
2µF
3µF 3µF
Page 82 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
3µF
 xi. A parallel plate capacitor has plats 30cm x30cm separated by a distance of 2cm. by how mu ch the
capacitance changes if a dielectric slab of the same area but of thickness 1.5cm is slipped between the
plates. The dielectric constant of the material is 2.
Ans: Capacitance increase by 2.39x10 -11 farad
xii. Three 1.0pF capacitors are charged separately to the potential difference of 100, 200 and 300 volts. The
capacitors are then joined in parallels. What is the resultant potential difference. Ans: 200volts
xiii. Compare the capacitances of two identical capacitors with dielectrics inserted as shown in the diagram.
The dielectric constants are K 1 and K2 .

I
4𝐾1 𝐾2
Ans: Cb/Ca=(
𝐾1 +𝐾2 )2
xiv. A capacitor of 10µF and one of 20µF are connected across batteries of 600volts and 1000volts

-I
respectively and then disconnected. They are then joined in parallels. What is the charge on each
capacitor? Ans: 8.66x10 -3 C, 17.32x10 -3 C
xv. Attempt the problem xv with the difference that capacitors are joined in series after being charged, as
before.Ans: q1 =q2 =1.066x10 -12 C 5µC -3µC
A B
xvi. Find the potential and field due to the
S
charges placed at the ends of the diagonals
of a square as shown in the diagram at the
point of their intersection. Each diagonal is 30cm long.

Ans: 2.4x10 5 Volts, zero intensity D

15cm o

C
S
-3µC 5µC
xvii. Find the velocity acquired by an electron in falling through a potential difference of 200 0 volts.
Ans: 8.4x10 7 ms -1
xviii. An electron is situated midway between two parallel plates 0.5cm apart. One of the plates is maintained
at a potential of 60volts above the other. What is the force on the electron.
P

Ans: 1.92x10 -15 N

xix. A electron acquires a speed of 10 6 ms -1 . Find its energy in electron volts. Ans: 2.84ev
xx. The parallel plates of an air filled capacitor are 1.0mm apart. What must the plate area be if the
capacitance is 1 farad?Ans: 1.1x10 8 m2
xxi. Two capacitors C1 (3µF) and C2 (6µF) are in series across a 90volts D.C supply. Calculate the charges on C 1
U

and C2 and the P.D across each.

Ans:Q=180x10 -6 C, V1 = 60Volts, V2 = 30volts
xxii. Find the charges on the capacitors connected as shown in the diagram across a 120 volts D.C supply.
C2 =2µF
C1=2µF
D A B
V2
V1
C3=1µF

Ans: Q1 =144x10 -6 C, Q2 =96x10 -6 C, Q3 =48x10 -6 C

V=120v

Page 83 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Assignment # 12.2
i. Define potential difference. Derive its expression and also derive the relation between P.D and electric
intensity.
ii. What is capacitor and its capacitance, define its unit. On what factors does the capacitance depend and
how?
iii. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a pa rallel plates capacitor when:
a) Air exist between the plates
b) A dielectric is completely filled between the plates.
c) A dielectric is partially filled between the plates (Compound capacitor).
iv. Derive expression for equivalent capacitance, if three capacitors are combined in: a) series b) Parallel
v. How much work is required to carry an electron from the positive terminal of a 12V battery to the

I
negative terminal? Ans: 1.9x -18 J
vi. How much electrical PE does a proton lose as it falls through a potential drop of 5KV? An s: -8x10 -16 J

-I
vii. An electron starts from rest and falls through a potential rise of 80V. What is its final speed? Ans:
5.3x10 6 m/s Hint: [Lost in PE= Gained in KE]
viii. a) What is the absolute potential at each of the following distances from a charge of 2 𝜇c: r=10cm and
r=50cm? b) How much work is required to carry a 0.05𝜇c charge from the point at r=50cm to that at
r=10cm? Ans: a) 1.8x10 5 V, 36000V b) 0.0072J
ix.
S
A charged particle remains stationary between the two horizontal charged plates. The plates separation is
2cm and m=4x10 -13 kg and q=2.4x10 -18 c for the particle. Find the PD between the plates. Ans: 33000V
MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)
(2001)
S
i. When three capacitors are joined in series, the total capacitance,
a) Less than the value of the minimum capacitance
b) Equal to the sum of the capacitance
c) Greater than the maximum capacitance
d) None of the above
ii. The unit of electric intensity is :
P

a) N C/m b) V m c) NC d) V/m
(2002)Pre Eng
iii. Electron volt is a unit of:
a) Energy b) Force c) Potential difference d) Current
(2002)Pre Med
U

iv. The force per unit charge is known as :

a) Electric flux b) Electric field c) Electric potential d) Electric current
v. If 4µF and 2µF capacitors are connected in series, the equivalent capacitor is :
a) 0.76µF b) 6µF c) 2µF d) 1.33µF
(2003)Pre Med
vi. If two capacitors of 5µF and 7µF are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacitance will be:
a) 0.12µF b) 12µF c) 0.34µF d) 2.9µF
vii. If a dielectric slab is introduced between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor, kept at a constant potentials,
the charge on the capacitor.
a) Decrease b) Increase c) Remains unchanged d) Becomes zero

Page 84 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 viii. One electron volt is equal to:
a) 1.6x10 -11 J b) 1.6x10 -19 J c) 1.6x10 -19 V d) 3.1x10 -13 V
(2003)Pre Eng
ix. The presence of dielectric between the plates of a capacitor results in :
a) Increase in the capacitance b) Decrease in the capacitance c) No change in the capacitance d)
None of these
x. The change in potential energy per unit charge between two points in an electric field is called :
a) Electric intensity b) Permittivity c) Potential difference d) Absolute potential
(2004)
xi. The magnitude of electric intensity between two oppositely charge plates is :
2𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
a) b) c) d)
𝜖𝑜 2𝜖 𝑜 3𝜖 𝑜 𝜖𝑜

I
xii. In case of a parallel combination of capacitors, the net capacity is greater than the greatest individual (True,
False)
xiii. The presence of a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor results in:

-I
xiv. A parallel plate capacitor is given a charge Q, if the separation between the plates is doubled, its capacity will
be doubled. (True. False)
xv. One joule per coulomb is called:
a) Farad b) Gauss c) Ampere d) Volt
xvi.

xvii.

xviii.
a) 10µF b) 18µF
S
____________can be expressed in terms of electron volt.
(2005)
The change in potential energy of a unit charge between two points in an electric field is called:
a) Intensity b) Permittivity c) Potential difference

c) 22µF d) 40µF
d) Flux
A dielectric of 𝜖𝑟 = 2 is inserted between the plates of a 20µF capacitor. its capacitance will become:
S
(2006)
xix. If 4µF and 2µF capacitors are connected in s eries, the equivalent capacitance is:
a) 1.33µF b) 0.75µF c) 6µF d) 2µF
∆𝑉
xx. The quantity is called:
∆𝑆
P

a) Electric potential b) Electric field intensity c) Potential gradient d) both b and c

xxi. The concept of the electric lines of force was introduced by a famous scientist:
a) Newton b) Einstein c) Coulomb d) Farad
(2007)
xxii. Which of the following cannot be the unit of electric intensity?
U

a) N/C b) V/m c) J/C.m d) J/C

xxiii. Which of the following is not a scalar quantity?
a) Potential Diff. b) EMF c) Electric flux d) Electric intensity
(2008)
xxiv. The introduction of dielectri c between the oppositely charged plates causes the intensity to:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remains constant d) Increase & decrease
xxv. Two positive point charges repel each other with force of 4x10 -4 N when placed at a distance of 1 meter. If the
distance between them increased by 2m, the force of repulsion will be:
a) 1x10 -4 N b) 8x10 -4 N c) 2x10 -4 N d) 4x10 -4 N
xxvi. Electric flux through the surface of a sphere which contains a charge at its centre depends on the:
a) Amount of charge outside the sphere c) Surface area of the sphere
b) Amount of charge inside the sphere d) Radius of the sphere

Page 85 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2009)
xxvii. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, it becomes:
a) Negatively charge only b) Positively charge only c) Polarized d) Conductive
xxviii. The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor does not depend on the:
a) Area of the plates b) Nature of the plates c) Distance between the plates d) Medium
between the plates
xxix. The change in potential energy per unit charge between the two points in an electric field is called :
a) Intensity b) Flux c) Potential Diff. d) Permittivity
(2010)
xxx. Decreasing the separation of two positive charge by one half will cause electrostatic force of repulsion to
change by:
a) 4 times b) 2 times c) ½ time d) ¼ time

I
xxxi. Which of the following cannot be the scalar quantity?
a) Electric potential b) EMF c) Electric flux d) Electric intensity

-I
(2011)
xxxii. If an electrostatic force between two electrons at a distance, is F Newton, the electrostatic force between two
protons at the same distance is :
a) Zero b) F/2 c) F d) 2F
(2012)
xxxiii.

xxxiv.
a)
𝜖𝑜
Joule per coulomb is called:
a) Farad
b)
S
The electric intensity between two uniformly oppositely charged parallel plates is:
2𝜎 𝜎
2𝜖 𝑜

b) Ampere
(2013)
c)
𝜎
3𝜖 𝑜

c) Volt
d)
𝜎
𝜖𝑜

d) Henry
S
xxxv. The number of electrons in one coulomb charge is :
a) 6x10 20 b) 1.6x10 18 c) 6.25x10 18 d) 9.1x10 19
(2014)
xxxvi. Two capacitors of 3µF and 6µF are connected in series. their equivalent capacitance is :
a) 9µF b) 2µF c) ½ µF d) 3µF
P

xxxvii. This is not a scalar quantity:

a) Electric flux b) Electric intensity c) E.M.F d) Electric potential
xxxviii. Joule per coulomb is:
a) Farad b) Henry c) Ampere d) Volt
(2015)
U

xxxix. 1 Mev, is equal to:

a) 1.6x10 -19 J b) 1.6x10 -13 J c) 1.6x10 18 J d) 1.6x10 19 J
xl. Decrease the separation between two identical charges by one-half causes the repulsive force to become:
a) One-fourth b) Half c) Double d) Fourfold
(2016)
xli. The number of electrons in one coulomb is:
a) 6.1x10 24 b) 6.1x10 18 c) 6.25x10 8 d) 1.6x10 -19
xlii. The separation between the plates and the area of plates of a parallel plates capacitors are doubled, then the
capacity will:
a) Become fourfold b) becomes on fourth c) becomes double d) Remain the same

Page 86 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2017)
xliii. On equipotential surface, work done in moving a charged particle is:
a) Positive b) negative c) zero d) infinity
xliv. If a dielectric, having ∈𝑟 =2, is inserted between the plates of a 20𝜇f capacitor, its capacitance will:
a) Remain the same b) be doubled c) be halved d) become zero
(2018)
xlv. This is not the scalar quantity:
a) Electric flux b) Electric intensity c) Electromotive force d) Electric potential
(2019)
xlvi. The scalar product of electric intensity (𝐸⃗ ) and vector area (𝐴) is called:
a) Electric flux b) electric force c) electric potential d) electric flux density

I
xlvii. A particle of mass “m” and charge “q” is to be held motionless between two parallel and horizontal
charged plates:

-I
𝑚𝑔 𝑞 𝑚𝑔 𝑞𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
a) b) c) d)
𝑞𝑉 𝑚𝑔 𝑞 𝑚

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
Increase the
A D A B D B B B A C D TRUE FALSE D
xvi.
ENERGY C D A D C D
S
xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv.
D B
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii.xxxviii. xxxix.
D C D C C B B D B
A
xl.
D
B
xli.
C
C
xlii.
D
capacitance

xxvi. xxvii. xxviii.

B
xliii.
C
xxix.
C
xliv.
B
xxx.
A
xlv
B
S
xlvi. xlvii
A C
P
U

Page 87 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Current Electricity

In general, Metals are found good conductor of Heat and Electricity. In conductor, at all
ordinary temperatures, there would be availability of a very large number of conduction
electrons in absence of Forbidden Energy Gap. (i.e. Eg≈ 0)between Velance and Conduction
Band. When a potential difference is set across the ends of a conductor, conduction electrons
experience a “Push” from negative to positive potential end of conductor and thus they will

I
continue to drift swiftly in a direction of (-𝐸⃗ ).

-I
The term Current is defined as, “The rate of magnitude of charges that are drifted down a cross -
section of conductor will describe strength of current at that cross-section of conductor”.
“t” Second

S Q

If “Q” be the magnitude of “n” number of charges that are drifted down a cross -section of
S
conductor in “t” second, then strength of current at that cross -section of conductor is given by;
𝑄
𝐼 =
𝑡
According to the expression of current,
𝑄
P

𝐼 =
𝑡
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝐼 =
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Hence, the strength of current is measured by “Ampere” in S.I.
U

Definition of Ampere:
The unit of current, Ampere is defined as, “If Charges of magnitude of 1 Coulomb are drifted
down a cross-section of conductor in 1 second, then current of strength, 1 Ampere is said to be
passed through this cross-section of conductor”.
Direction of Electric Current:
Conventionally the direction of electric current is taken from positive to the negative terminal
of a battery or cell. The positive terminal of a battery is assumed to be at a higher and the
negative terminal is assumed to be a lower potential. Current flow from higher to lower
potential and was assumed to be carried by positive charge. This current is called Conventional

Page 88 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Current. Since in most of the conductors current is due to the flow of electrons which flow from
negative to positive terminal of a battery, hence the actual direction of current is from negative
to positive terminal. This current is known as Electric Current.

In 1827, A direct relation has been established by a scientist, George Simon Ohm between the
two essential characteristics of an electric circuit. This relation is often called “Ohm’s Law” after
the name of Scientist.
Statement:
According to the Ohm’s Law, “If physical state of a conductor does not change, the strength of

I
current at any cross-section of conductor remains directly proportional to the magnitude of
potential difference which is set across the same cross -section of conductor”.

-I
Formula:
Suppose that “I” be the strength of current which is drifted down the cross -section of a
conductor at an applied P.D. of “V”, then statement of Ohm’s Law can be written
mathematically as;
S 𝐼 ∝𝑉
𝐼 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑉
𝐼 = (𝑘)𝑉 … … … … … . (𝑖)
Where, “k” shows conductance of the conductor. Its numerical value expresses reciprocal value
S
1 1
of the Resistance of same conductor and expressed by “ ”.i.e. K =
𝑅 𝑅
Eq(i)=>
1
𝐼 = ( )𝑉
𝑅
P

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
This equation is often called, “Equation of Ohm’s Law”. In this equation. “R” is reffered as
U

“Resistance of the conductor”. Its value depends on nuture of material, dimensions and
temperature of the conductor.
Graphical Representation of Ohm’s Law:
The graph between the potential difference and
current though a given conductor is a straight line
as shown, provided physical conditions remain
unchanged. 𝐼

Page 89 of 281 𝑉
Prepared By: Imran Zubair
In general, “The opposition offered by the material of a conductor in the flow of current, is
called Resistance of the conductor”.
It is symbolized by “R” and measured by “Ohm” (Ω) in S.I.
Definition of Resistance On Basis of Ohm’s Law:
According to the equation of Ohm’s Law,
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑃.𝐷
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 =>𝑅 = 𝑉/𝐼 => Resistance = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Its means, “The ratio of applied potential difference to the strength of current drifted down the

I
cross-section of a conductor gives a constant value, called Resistance of the Conductor”.
Unit of Resistance:

-I
According to the equation of Ohms Law,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑉/𝐼
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
S 𝑅 =
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑂ℎ𝑚
Hence the unit of resistance is “Ohm” which is denoted by Ω (omega).
Definition of “Ohm”:
S
“If current of strength 1 Ampere is drifted down a cross-section of conductor at an applied P.D.
of 1 volt, then opposition caused by the material of conductor against the flow of current is said
to be 1 Ohm”.
Dependence of Resistance On Dimensions of Conductor:
P

In practice, the resistance of conductor is found directly proportional to the Length, but
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of conductor.
If “R” be the resistance of a conductor of length “L” and cross-sectional area “A” then we may
write mathematically as;
U

𝑅∝𝐿
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
By combining the two relations of resistance under single expression we have;
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴

Page 90 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
Where, “𝜌” is the constant of proportionality, Called “Specific Resistance” or “Resistivity” of the
conductor. Its value depends on nature of material of conductor.

Definition of Resistivity of A Conductor:

According to the equation of resistance of a conductor,
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴

I
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿

-I
2 3
If L = 1metre and A = 1metre or volume = V= 1m , then;
𝜌=𝑅
It means, “The opposition offered by the material of a conductor of volume, 1metre 3 against
the flow of current, is referred as Resistivity of that conductor.
Unit of Resistivity of A Conductor:
S
According to the equation of resistance of a conductor,
𝑅=
𝜌𝐿
𝐴
𝑅𝐴
S
𝜌=
𝐿
(Ω)(𝑚2 )
𝜌=
(𝑚)

𝜌 = Ω×𝑚
P

Hence, Resistivity of a conductor is measured by “Ohm x Metre” is S.I. system of units.

Dependence of Resistance On Temperature of Conductor:
In practice, the resistance of a conductor directly depends on temperature i.e. “resistance
U

increases with the rise of temperature of a conductor”.

We know that metals are in general, good conductors of electricity and in a metal, molecules
performs fixed type of vibratory motion within their specific amplitudes.
When temperature of a conductor increases, its molecules will continue to oscillate with a
greater amplitude due to increasing Kinetic Energy. As, scattering angle of drifted electron is
directly proportional to the square of amplitude of oscillatory molecules, therefore, the
conduction electrons will be scattered with greater angles at a high temperature and they
experience much greater hindrance(resistance) during drifting of conduction electrons

Page 91 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

increases, but conductivity towards the flow of current decreases at relatively higher
temperature of a conductor.
Let “Ro” is the resistance of conductor at 0oc and “Rt” is its length at toc
Mathematically;
∆𝑅 ∝ 𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅 ∝ ∆𝑇
By combining the two relation of change of resistance under single expression we have,
∆𝑅 ∝ ∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝑅𝑜

I
(𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜 ) = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 (𝑡 − 0)
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜 = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 𝑡

-I
𝑅𝑡 = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (𝛼𝑡 + 1)
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)
Where,

S
“𝛼” is the constant of proportionality called, “Temperature Coefficient For Resistivity”. Its value
depends on nature of material of the conductor.
The equation of resistance can be expressed in term of resistivity as;
𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)
S
Definition of Temperature Coefficient For Resistivity:
According to the equation of change of resistance with the rise of temperature,
∆𝑅 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅
=𝛼
∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
P

∆𝑅
𝛼= … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
If Ro = 1Ω and ∆𝑇 = 1oC or 1K
theneq(i)=>𝛼 = ∆𝑅
U

It means,
“The temperature coefficient for resistivity is that increase in resistance of a conductor of
original resistance of 1Ω, when it is heated upto a temperature difference of 1 oc or 1K”.
Unit of Temperature Coefficient For Resistivity:
According to the equation of change of resistance with the rise of temperature,
∆𝑅 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝑅𝑜

∆𝑅
𝛼=
∆𝑇𝑅𝑜

Page 92 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (Ω)
𝛼=
(Ω) × (℃)
1
𝛼=
℃
𝛼 = (℃)−1 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 −1
Hence, the temperature coefficient for resistivity is measured by “Per Degree Centigrade or per
Kelvin”.

Any two or more resistors can be combined to form an electric circuit with a source of P.D

I
(Battery) in following two ways:
i. In Series

-I
ii. In Parallel
1. Combination of Resistors In Series:
If any two or more resistors are connected with the ends of a battery in a manner that:
a) The strength of current through each resistor remains same.
S
b) The P.D across any one resistor differs the P.D across any other resistor.
Then this combination is called series combination.
Derivation For Equivalent Resistance of Series Combination:
For this, let us assume that:
S
i. The strength of current through each resistor = I.
ii. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance “R1” = Vab.
iii. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance ”R2”= Vbc.
iv. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance ”R3”= Vcd.
P

v. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance ”Re”= Vad.

vi. The resistance of equivalent resistor = Re = ?
According to the characteristic of series combination of resistors,
Vad =Vab + Vbc + Vcd
IRe = IR1 + IR2+ IR3
U

IRe = I (R1 + R2 + R3)

Re = R1 + R2 + R3
Its means, “The sum of resistance of all the individual resistor will represent equivalent
resistance of the series combination”.
Thus, if “n” number of resistors are to be connected in series, then their equivalent resistance is
to be given as;
Re = R1 + R2 + R3 +……………..+ Rn

Page 93 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑖 =𝑛

𝑅𝑒 = ∑(𝑅𝑖 )
𝑖=1
R1 R2
a b c R3 d Re=?
a d

V ab V bc V cd V ad
+ -
+ - I I
V
I I
V
2. Combination of Resistors In Parallel:

I
If any two or more resistors are connected with the opposite terminals of a battery in a
manner that:

-I
a) The P.D. across any resistor remains same.
b) The strength of current pass through any one resistor differs the current through
any other resistor.
Then the combination of resistors with a source of P.D is said to be “Parallel”.

a
I
I1

I2
R1

R2
S b
I
a
Re=?
b
S
I3 R3
V ab
+ - + -
I I I I
V V
P

Derivation For Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Combination:

For this, let us assume that:
i. The P.D. across each resistor = Vab.
ii. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “R1” = I1
U

iii. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “R2” = I2
iv. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “R3” = I3
v. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “Re” = I
vi. The resistance of equivalent resistor = Re = ?
According to the characteristic of parallel combination of resistors,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ∵ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑎 𝑏 𝑉𝑎 𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉
= + + ∴𝐼=
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅
𝑉𝑎𝑏 1 1 1
= 𝑉𝑎𝑏 ( + + )
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Page 94 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Its means, “The sum of reciprocal of resistance of all the individual resistor will represent
reciprocal of equivalent resistance of the parallel combination”.
Thus, if “n” number of resistors are to be connected in parallel, then reciprocal of their
equivalent resistance is given by;
1 1 1 1 1
= + + … … ……
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
𝑖=𝑛
1 1
= ∑( )
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑖

I
𝑖=1

Power Dissipation In Resistors:

-I
When current is passed through a resistor the free electrons suffer collisions with the atoms of
the conductor due to which a part of their energy is transferred to the atoms of the conductor.
The amplitude of vibration of the atoms therefore increase, resulting in a rise in temperature of
the conductor. Hence electrical energy is converted into heat energy. The above fact can also
S
be explained by considering the work done by the free electrons to overcome the opposition
(resistance) offered by the conductor. Work done by the charges to overcome the opposition
appears as heat.
Let “I” be the current passed for “t” seconds, when the potential difference across the
S
conductor is “V”. By definition.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
P.D=V=Work done(change in PE) per unit charge =
𝑄
Work done = QV
𝑄
But Q = It ∵𝐼=
P

𝑡
Work done = ItV ∴ 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
This work done appears as heat, hence,
Heat Produced = VIt
Power is the rate of doing work or it is the rate of conversion of one form of energy into
U

another form.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃 =
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
But according to Ohm’s Law.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Now;
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑅𝐼

Page 95 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑃 = 𝐼 2𝑅
But
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
Now;
𝑉2
𝑃 = .𝑅
𝑅2
𝑉2
𝑃 =
𝑅

I
The SI unit of power is “Watt” and commercial unit of power is horse power(hp).
1 Horse Power (hp) = 746 Watts = 0.746 kW.

-I
Kilowatt-Hour (kWh)
On commercial scale electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh is that amount of energy which is delivered by the electric current by constant power of
1 kW in one hour.

1kWh = 1kW x 1hour

1kWh = 1000W x 3600s
1kWh = 1000J/s x 3600s
S E=Pxt
S
1kWh = 3.6x106J
“kWh is commonly known as a UNIT of electricity.

An electric current is passed through an electric circuit, some electrical energy is said to be
P

passed through the resistor of the circuit. Thus, if we intend to drift conduction electrons
continuously in an electric circuit, then we must needed a source of energy to do so.
Thus, after introducing source of energy in an electric circuit, conduction electrons experiences
a push force from one end of conductor to the other end causes an electrical impulse in the
U

circuit concern. Such a force is often called, Electromotive Force and abbreviated as, “E.M.F”.
In practice, the magnitude of E.M.F directly depends on potential difference of the source and
hence strength of E.M.F is measured by the unit of potential difference i.e. “VOLT”.
Definition of E.M.F:
“The energy per unit charge required to drive electric charge round an electric circuit i s called
Electro Motive Force (E.M.F)”.
E.M.F of a source is equal to “the potential difference across its terminals when no current is
being drawn from it”.
E.M.F may also be defined as “the work done per unit charge”.

Page 96 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Unit of E.M.F is Volt.
Origin of Producing E.M.F:
Some common methods of producing E.M.F are discussed below:
i. The main source of producing E.M.F is primary and secondary cells.
ii. An E.M.F of very low strength can be obtained by the interaction of substances having
bitter and acidic nature.
iii. An E.M.F of very low strength can be obtained across the junction of a thermo-couple.
iv. An E.M.F is broadly induced in a coil (Armature) by the action of magnetic influence such
an E.M.F is called, “Induced E.M.F”.
Terminal Potential Difference:(Difference between EMF and TPD):

I
Whenever a source of P.D. sends conventional current from positive to negative terminal then
same nature of current will be passed through electrolyte of the source from its negative to

-I
positive terminal. During flow of current through the electrolyte, the current faces some
resistance due to molecular arrangement of electrolyte. The resistance of electrolyte causes
potential drop at the terminals of battery, slightly less than the actual E.M.F generated by the

S
battery. The E.M.F obtained at the terminals of a battery is often called, “Terminal Potential
Difference” and symbolized by “V”.
To establish an expression for terminal P.D of a battery, let us assume that:
i. The actual E.M.F generated by the source = E.
ii. The strength of current passes through the circuit =I.
S
iii. The internal resistance caused by the electrolyte = r.
iv. The potential drop due to internal resistance = Ir
Hence, the terminal potential difference of the battery is given by,
V = E – Ir
P

According to this expression, if greater be the value of either current or internal resistance of
electrolyte, lesser be the T.P.D of a battery.
Note:
i. When battery delivering current(on discharge):
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V=E-Ir
ii. When battery receiving current(on charge):
V=E+Ir
iii. When no current exists:
V=E

Page 97 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 i. Electrons leave a dry cell and flow through a lamp back to the cell. Which terminal the positive or
negative is the one from which electrons leave the cell? In which direction is the conventional current?
Ans: electrons leave the negative terminal of the cell and move towards the positive terminal. However,
as a convention, the conventional current is assumed to consist of positive charges moving from a positive
terminal to the negative terminal.
ii. Both P.D and E.M.F are measured in volts. What is the difference between the se concepts?
Ans: The work done per unit charge across a resistor in a closed circuit is called p.d. but e.m.f can be
defined as the total p.d. across the circuit/combination and it refers to a source of current and is greater
than the potential drop in an external circuit across the resistors.

I
iii. Can you construct two wires of the same length, one of copper and one of iron, that would have the
same resistance at the same temperature?
Ans: yes, since resistance is inversely proportional to cross -sectional area. The resistivity of iron is about 7

-I
time higher than that of copper. Hence the iron wire must be 7 time thicker than a copper of the same
length to have the same resistance at the same temperature.
iv. Why does the resistance of a conductor increases with the rise in temperature?
Ans: As the temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude of the vibration of the atoms increases.

v.
S
This, increases the probability of their collision with free electrons. This affects the drift of the electrons.
Hence the resistance of the conductor increases.
Why is heat produced in a conductor due to the flow of electric current?
Ans: As electric charge flows due to certain p.d. through a conductor, it suffers loss of electrical potential
energy. The energy is delivered to the atoms, this energy is utilized in increasing their vibrational kinetic
S
energy which appears as heat. Consequently, the temperature of the conductor rises.
vi. It is sometimes said that an electrical appliance “Uses up” electricity. What does such an appliance
actually use in its operation?
Ans: An electrical appliance, in its operation, uses the kinetic energy carried by the moving electrons, and
not their quantity of charge.
P

vii. Do bands in a wire affect its resistance?

Ans: No, bands in a wire do not affect its resistance. However, it depends upon length, cross -sectional
area, temperature and nature of the material.
viii. Resistance of 10Ω, 30Ω and 40Ω are connected in series. if the current in 10Ω resistance is 0.1A, what is
the current through the other?
U

Ans: when resistor are connected in series, then the same current flows through each of them (as there is
only one path). Hence the current in this case will be 0.1A through all the three resistors in series.
ix. Ten resistance of different values are connected in parallel if the p.d. across one of them is 5V, what is
the p.d. across the remaining nine resistors?
Ans: when resistor are connected in parallel, then the same p.d exists across each of them as they all
connected to two common points. Hence the p.d. in this case will be 5V across all the nine resistors in
parallel.
x. For a given potential difference V, how will the heat developed in a resistor depend on its resistance R?
will the heat be developed at a higher rate in a larger or smaller R?
Ans: the heat developed in resistor is given by;
𝑉2 1
Heat = × 𝑡, if V is constant then heat i s inversely proportional to R. i .e. 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∝ .
𝑅 𝑅
For a constant p.d, the resistance R should be small to develop heat at a higher rate.

Page 98 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xi. Is there any electric field inside a conductor carrying an electric current? Explain motion of charges
here.
Ans: When a p.d is applied across a conductor by connecting it to a battery, an electric field is established
inside a conductor (Parallel to the conductor, directed from the positive toward the negative terminal).
The field exists here because the battery keeps the charges moving and prevents them coming to
equilibrium.
xii. How does the current flowing in a conductor depend on the number of mobile charge carriers per unit
length, on their average velocity and on the charge per carrier?
Ans: current is given by;
𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡
𝑛𝑒
𝐼= ∴ 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒

I
𝑡
Here; “n” is the no. of charge carrier and “e” is the charge on each carrier.
𝑛𝑒 𝑆 𝐿
Since, 𝐼= but 𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡 =>𝑡 = =
𝑡 𝑣 𝑣

-I
𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑣
Now 𝐼= 𝐿 =>𝐼 =
𝐿
𝑣

The current flowing in a conductor is;

1) Directly proportional to the number of mobile charges per unit length (n/L).
2) Directly proportional to the average drift vel ocity (V).

xiii. S
3) Directly proportional to the charge per carrier (e).
What is the equivalent resistance of three 5Ω resistors connected (i) Series and (ii) Parallel?
If potential difference of 60V is applied across series connection, what is the current in each resistor?
Ans: (i) In series Re = 3R = 3x5=15Ω. (ii) In parallel Re= R/3=5/3=1.66Ω
In series connection, the current is the same through all resistors.
S
𝑉 60
𝐼= = = 4𝐴
𝑅𝑒 15
xiv. Can the terminal voltage of a battery be zero?
Ans: Yes, when the battery is short-circuited, the existence of a negligibly small resistance in the circuit
makes terminal voltage zero but current to a maximum value.
P

xv. Why is the internal resistance of a cell not constant?

Ans: The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the resistance of electrolytes, due to chemical changes
(e.g absorption of hydrogen and sulphate ions) in the electrolyte during the process of discharging , the
resistance of the electrolyte increase. Thus the internal resistance of cell does not remain constant.

Ex # 13.1
U

Exercise (Complete Chapter):

MCQs:
i. The rate of flow of charges is called ______________.
a) Voltage b) Resistance c) Current d) None of these
ii. The relation between charges “Q” and current “I” is given by_____________.
𝐼
a) 𝑄= b) 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 c) 𝑄 = 𝐼 2 𝑡 d) None of these
𝑡
iii. The SI unit of Electric current is___________.
a) Ohms b) Volt c) Ampere d) None of these
iv. Conventional direction of current is______________.
a) The direction in which the electron drift

Page 99 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 b) The direction of flow of positive charges
c) The direction opposite to the flow of positive charges
d) None of these
v. The velocity of the electron which causes the current is_____________.
a) Terminal velocity b) Drift velocity c) Average velocity d) None of these
vi. The potential difference V across a conductor is directly proportional to the current (I) flowing through it
provided the physical state does not change is called_____________.
a) Ampere’s law b) Ohm’s Law c) Faraday’s law d) None of these
vii. Ohms law is only valid for_____________.
a) Metallic conductor b) Non metallic conductors c) Electrolytes d) None of these
viii. The current through a metallic conductor is due to motion of _________________.
a) Proton b) Electron c) Neutron d) None of these

I
ix. Mathematical form of Ohm’s law:
𝐼 𝑅
a) 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 b) 𝑉 = c) 𝑉 = d) None of these
𝑅 𝐼

-I
x. The Graphical representation of Ohm’s Law:
a) Parabola b) Hyperbola c) Straight line d) None of these
xi. Resistance of a conductor produces due to________________.
a) Collision of free electrons of a conductor with the atoms
b) Collision of Atoms of a conductor

xii.

xiii.
c) Both d) None of these S
The SI unit of resistance is______________.
a) Ampere b) Volt c) Ohms
The resistance of a conductor increases with increase in its_____________.
a) Diameter b) Length
d) None of these

c) Area of cross section d) None of these

S
xiv. The resistance of a conductor decrease with increase in its_____________.
a) Diameter b) Length c) Area of cross section d) Both A and C
xv. If one volt is required to causes a current of one ampere to flow in a conductor its resistance
is____________.
a) One Ohm b) One Volt c) One Ampere d) None of these
P

xvi. Reciprocal of resistance is called________________.

a) Inductance b) Capacitance c) Resistivity d) None of these
xvii. The S.I unit of conductance is_______________.
a) Ohms (Ω) b) Per Ohm (Ω -1 ) c) Per sq. Ohm (Ω -2 ) d) None of these
xviii. If the resistance of the conductor is increased then current will______________.
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a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remain the same d) None of these

xix. The resistance offered by the unit length of the wire of unit area of cross section is
called_______________.
a) Temperature coefficient of resis tance b) Specific resistance c) Conductance d) None of
these
xx. The S.I unit of resistivity is _____________.
a) Ω/m b) m/Ω c) Ωm d) None of these
xxi. Specific resistance of wire depends upon _______________.
a) Length b) Cross section area c) Both d) Temperature
xxii. The inverse of resistivity (1/𝜌) is called_______________.
a) Inductivity b) Conductivity c) Resistance d) None of these

Page 100 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xxiii. The S.I unit of conductivity is ________________.
a) (Ωm)-1 b) (Ω/m)-1 c) (Ωm)-2 d) None of these
xxiv. The change in resistance per unit resistance per degree rise of temperature is called___________.
a) Temperature coefficient of resistance b) Resistivity c) Conductivity d) None of these
xxv. Expression for temperature coefficient is given by_______________.
𝑅𝑡−𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑡∆𝑇
a) 𝛼= b) 𝛼 = c) 𝛼 = d) None of these
𝑅𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑅𝑡−𝑅∆𝑇 𝑅−𝑅𝑡
xxvi. The unit of temperature coefficient of resistance is_____________.
a) Ω/K b) oC-1 or K-1 c) oF-1 or K-1 d) None of these
xxvii. When resistor are connected in series their equivalent resistance is given by the:
a) Sum of the individual resistances
b) Product of the individual resistances

I
c) Sum of half of the individual resistances
d) None of these
xxviii. The current across each resistance in series combination is____________.

-I
a) Different b) Same c) Zero d) None of these

xxix. The potential difference across each resistance in series combination is_____________.
a) Different b) Same c) Zero d) None of these
xxx.

xxxi.
them will be_____________.
a) 1A

a) 4 Ω b) 6 Ω
S
Three resistance each of 10Ω are connected in series across 30 volts battery the current flowing through

b) 15A c) 30A

c) 8 Ω
d) 50A
If the resistance of 2 ohm and 4 ohm are connected in series the equivalent resistance will
be_______________.
d) None of these
S
xxxii. When resistance are connected in parallel their equivalent resistance is given by the:
a) Sum of the individual resistances
b) Sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances
c) Sum of half of the individual resistance
d) None of these
P

xxxiii. The current across each resistance in parallel combination is____________.

a) Different b) Same c) Zero d) None of these
xxxiv. The potential difference across each resistance in parallel combination is:
a) Different b) Same c) Zero d) None of these
xxxv. Two resistance of 6 Ohm each are connected in parallel with third resistance of 3 Ohm in series the
U

equivalent resistance will be______________.

a) 3 Ω b) 4 Ω c) 6 Ω d) 10ohm
xxxvi. There are three equal resistors. How many difference combination of these resistances are possible.
a) Three b) Four c) Six d) Ten
xxxvii. If the resistance of 2Ω and 4Ω are connected in parall el the equivalent resistance will
be_______________.
a) 6Ω b) 4Ω c) 1.33Ω d) None of these
xxxviii. The rate of doing work is called ___________.
a) Energy b) Power c) Voltage d) None of these
xxxix. The energy dissipated as heat in the conductor is equal to the______________.
a) Loss of K.E by the charges

Page 101 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 b) Loss of P.E by the charges
c) Both d) None of these
xl. P.D, “V” is applied the two ends of a conductor and charge Q flow through it the energy dissipated as heat
is__________.
a) Q/V b) V/Q c) QxV d) None of these
xli. Power dissipated as heat in a conductor of resistance “R” due to electric current “I” is given
by______________.
𝑉2
a) 𝑃 = 𝐼 2𝑅 b) 𝑃 = c) Both d) None of these
𝑅
xlii. A resistor carries current “I”. the power dissipated is “P” the power dissipated if the same resistor carries
the current 3I is ____________.
a) P b) 3P c) 9P d) None of these

I
xliii. The emf is defined as________________.
∆𝑉 ∆𝑤
a) b) ∆𝑞𝐸 c) d) None of these
∆𝑞 ∆𝑞

-I
xliv. The S.I unit of emf is______________.
a) Ohm b) Coulomb c) Volt d) None of these
xlv. The P.D between the terminals of a source of electrical energy when no current is drawn from it is
called______________.
a) Power b) Terminal Voltage c) Electromotive force d) None of these
xlvi.

C
i.
B
ii.
a)
iii.
C
xvi. xvii. xviii. xix.
iv.
B B
v.
B
b) 𝑉 =
vi.
A
S
The terminal potential difference “V” of a cell is_____________.
𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑟
𝐸
𝑟
vii. viii.
B
xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv.
c) 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅
ix.
A C
x. xi.
A
d) None of these
xii. xiii. xiv.
C B D
xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix.
xv.
A
xxx.
S
D B B B C D B A A A B A B A A
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xli. xlii. xliii. xliv. xlv.
B B A B C B C B B C C C C C C
xlvi.
A
P

Questions From Past Papers:

i. State and explain Ohm’s law. (1995)
ii. Explain the following terms: (1995)
a) Resistivity of a material b) Temperature coefficient of resistance
iii. You are given three resistance, how will you connect them to get: (1996)
U

a) The maximum resistance

b) The minimum. Derive respective expressions
iv. Write a note on the following: a) Electromotive force b) Terminal potential difference (1997)
v. Write a note on the following: Resistivity and temperature co-efficient (1999)
vi. State and explain Ohm’s law. (2000)
vii. Explain the following terms: (2000)
a) Resistivity of a material b) Temperature coefficient of resistance
viii. Derive a relation to find the equal resistance of three resistors when they are connected in series.
(2001)
ix. State Ohms’ law. Define resistivity and name the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends.
(2002)Pre Med

Page 102 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 x. Differentiate between electromotive force and terminal potential difference of a battery when external
resistance is connected and not connected across it. (2002)Pre Med
xi. Define the following: (2003)Pre Eng
a) Resistivity b) Temperature coefficient of resistance c) Electromotive Force
xii. State Ohm’s law. How is the resistance of a conductor related to its dimensions? Derive an expression for
the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in parallel. (2003)Pre Med
xiii. Explain Ohm’s law and give its limitations. (2005)
xiv. Write down the definition and unit of Electric current. (2005)
xv. Define resistance and write down its units. How does the resistance of a conductor depend upon
temperature? Derive the equation for the resistance at a given temperature.
(2005)
xvi. State Ohm’s law and derive an expression for the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in

I
parallel. (2006)
xvii. State the law which governs the potential difference across the conductor and the current passing

-I
through it. How is the resistance of the conductor related to its dimensions? Derive the formula for the
temperature coefficient of resistivity. (2007)
xviii. Difference between terminal potential difference and EMF of a battery. Derive the relevant expression.
(2008)
xix. Define potential difference and electromotive force. Both are measured in volts. What is the difference

xx.
xxi.
xxii.
between these two concepts?
S (2010)
How is the resistance of metallic conductor affected by variati on in temperature? (2011)
How is the resistance of metallic conductor affected by variation in temperature? (2013)
How does the temperature affect the resistance of a conductor? Derive an expression for the resistance
of the conductor at toC. (2016)
S
xxiii. Define temperature co-efficient of resistance. Derive the expression for temperature co-efficient
of resistance. (2017)
xxiv. How is the resistance of a metallic conductor affected by variation of temperature? (2018)

Numericals From Past Papers:

P

i. A platinum wire of diameter 0.2mm is wound to make a resistor of 4Ω. How long a wire is needed for this
purpose? (𝜌=11x10 -8 Ωm) Ans: 1.1424m (1995)
ii. The resistance of a copper wire is 1.27Ω at 20 oC. find its resistance at 0 oC and at 100 oC. the temperature
coefficient of resistivity of copper is 𝛼 = 0.0039 oC-1 . Ans: 1.178Ω, 1.637Ω (1996)
iii. You are given three resistors each of 2 ohms. How would you arrange these resistors to obtain th e
U

equivalent resistance of (i) 1.33 ohms (ii) 3 ohms (iii) 6 ohms? Also prove the result mathematically.
(2000)
iv. Find the equivalent resistance and the current through R 3 and R4 . Give R1 =20Ω, R2 =30Ω, R3 =20Ω,
R4 =40Ω, R5 =10Ω. R1=20Ω

R5=10Ω R2=30Ω

R3=20Ω R4=40Ω

V=6v
Page 103 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 Ans: 20Ω,0.05A (2001)
v. A battery of 24V is connected to a 10Ω load and current of 2.2 amp is drawn; find the internal resistance
of the battery and its terminal voltage. Ans: 0.9Ω, 22V (2002)Pre Med
vi. The resistance of tungsten wire used in filament of a 60watt bulb is 240Ω when the bulb is hot at a
temperature of 2020 oC. what would you estimate its resistance at 20 oC? (The temperature coefficient of
tungsten 𝛼=0.0046/oC). Ans: 25.4Ω (2003)Pre Eng
vii. Find the equivalent resistance in the given circuit, current I and potential difference between “a” and “b”.
R1=5Ω, R2=2Ω, R3=3Ω, R4=6Ω, V=6v
R2 =2Ω

I
a R1=5Ω b R3=3Ω c

R4=6Ω

-I
V=6v
Ans: 1A, 5V, 6Ω (2003)Pre Med
viii.

ix.
S
A 50 ohm resistor is to be wound with platinum wire, 0.1mm in diameter. How much wire is needed
(𝜌=11x10 -8 Ωm) Ans: 3.57m(2003)Pre Eng
Two resistances of 10 ohms and 50 ohms are connected in series with a 6 volt battery.
Calculate:
a) The charges drawn from the battery per minute
S
b) The power dissipated in 10 ohm resistance. Ans: 6C, 0.1watt (2005)
x. A 50 ohm resistor is required from a copper wire, 0.2mm in diameter. What is the length of the wire
needed? (𝜌=1.6x10 -8 Ωm) Ans: 98.18m (2006)
xi. A rectangular block of iron has the dimensions 1.2cmx1.2cmx1.5cm.
a) What is the resistance between two opposite square ends?
P

b) What is the resistance between two of the rectangular faces?

(The resistivity for iron at room temperature is 9.6x10 -8 Ωm). Ans: 1x10 -5 Ω, 6.4x10 -6 Ω (2008)
xii. In the given diagram R1 =R2 =4Ω and R3 =6Ω. Calculate the current in the 6Ω resistor.
R2
R1 R3
U

V=6v
Ans: 0.37A (2009)

xiii. A water heater that will deliver 1Kg of water per minute is required. The water is supplied at 20 oC and an
output temperature of 80 oC is desired. What should be the resistance of the heating element in water if
the line voltage is 220V? (Sp.Heat of water=4200J/kg K)
Ans: 11.52Ω (2010)
xiv. A rectangular bar of iron is 2cmx2cm in cross -section and 20cm long. What is the resistance of the bar at
500 oC if 𝜌=11x10 -8 Ωm and 𝛼=0.0052K-1 ? Ans: 1.98x10 -4 Ω (2011)

Page 104 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xv. You are given three resistors each of 2 ohms. How would you arrange these to obtain equivalent
resistance of (a) 1.33 ohms (b) 3 ohms (c) 6 ohms. Verify the results mathematically.
(2012)
xvi. Two resistors of 5ohm and 2ohm are connected in parallel with a 9V battery. Calculate the current and
power dissipated in each resistance. Ans: 1.8A, 4.5A, 16.2watt, 40.5watt (2013)
xvii. Three resistors each of 50Ω can be connected in four different ways. Find the equivalent resistance for
each combination.(2014) Ans: 150Ω, 16.67Ω, 33.33Ω and 75Ω
xviii. Find the resistance at 100 oC of Silver wire, 1mm in diameter and 1000cm long. 𝜌=1.59x10 -8 Ωm
𝛼=0.0061/oC. (2016) Ans: 0.325 Ω
xix. The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 200 ohm at 0oC and 257.6 ohms when
immersed in hot bath. What is the temperature of the bath? ( 𝛼=0.00392/oC)

I
(2017) Ans: 73.46 oC.
xx. Find the potential difference across the two ends of 15m long copper wire 0.5mm in diameter to
maintain steady current of 4 amperes. (Resistivity of copper = 1.54 × 10−8ohm-m).

-I
(2018) Ans: 4.705 V.
xxi. A rectangular bar of iron is 2cmx2cm is cross section and 20cm long. What will be its resistance
at 500oC? (𝛼=0.0052k-1 and 𝜌=11x10-4 Ohm-m) (2019) Ans: 1.98x10-4 Ω

NumericalsFrom Book:
i.

ii.
Ans: 2.88x10 5 C
S
A certain battery is rated at 80 ampere hour. How many coulomb of charge can this battery supply.

A silver wire 2m long is to have a resistance of 0.5Ω. What should its diameter be? 𝜌=1.52x10 -8 Ωm.
Ans: 2.78x10 -4 m
S
iii. A current of 6A is drawn from a 120V line. What power is being developed? How much energy in joule
and in Kwh is expended if the current is drawn steadily for one week.Ans: 720 watt, 120.83 Kwh,
4.35x10 8 J
iv. Current of 3A and 1.5A flow through two wires, one that has a potential difference of 60V across its ends
and other that has a potential difference of 120V across its ends. Compare the rate at which energy pass
P

through each wire. Ans: 1

v. A wire carries a current of 1A. How many electrons pass a point in the wire an each second?
Ans: 6.3x10 18 electrons
vi. An electric drill rated at 400W is connected to a 240V power line. How much current does it draw?
Ans: 1.67A
U

vii. Resistances of 20Ω,40Ω, 50Ω are connected is parallel across a 50V power source. Find the equivalent
resistance of the set and the current in each resistor? Ans: 10.5Ω, I 1 =2.5A, I 2 =1.25A,
I 3 =1A
viii. a) Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown below b) What is the current in 8Ω resister if the
potential difference of 12V is applied to the network?
5Ω
6Ω
8Ω

3Ω
12V

Page 105 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Ans: 2.18Ω, 0.56A
ix. A 60V potential difference is applied to the circuit shown below. Find the current in the 10Ω resistor. [Hint
reduce the circuit bring out the series and parallel combination of the resistors more clearly].
Ans: 15Ω, 1.2A

5Ω 4Ω
14Ω 10Ω 15Ω
3Ω 4Ω

x. A source of what potential difference is needed to charge a battery of 20V e.m.f and internal resistance of
0.1Ω at rate of 70A. Ans: 27V

I
xi. A battery of 24V is connected to a 10Ω load and a current of 22A flows. Find the internal resistance of the
battery and its terminal voltage. Ans: 0.9Ω, 22 V

-I
xii. A 40Ω resistor is to be wound from platinum wire 0.1mm in diameter. How much wire is needed?
Ans: 2.85m
xiii. The battery of a pocket calculator supplies 0.35A at a p.d of 6V. What is the power rating of the
calculator? Ans: 2.1W
xiv. A current of 5A through a battery is maintained for 30s and in the time 600J of chemical energy is

xv.

xvi.
S
transformed into electric energy. a) What is the e.m.f of the battery? b) How much electric power is
available for heating and other uses? Ans: a) 4V, b) 20W
A 12Ω resistor is connected in series with a parallel combination of 10 resistors, each of 200Ω. What is the
net resistance of the circuit? Ans: 32Ω
Three equal resistors each of 12Ω can be connected in four different ways. What is equivalent resistance
S
of each combination? Ans: 4Ω, 8Ω, 18Ω ,36Ω
xvii. Find the resistance at 50 C of copper wire 2mm in diameter and 3m long. (𝜌=1.6x10 -8 Ωm, 𝛼=0.0039K-
o

1 )Ans: 0.0184Ω

xviii. The resistance of a tungsten wire used in the filament of a 60W bulb is 240Ω when the bulb is hot at
temperature of 2020 oC what would you estimate its resistance at 20 oC. 𝛼=0.0046K -1 Ans: 25.4Ω
P

xix. A water heater that will deliver 1kg of water per minute is required. The water is supplied at 20 oC and an
output temperature of 80 oC is desired. What should be the resistance of the heating element in the water
if the line voltage is 220V? Ans: 11.5Ω
xx. Prove that the rate of heat production in each of the two resistors connected in parallel are inversely
proportional to the resistances. Ans: P = v 2 /R, P ∝ 1/R
U

xxi. A 240V cloth dryer draws a current of 15A. How much energy in Kwh and Joules does it use in 45 minutes
operation and how much will be the cost at the rate of Rs: 1.45 per unit of electric energy?
Ans: 2.7Kwh, 9.72x10 6 J, Rs: 39
xxii. A resistor is made by winding on a spool a 40m length of constantan wire diameter 0.8mm. Calculate the
resistance of the wire at a) 0 oC b) 50 oC. Assume 𝜌 at 0 oC is 49x10 -8 Ω-m.
Ans: a) 38.99Ω, b) 39.01Ω
xxiii. A current of 2.4 amp is flowing in a wire. How many electrons pass a given point in the wire in one second
if the charge on an electron is 1.6x10 -19coulomb.Ans: 1.5x10 19 electrons
xxiv. A current of 1.6 amp is drawn from battery for 10 minutes. How much charge flows through the circuit in
this time? Find also the number of electrons flowing during this time.
Ans: 6x10 21 electrons

Page 106 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xxv. A light bulb has resistance of 150Ω, find the current in it when it is connected to a 225 volt source.
Ans: 1.5A
xxvi. Find the potential difference across two ends of a copper wire to maintain a steady current of one
ampere. The length of the wire is one metre, radius of cross section i s 0.25cm.
Ans: 8.16x10 -4 V
xxvii. A rectangular bar of iron is 2 by 2 cm in cross section and is 40cm long, what is the resistance of the bar
when 𝜌 for iron is 1.1x10 -7 Ωm? Ans: 1.1x10 -4 Ω
xxviii. What would be the resistance of the above bar at 500 oC? Ans: 3.96x10 -4 Ω
xxix. o
The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 200.0Ω at 0 C and 257.6Ω when immersed in hot
bath. What is the temperature of the bath when 𝛼 for platinum is 0.00392 oC-1?
Ans: 73.5 o
xxx. A water heater draws 30A from a 220 volts power source 15metres away. What is the minimum cross

I
section of the copper wire that can be used if the voltage is not to be lower than 210 volts at the heater?
Ans: 3.27x10 -8 m2

-I
xxxi. A battery of 6 volts is connected to two resistors of 3Ω and 2Ω joined together in series. Find the current
through the circuit and potential drop across each resistor. Ans: 6V
xxxii. Find the equivalent resistance in given circuit and also the current I 1 , I 2 and I 3 .

I3 R2 2Ω

R1 4Ω
S
x
I2

I1
R3 3Ω

R4 6Ω
b
S
I 6V

Ans: 5Ω, I 1 =0.2A, I 2 =0.4A and I 3 =0.6A.

P

xxxiii. A 100 watt bulb is operated by 240 volts. What is the current through the bulb? Ans: 0.416A
xxxiv. An electric kettle of 1000 watts rating boils a certain quantity of water in 8 minutes. How much heat has
been generated for boiling this water.Ans: 48x10 4 Joules
xxxv. How much current is drawn by a half horse power electric motor operated from 240V source of
electricity? Assume that the efficiency of motor is 80%. Ans: 1.95A
U

xxxvi. A storage battery whose e.m.f is 12V and whose internal resistance is 0.2Ω is to be charge at rate of 20A.
What is the applied voltage is required? Ans: 16V
Assignment # 13.1
i. Explain following: a) Electric current b) Resistance c) Resistivity d) Temperature coefficient of resistance
e) EMF f) Terminal P.D
ii. State and explain Ohm’s law.
iii. How does the resistance of a metallic conductor depend upon it’s a) Dimensions and b) Temperature, also
derive the relevant expressions.
iv. You are given three resistance, how will you connect them to get: a) Maximum and b) Minimum
resistance also derive relevant expressions.
v. Differentiate between EMF and Terminal P.D.

Page 107 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 vi. A steady current of 0.50A flows through a wire. How much charge passes through the wire in one minute?
Ans: 30C
vii. How many electrons flow through a light bulb each second if the current through the bulb is 0.75A? Ans:
4.7x10 18 electrons
viii. A dry cell has an emf of 1.52V. Its terminal potential drops to zero when a current of 25A passes through
it. What is its internal resistance? Ans: 0.061 ohm
ix. A direct current (dc) generator has an emf of 120V; that is its terminal voltage is 120V when the current is
flowing from it. At an output of 20A the terminal potential is 115V. a) What is the internal resistance of
the generator? b) What will be the terminal voltage at an output of 40A? Ans: 0.25 ohm, 110V
x. A metal rod is 2m long and 8mm in diameter. Compute its resistance if the resistivity of the metal is
1.76x10 -8 ohm-m. Ans: 7x10 -4 ohm
xi. Aluminum wire has a diameter of 2.59mm. How much wire is needed to give a resistance of 1ohm?

I
𝜌=2.8x10 -8 ohm-m. Ans: 190m
xii. The resistance of a coil of copper wire is 3.35ohm at 0 oc. What is its resistance at 50 oc? 𝛼=4.3x10 -3 oc -1 .

-I
Ans: 4.1ohm
xiii. It is desired to make a wire that has a resistance of 8 ohm from 5cm3 of metal that has a resistivity of
9x10 -8 ohm-m. What should the length and cross -sectional area of the wire be? Ans: 21m, 2.4x10 -7 m2 .
𝜌𝐿
[Hint: Volume=V=LA and R= , get two eqs that have L and A and solve these eqs.]
𝐴
xiv. Compute the work and the average power required to transfer 96KC of charge in one hour through a

xv.

xvi.
potential rise of 50V. S
Ans: 4.8x10 6 J, 1300W
An electric motor takes 5A from an 110V line. Determine the power input and the energy in J and Kwh,
supplied to the motor in 2hours. Ans: 550W, 4x10 6 J, 1.1Kwh
An electric iron of resistance 20 ohm takes a current of 5A. calculate the thermal energy, developed in
30sec. Ans: 15000J
S
xvii. An electric heater of resistance 8 ohm draws 15A from the servi ce mains. What is the cost of operating
the heater for period of 4hours at Rs 10 per Kwh? Ans: Rs 72
xviii. A coil develops 800 cal/s when 20V is supplied across its ends. Compute its resistance. Ans: 0.12ohm
xix. What is the cost of electrically heating 50 liters (50kg) of water from 40 oc to 100 oc at Rs 8/Kwh? Sp.heat of
water 4200J/kg.c Ans: Rs 28
P

xx. You are given three equal resistances, each of 5ohm. In how many ways can you combine these
resistance, find the equivalent resistance for each combination also draw their circuit diagram. Ans:
15ohm, 1.66ohm, 3.33ohm, 7.5ohm
MCQs from past papers: (Complete Chapter)
U

(2000)
i. Resistors of 2ohms, 3ohms, and 4ohms are connected is series. if the current flowing through one of them
is one ampere, what is the current through other resistors____________. (fill in the blank)
ii. When “V” volts battery is connected across the bulb and if current “I” is passed through it then its power
will be:
a) VI b) V/I c) V 2 I d) VI 2
iii. Resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity. (True or False)
(2001)
iv. All electrical appliances are connected in parallel to each other between the main line and the neutral
wire to get:
a) Same current b) Same potential difference c) Different current and same potential difference
d) None of above

Page 108 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2002)Pre Med
v. Kilowatt hour is a unit of:
a) Power b) Conductivity c) Electrical energy d) Resistivity
vi. With the increase of temperature the resistance of conductor:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remains constant
(2003) Pre Medical
vii. Total potential difference across the combination of three cells becomes maximum when:
a) All the three cells are connected in series.
b) All the three cells are connected is parallel.
c) Two cells are connected in series and the third cell in series with the combination.
d) Two cells are connected in series and third cell in series with the combination.
(2003) Pre Eng

I
viii. Ohm’s law is obeyed in:
a) Electron tube b) Semiconductor c) metallic conductor d) All of above

-I
(2004)
ix. The resistance of 3ohms, 5ohms and 6ohms are connected in parallel. If 0.3V be the potential difference
between the ends of 3ohms resistors, the potential difference across other resistors is:
a) 0.5V b) 0.7V c) 1.2V d) 0.3V
x. The dimension of resistance is ML2 T-3 A-2 . (True or False)

xi.

xii.
S
The commercial unit of electrical energy is:
a) Joule b) Kilowatt
(2005)
The maximum resistance in A.C circuit is offered by:
a) Capacitor b) Solenoid c) Electromagnet

c) Kilowatt hour
d) Electric bulb

d) Mega watt
S
(2006)
xiii. The rate of transfer of charge through a circuit is called:
a) Resistance b) Current c) Potential difference d) All of the above
xiv. The power dissipated in a resistance is given by:
a) P =VR b) P =V2 /R c) P =IR 2 d) None of these
P

(2007)
xv. When a resistor carries a current “I” the power dissipated by it is “P”. if the same resistor carries the
current of “3I” the power dissipation will be:
a) P b) P/3 c) 3P d) None of these
xvi. One-Kilo-Watt-Hour is equal to:
U

a) 3.6x10 5 J b) 360x10 6 J c) 3.6x10 4 J d) 36x10 5 J

xvii. If the wire of a uniform area of cross section is cut into two equal parts, the resistivity of each part will be:
a) Halved b) Doubled c) Remain the same d) NOTA
(2008)
xviii. The resistance of 2ohms, 5ohms, 7ohms and 9ohms are connected in parallel. If the potential difference
across the 5ohm resistance is 5V, the potential difference across 9 ohm resistance will be:
a) 9V b) 5V c) 2.5V d) 1.5V
xix. In a house circuit all the electrical appliances are connected in parallel with the phase and the neutral to
get:
a) Same current, and different potential difference
b) Different current but same potential difference
c) Different current and different potential differences

Page 109 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 d) Same current and same potential differences
(2009)
xx. The E.M.F of the three cells, each 0f 2 volts, in parallel will be:
a) 6V b) 2V c) 8V d) Zero V
xxi. In the relation I=KV, K stands for:
a) Conductivity b) Resistivity c) Specific resistance d) Conductance

(2010)
xxii. The commercial unit of electrical energy is:
a) Ohm b) Watt c) Kilowatt-hour d) Ampere
xxiii. The electrical energy dissipated as heat in a resistor is given by:
a) I 2 R b) I 2 Rt c) V2 R d) V2 Rt

I
(2011)
xxiv. Two wires of resistance R1 and R2 are connected in series in circuit. If R 1 is greater than R2 the heating

-I
would be:
a) More in R1 b) Same in R1 and R2 c) More in R2 d) All of these
xxv. A copper wire having resistivity 𝜌 is stretched in such a way that its diameter reduces to half of that of the
original wire the new resistivity will be:
a) Halved b) Double c) The same d) Four fo ld

xxvi.

a) 4A b) 1A
S (2012)
Resistors of 2ohms, 3ohms, 4ohms and 5ohms are connected in series. if the current flowing through
2ohms resistors is 1A, the current through the other resistors will be:
c) 14A
(2013)
d) 0.1A
S
xxvii. Resistors of 3ohm, 5ohm and 7ohm are connected in parallel. If the potential difference across 5ohm
resistor is 6volt, the potential difference across the other resistor is:
a) 4 volt b) 6 volt c) 8 volt d) 10 volt
xxviii. A wire of uniform cross-sectional area is cut into three equal segments, then the resistivity of each
segment will be:
P

a) ½ 𝜌 b) 1/3 𝜌 c) Same as the whole wire d) 3 𝜌

(2014)
xxix. Resistance of a wire does not depend on the:
a) Temperature b) Length c) Area d) Electric current
(2015)
U

xxx. Resistance of 5ohm and 10ohm are connected in parallel. If the P.D across 5ohm res istor is 6volts, the P.D
across 10ohm resistor will be:
a) 3 volts b) 6 volts c) 9 volts d) 12 volts
xxxi. A battery of e.m.f.(E) has an internal resistance(r). If a current (I) is drawn from it, then its terminal
potential drop (V) is given by:
a) V=E-Ir b) V=E+Ir c) V=IR d) V=Er
(2016)
xxxii. The electrical energy dissipated as heat in a resistor is:
a) V2 R b) V2 Rt c) I 2 Rt d) I 2 R
(2017)
xxxiii. The emf of the combination of three cells, each of 2volts, connected in parallel will be:
a) 6V b) 3/2 V c) 2V d) 8V

Page 110 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 (2018)

xxxiv. When it desire to increase the current without affecting its voltage, the batteries must be
connected in:

a) Series b) parallel c) complex circuit d) some in series and some in parallel

xxxv. A metallic wire of length L, resistance R and resistivity 𝜌 is cut into two equal parts. The
resistivity of each part would be:
𝜌 𝜌
a) 𝜌 b) 2𝜌 c) d)
2 4

(2019)

I
xxxvi. Resistances of 10Ω, 30 Ω and 40 Ω are connected in series. If the current in 10 Ω
resistance is 0.1A then current through 40 Ω resistance will be:
a) 0.4A b) 0.3A c) 0.1A d) 0.08A

-I
xxxvii. The resistance of a current carrying wire does not depend on:
a) Temperature b) Length c) Area d) electric current

1A

D
i.
A

C
ii. iii.
TRUE
xvi. xvii. xviii.
B
iv.
C
xix.
B
C
v. vi.
A
vii.
A
S
viii.
C
xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii.
B D C
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii xxxiv xxxv xxxvi xxxvii
B
ix.
D
xxiv.
A
x.
TRUE

C
xi.
D

B
xii. xiii. xiv.
C

B
B

C
B
xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix.
D
xv.
D
xxx.
B
S
A C C B A C D
P
U

Page 111 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Magnetism &
Electromagnetism
Magnet
It is a natural substance which attracts the things made up of iron, cobalt and nickel. If it is
suspended freely it always points towards geographical north and south.
Magnetic poles:
Every magnet has two poles, a North seeking pole and a South seeking pole on its opposite
ends. If a magnet is allowed to rotate freely it will come to a rest position with one end facing

I
geographical North and the other end facing geographical South.
Magnetic Substances:

-I
Those substances which are attracted by magnet or can be magnetized are called magnetic
substances. There are three magnetic substances.
i) Iron
ii) Cobalt
iii) Nickel
Ferromagnetic Substances Or Ferro-magnets:
S
Those substances which behave like a magnet in the presence of a strong magnetic field are
called “Ferromagnetic Substances” or “Ferro-magnets”.
S
Soft Ferromagnetic Substances:
Those ferromagnetic substances which lose their magnetic effect when removed from the
magnetic field are called soft ferromagnetic substances. e.g. soft iron.
Hard Ferromagnetic Substances:
P

Those ferromagnetic substances which retain their magnetic effect when removed from
magnetic field are called hard ferromagnetic substances. e.g. steel.
Magnetic Field:
The region around the magnet in which its effect can be experienced is called magnetic field.
U

Magnetic Force:
The force experienced by a magnetic substance due to a magnet is called magnetic force.
Magnetic Lines of Force:
In the magnetic field the effect of magnet is caused by special lines of force which are called
magnetic lines of force.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force:
i) The magnetic lines of force start from the north pole and end at south pole.
ii) Inside the magnet, these lines continue from the south pole to the north pole.
iii) They do not intersect each other.
iv) They pass through iron more easily as compared to air.

Page 112 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

When a current is flowing in a straight wire, a magnetic field is produced around the wire. It
consists of concentric circular magnetic lines.
Experimental Proof:
A wire is passed vertically though a hole in
a cardboard. The two ends of wire are
connected to the terminals of a cell.
Fine iron fillings are sprinkled on the cardboard.
The current is switched on and the cardboard is

I
tapped gently. The iron fillings set in a series of
concentric circles about the wire as centre. It is

-I
clear that the magnetic field is formed due to the + - + -
current carrying wire in the form of circular lines
of force as shown in figure.
Note:
S
When electric charges are at rest they exert electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion on
each other. When the charges are in motion they still exert these electrostatic forces but, in
addition, magnetic forces appear because of motion. Isolated moving positive or negative
charges create both electric and magnetic fields but an electric current through a conductor
S
produces only a magnetic field because the electric field of moving electrons is neutralized by
the field of fixed protons in the conductors.
Force On A Moving Charge In A Magnetic Field:
let an isolated point charge “+q” moving with velocity “𝑣⃗” be projected across a uniform
P

⃗⃗”. It has been observed experimentally that the charged

magnetic field of flux density “𝐵
particle experiences a force which is perpendicular to velocity “𝑣⃗” as well as magnetic field
⃗⃗”.The magnitude of this force is directly proportional to the magnitudes of “q”, ”v”, and
“𝐵
U

“BSin𝜃”. Where “𝜃” is the angle between the direction of magnetic field and velocity of the
charge.
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
In this case the constant of proportionality is unity (1).
𝐹 = (1)𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Page 113 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Vector Form
In vector form, above expression can be written as:
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗) … … … … … . (𝑖)
Equation (i) applies to a positive charge, for a negative charge particle, force will be given as:
𝐹⃗ = −𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗) = −𝑞(−𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝑣⃗) = 𝑞(𝐵⃗⃗ × 𝑣⃗) … … … … … (𝑖𝑖 ) ∵ 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗
The direction of force for equation (i) and (ii) both is determined by right hand rule, which is
perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑣⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗.

I
-I
Magnetic Force Provides Centripetal Force To A Moving Charge. WHY???
S
Force of magnetic field on a moving charge is perpendicular to velocity, therefore this force
cannot change the speed (magnitude of velocity). It only changes the direction of motion.
Hence this force provides centripetal force to a moving charge due to which the charge
describes a circular path in a uniform magnetic field.
S
Minimum And Maximum Magnetic Force On A Moving Charge:
The magnitude of magnetic force is:
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
i. If the charge particle moves parallel to (or) opposite to the direction of magnetic field
P

i.e. (𝜃 = 0o or 180o)
∵ 𝑆𝑖𝑛0𝑜 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛180𝑜 = 0
Then, F = 0. (No force experienced by the charge particle)
ii. If the charge particle is moving at right angle (perpendicular) to the magnetic field,
i.e.( 𝜃 = 90 o).
U

∵ 𝑆𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 1
Then, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 (Maximum force experienced by the particle).
Radius of The Circular Path Followed By The Moving Charge Particle In a
Magnetic Field:
The path followed by a charged particle when it is projected across a uniform magnetic field is
circular, because force experienced by the particle is always perpendicular to the direction of its
velocity. Force which is always perpendicular to the direction of velocity changes the direction
of velocity of the particle it does not change its magnitude. As a result of which the particle
follows a circular path with uniform speed. This force provides the necessary centripetal force.

Page 114 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑚𝑣2
Centripetal force =
𝑟
Magnetic force = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟

𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Where “m” is the mass, “v” is the speed of the charged particle, “r” represents the radius of the
circular path followed by the particle in the magnetic field.

I
-I
Consider a positive charge which is entered in a magnetic field perpendicularly with velocity “ 𝑣⃗”
if the strength of magnetic field is “B”, then force of induction is given by;
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛90𝑜
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵(1)
S 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝐹
𝑞𝑣
𝐵=
=𝐵
𝐹
S
𝑞𝑣
If q = 1coulomb and v = 1m/s
Then:
𝐹
𝐵=
(1)(1)
P

𝐵=𝐹
Hence;
“when a particle having 1coulomb charge on it and it enters perpendicularly in a magnetic field
with velocity 1m/s, then magnetic force acts on this particle is called “Magnetic Induction”.
U

Unit of Magnetic Field of Induction:

Unit of “B” is Tesla (also Weber/m2).
Force on a charge particle in a magnetic field is:
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹
𝐵=
𝑞𝑣𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hence
1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
1 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 =
1𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 × 1𝑚/𝑠
1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
1 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 ∵ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
× 1𝑚
𝑠

Page 115 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑁
1 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = or 1 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1 𝐴.𝑚
1𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 ×1𝑚

Force On A Current Carrying Conductor In A Uniform Magnetic field:

When a current carrying conductor is subjected to a magnetic field it experiences a force. If the
direction of current is reversed, the direction of force “F” also reverses. This force is actually
experienced by the charges which are flowing through the conductor (Force on the moving
charges arises due to the interaction between the magnetic field produced around them
because of their motion and the magnetic field in which they move).
In order to derive a formula for force experienced by a current carrying conductor, consider a

I
straight current carrying conductor of length “L” and area of cross -section “A” subjected to a
uniform magnetic field of induction “B” such that the magnetic field makes a certain angle

-I
“𝜃”with the direction of current “I”.
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴 × 𝐿
Let “n” be the number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor causing current “I, i.e.
n=N/AL then the total number of free electrons flowing through the conductor will be:

S
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝐿
If “e” is the charge on each electron, then the total charge flowing through the conductor is
given by:
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
S
Force experienced by charge “Q” flowing through the conductor or in this case force
experienced by the conductor is given by:
⃗⃗ = 𝑄(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
F ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ = 𝑛 𝐴 𝐿 𝑒(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
F ⃗⃗)
P

⃗⃗
𝐵

Straight current carrying conductor

𝐼
Subjected to a uniform magnetic
Field at some angle
U

If charge “Q” takes “t” seconds to move from one end of the conductor to the other then its
velocity “𝑣⃗” is given by:
⃗⃗
𝐿 𝑆⃗
𝑣⃗ = ∵ 𝑣⃗ =
𝑡 𝑡
⃗𝐿⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝑛 𝐴 𝐿 𝑒 ( × 𝐵
F ⃗⃗)
𝑡

Page 116 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑛 𝐴𝐿𝑒
⃗⃗ =
F (𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)
𝑡
𝑛 𝐴𝐿𝑒 𝑄
= =𝐼 (𝑄 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑)
𝑡 𝑡
Where “I” is the current flowing through the conductor.
⃗⃗ = 𝐼(𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵
F ⃗⃗)
The magnitude of force experienced by a straight current carrying conductor in a uniform
magnetic field is given by:
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
When conductor is perpendicular to the field 𝜃 = 90o, force experienced by the conductor will

I
be maximum and is given by:
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 (𝑆𝑖𝑛90 = 1)
o
When the conductor is held parallel to the field 𝜃 = 0 then;

-I
𝐹 =0 (𝑆𝑖𝑛0 = 0)
“Force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is always perpendicular
to length of the conductor as well as the magnetic field and its direction can be determined by
right hand rule”.
S
Torque On A Current Carrying Coil In A Uniform Magnetic Field:
When current is passed through a rectangular
coil placed in a magnetic field, a
B
x’

b
C
S
couple is developed which rotates F
the coil. A rectangular coil “ABCD” is F
⃗⃗ L
placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵
⃗⃗ b ⃗⃗
𝐵
and capable of rotation about an axis xx’. F 𝐵
P

Let, A D F 𝛼 =0
L = length of coil
b = breath of the coil.
x
As current I passes through the coil, force is produced on each length of the coil.
U

⃗⃗ = 𝐼(𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵
F ⃗⃗) F
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛90
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿(1) b
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 ⃗⃗
𝐵
Torque of couple is given by,
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝛼
𝜏=𝐹×𝑏 F bcos 𝛼
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 × 𝑏
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼(𝐿 × 𝑏)

Page 117 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴 ∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑏
For coil of N turns;𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 … … … … … . . (𝑖)
Eq(i) applies when the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of magnetic field.
When the plane of coil makes an angle “𝛼” with the direction of magnetic field then;
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 × 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
For N turns;
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼
 Torque is maximum when the plane of coil is parallel to the magnetic field i.e. when 𝛼 =

I
0.
 Torque is zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic

-I
field i.e. 𝛼 = 90.

The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through the surface is called “Magnetic
S
flux”. It is a scalar quantity and denoted by “𝜑𝑚 ”. Its SI unit is “Weber”.
Mathematical Definition:
Magnetic flux is equal to the dot product of magnetic field of induction “𝐵⃗⃗” and the vector area
“∆𝐴⃗” of the surface, provided the magnetic field of induction is uniform over the given area of
S
the surface. It is denoted by “∆𝜑𝑚 ”.
⃗⃗. ∆𝐴⃗
∆𝜑𝑚 = 𝐵
∆𝜑𝑚 = 𝐵∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
P

“The magnetic flux per unit area of a surface which is held normal to the field is called Magnetic
Flux Density”
It is denoted by “B”.
U

∆𝜑𝑚
𝐵=
∆𝐴
2
The unit of magnetic flux density is “W/m ” or “Tesla”.

In 1897, sir J.J Thomson derived an expression for the ratio between the charge of electron to the
mass of electron. For this he used a device which is shown in following figure.
A tungsten filament is connected at one end of device which is heated up with a low tension
battery. Electrons are emitted out in dispersive form from the filament. These electrons passed
through from a cylinder “A” to make them inform of a line. A negative potential is applied

Page 118 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

across the cylinder “A” to make electrons in a line, then these electrons again passed through
to two plates which have narrow hole on it. After passing through the plates, the electrons are
inform of a straight line.

(-)
B C N
A O
F 𝑣⃗

O’

I
(-) S
LT

-I
A magnetic field “𝐵⃗⃗” is applied perpendicularly in the tube. J.J Thomson assumed that, when
electrons emit out from plate “C” their velocity is zero, and K.E. is also zero. i.e. KE= 0.
A voltage “V” is applied between plate “C” and cathode, after this the KE of electrons will be
“1/2mv2” and their velocity is “v”.
According to law of conservation of energy:

1
( 𝑚𝑣 2 − 0) = 𝑉𝑒
S
∆𝐾𝐸 = ∆𝑃𝐸 ∵𝑉=
∆𝑃𝐸
𝑞
𝑉𝑞 = ∆𝑃𝐸
S
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑉𝑒 ∵ 𝑉𝑒 = ∆𝑃𝐸
2
2𝑉𝑒
𝑣2 =
𝑚
P

2𝑉𝑒
𝑣=√ … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝑚
This eq shows the velocity of electrons. When these electrons enter in magnetic field, a force of
induction acts on these electrons. This force is given by;
U

⃗F⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ , therefore: 𝜃 = 90o
Since: 𝑣⃗ ⊥ 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑒(𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛90
𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵(1)
𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
When electrons enter in magnetic field they move on a circular path of radius “r”. magnetic
force provides a centripetal force.
i.e. 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑐

Page 119 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑚𝑣2
putting 𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑒𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑒𝐵 = 𝑟
𝑒 𝑣
= … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑚 𝐵𝑟
2𝑉𝑒
Putting 𝑣 = √
𝑚

2𝑉𝑒
𝑒 √𝑚
=

I
𝑚 𝐵𝑟
𝑒 2𝑉𝑒 1
=√

-I
×
𝑚 𝑚 𝐵𝑟
Squaring on both sides.
𝑒2 2𝑉𝑒 1
2 = × 2 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝐵 𝑟
S
𝑒2
𝑚2
𝑒
=
2𝑉
𝑒
𝑚
×
2𝑉
𝐵 2 𝑟2

= 2 2 … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑚 𝐵 𝑟
Particle Selector Method To Find The Velocity Of Electrons:
S
J.J Thomson assumed that when electrons emitted out from plate “C” their velocity is zero.
Later scientists rejected this assumption. To find the correct value of velocity of electrons a
method is designed, which is called “Particle Selector Method”.
In this method an electric field also applied in the tube which is opposite in direction of
P

magnetic field. This field is set such a way that its strength is equal to the strength of magnetic
field.
i.e 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑒
∴𝐸= , 𝐸𝑞 = 𝐹𝑒 , ∴ 𝐸𝑒 = 𝐹𝑒 and 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
U

𝑞
𝑒𝑣𝐵 = 𝐸𝑒
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵
This value of “v” putting eq(ii)
𝑒 𝑣
eq(ii)=> =
𝑚 𝐵𝑟
𝐸
𝑒
= 𝐵
𝑚 𝐵𝑟
𝑒 𝐸 1
= ×
𝑚 𝐵 𝐵𝑟

Page 120 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑒 𝐸
= 2 …………..(iv)
𝑚 𝐵𝑟
Eq (iii) and Eq (iv) represent the ratio between charge and mass of an electron.
Determination of Radius “r” of the Circular Path:
Let “a” be the shift of the spot on the screen from point “O” to “O’” and “b” be the distance
between the screen and the point at which electrons enter the magnetic field, then from the
geometry of the following fig. we have;
O
a

I
b
O’
Q
(r-a) r

-I
c

But ̅̅̅̅̅
S
In right angle triangle CQO’. Applying Pythagoras theorem we get:
̅̅̅̅̅)2 = (𝐶𝑄
(𝐶𝑂′ ̅̅̅̅̅)2
̅̅̅̅ )2 + (𝑄𝑂′
̅̅̅̅̅′ = 𝑏
̅̅̅̅ = (𝑟 − 𝑎)and 𝑄𝑂
𝐶𝑂′= r(radius of circle) ,𝐶𝑄
S
Now, 𝑟2 = (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2
𝑟2 = 𝑟2 − 2𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
2𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
Since “a” is very small as compared to the diameter of the circular path therefore, “a 2” will be
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negligible.
2𝑎𝑟 = 𝑏2
𝑏2
𝑟=
2𝑎
U

Knowing the value of “a” and “b” radius of the circular path can be calculated.

Statement:
“The sum of the product of the tangential component of magnetic field of induction and the
length of an element of a closed curve taken in a magnetic field is “µ o” times the current which
passes through the area bounded by this curve”.

Page 121 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Mathematical Representation:

𝑖 =𝑛

⃗⃗. ∆𝐿⃗⃗) = 𝜇𝑜 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

∑(𝐵 𝑖
𝑖=1

Proof:
Consider a straight current carrying conductor through which current “I” is flowing.
Experimentally, it has been observed that the strength of the magnetic field produced at any

I
point near the conductor is directly proportional to twice of the current i.e.“2I” and inversely
proportional to the distance “r” from the conductor.

-I
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵 ∝ 2𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ∝ 1/𝑟
By combining both observations,
2𝐼
𝐵 ∝
𝑟

𝜇𝑜
S 𝐵 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 )

𝐵=
𝜇𝑜 2𝐼
.
4𝜋 𝑟
2𝐼
𝑟

is the constant of proportionality, “𝜇𝑜 ” is known as permeability of free space. The value of
S
4𝜋
“𝜇𝑜 ” is 4πx10-7 Web/Amp-m
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 ……………………(i)
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
The above relation shows that the value of “B” at all the points on the circle will be same if a
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straight conductor is at the center of the circle. Hence the magnitude of magnetic field of
induction “B” at any point on the surface of a circular closed path can be calculated with the
help of equation (i) the above formula is valid only for a circular closed path surrounding the
conductor.
U

If we divide the circle into a large number of small elements each of length “∆l”. The tangential
component of magnetic field of induction for an element is “B cos𝜃” hence, the product of
tangential component of “B” and length of an element “∆l” is given as;
(Bcos𝜃) ∆l = B ∆l cos𝜃
But, B ∆l cos𝜃 = 𝐵⃗⃗.∆𝑙⃗
The sum of these products for all the elements is given by:
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = ∑ B ∆l Cos𝜃
∑𝐵
⃗⃗ and ∆𝑙⃗ at each and every point is zero, because the circular
In this case the angle 𝜃 between 𝐵
path coincides exactly with the magnetic field.

Page 122 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = ∑ B ∆l Cos(0)
∑𝐵

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = ∑ B ∆l
∑𝐵

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝐵 ∑ ∆l
∑𝐵
∑ ∆l = 2𝜋𝑟 (total length of the circular closed path). i.e. circumference of the path
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
But 𝐵 = For circular closed path,( from equation) (i).
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ =
∑𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟
2𝜋𝑟

I
𝑖 =𝑛
…………………………….(ii)
⃗⃗. ∆𝐿⃗⃗) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
∑(𝐵 𝑖
𝑖=1

-I
Equation (ii) shows the Ampere’s circular law.

determined provided ∑ 𝐵
Determination of “B” Inside A Long Solenoid:
S
With the help of Ampere’s law the magnetic field of induction B due to a current can be
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ for an imaginary closed curve around the conductor is known.

A straight cylinder covered by loops of insulated wire, is called “Solenoid”. When a strong
S
current passes through the loops a magnetic field is formed inside the core of Solenoid. Outside
the core, the field is very weak so that the force of induction is negligible outside the core.
Consider a rectangular loops “abcda”, the length of its sides are 𝑙⃗1 , 𝑙⃗2 , 𝑙⃗3 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙⃗4. The 𝑙⃗1 is
⃗⃗, as shown in figure.
parallel to solenoid or parallel to 𝐵
P

⃗⃗⃗ a 𝒍⃗𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗

𝑩
𝑩 b
U

𝒍⃗𝟒 ⃗𝒍𝟐

B=0
d c
⃗𝒍𝟑
To Determine The Line Integral of Magnetic Induction “∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑩. ∆𝒍⃗”:
The line integral of magnetic induction on Amperian loop “abcda” is given by;

Page 123 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = ∑ 𝐵
∑𝐵 ⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗1 + ∑ 𝐵
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗2 + ∑ 𝐵
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗3 + ∑ 𝐵
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗4 … … … … (𝑖)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
Now;
⃗⃗ ∥ ∆𝑙⃗1
𝐵
𝑏 𝑏

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗1 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙1 cos(0)

∑𝐵
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗1 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙1 (1)

∑𝐵
𝑎 𝑎

I
𝑏 𝑏

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗1 = 𝐵 ∑ ∆𝑙1

∑𝐵

-I
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗1 = 𝐵𝑙 1
∑𝐵
𝑎
⃗⃗ ⊥ ∆𝑙⃗2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐵

∑𝐵
𝑐
𝑏
S 𝑐

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗2 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙 2 cos(90)

𝑏
𝑐
S
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗2 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙2 (0)
∑𝐵
𝑏 𝑏
𝑐
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗2 = (0)
∑𝐵
𝑏
P

𝑑 𝑑

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗3 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙 3 cos(180)

𝑁𝑜𝑤, ∑ 𝐵
𝑐 𝑐
For l3 the value of B is zero.
𝑑 𝑑
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⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗3 = ∑(0)∆𝑙3 (−1)

∑𝐵
𝑐 𝑐
𝑑

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗3 = 0
∑𝐵
𝑐
Now;
⃗⃗ ⊥ ∆𝑙⃗4
𝐵
𝑎 𝑎

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗4 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙4 cos(90)

∑𝐵
𝑑 𝑑

Page 124 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑎 𝑎

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗4 = ∑ 𝐵∆𝑙 4 (0)

∑𝐵
𝑑 𝑑
𝑎

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗4 = (0)

∑𝐵
𝑑
Now;
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝐵𝑙 1 + 0 + 0 + 0
(𝑖 ) => ∑ 𝐵

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝐵𝑙 1
∑𝐵

I
To Determine The Total Current Passes Through Amperian Loop:

-I
Suppose the no. of turns per unit length of solenoid is “n”, therefore the no. of turns on “l 1” is
“nl1”. If “I” be the current passes through one loop, hence total current passes through “nl 1”
loops will be “nl 1I”. hence , total current enclosed by amperian loop = nl 1I
Now; applying Ampere’s Law;

S
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑇 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
∑𝐵
𝐵𝑙 1 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑛𝑙1 𝐼 )
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼
S
The above relation shows that the value of “B” inside a solenoid is independent of position. In
other words the magnetic field inside a long solenoid is uniform. But at the ends of the solenoid
field is non-uniform. The value of “B” is directly proportional to “I” and “n”. To increase the
value of “B” by increasing “n”, the non overlapping turns must be wound close to each other.
P

The direction of magnetic field inside the solenoid depends upon the direction of current
flowing through it. On looking towards the circular turn of a solenoid if the current is in anti -
clockwise direction then the end will be north pole.
If a medium other than vacuum is present at the core of the solenoid the value of “B” is given
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by;
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑛𝐼
Where “µ”is the permeability of the medium.
Determination of “B” Inside A Toroid:
If we connect the ends of a straight cylindrical
inductor, then it is called “Toroid”.
If a current passes through the loops then a
strong magnetic field formed inside the core of
toroid, its value outside the core is negligible.

Page 125 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 To Determine The Line Integral of Magnetic Induction “∑ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑩. ∆𝒍⃗”:
Consider a closed circular loop inside the core of toroid, its radius is “r”. The whole loop is
divided into a large number of element length “∆𝑙⃗” . The value of line integral of magnetic
induction is given by;
Since;
⃗⃗ ∥ ∆𝑙⃗
𝐵 ∵ ∆𝑙 = 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑙⃗ is zero, i.e. 𝜃 = 0
And the angle between 𝐵
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = ∑ B ∆𝑙 Cos(0)
∑𝐵

I
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = ∑ B ∆𝑙 (1)
∑𝐵

⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝐵 ∑ ∆𝑙 … … … … … … … … (i)

∑𝐵

-I
Here, ∑ ∆l represents the circumference of amperian circular loop.
i.e. ∑ ∆𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟)
∑𝐵

S
To determine The Total Current Passes Through Amperian Loop:
Suppose total no. of turns on amperian loop is “N”. if “I” current passes through one loop, then
total current passes though the amperian loop will be “NI”.
i.e. Total current =NI
S
now applying Ampere’s Law,
⃗⃗. ∆𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑇. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
∑𝐵
𝐵 (2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑁𝐼)
P

𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

This equation shows the value of “B” inside a narrow toroid. According to this equation the
value of “B” is directly proportional to total no. of turns and T. current, also it is inversely
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proportional to the radius of amperian loop.

Strength is maximum near the inner wall of toroid. To reduce the non uniformity the toroid
must be wound on a narrow tube.

Page 126 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Electromagnetic Induction:
Changing of magnetic flux in a coil or loop produces an emf in it.
This emf is called induced emf and the phenomenon is known N
as electromagnetic induction. Induced emf causes current in the
C D
loop which is called induced current. Move
When the loop in the diagram is dragged across the magnetic field, B
A
magnetic flux in the loop changes and emf is produced in it.
Faraday’s Law:
According to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, S

I
“The magnitude of e.m.f induced in a coil in magnetic field is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with the coil”.

-I
∆𝜑
Hence (𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓)𝑖𝑛𝑑. ∝ − ∆𝑡
∆𝜑
(𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓)𝑖𝑛𝑑. = −𝑁
∆𝑡
Where “N” is the constant of proportionality and it represents the number of turn of coil, ∆𝜑 is
S
the change of magnetic flux in time ∆t. The negative sign is introduced according to Lenz’s Law,
to indicate the direction of induced emf.
“N∆𝜑” is called Flux Linkage.
The emf will be induced as long as there is a change of magnetic flux, no emf will be induced if
S
flux either becomes zero or becomes constant.
Lenz’s Law:
According to Lenz’s Law,
“The direction of induced emf and hence the direction of induced current is always such that it
P

opposes the change which produces it”.

U

When current is changed in a coil an emf is induced in a neighboring coil this phenomenon is
known as Mutual Induction.
Consider two coils of insulated wire lying close to each other such that one of the coils is
connected to a battery though a rheostat. This coil is known as “primary coil”, the other coil is
called a “secondary coil”. When current in the primary coil is changed with the help of rheostat,
the magnetic field produced also changes resulting in a change in magnetic flux passing through
the secondary coil. An emf is therefore induce in the secondary coil due to which the
galvanometer connected across it shows deflection.

Page 127 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Secondary Primary

+
-
G

I
Rheostat
The average emf induced in the secondary coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current in the primary coil.

-I
∆𝐼
𝜉𝑠 ∝ − 𝑝
∆𝑡
∆𝐼
𝜉𝑠 = −𝑀 𝑝
∆𝑡

S
Where “M” is the constant of proportionality it is known as “Mutual Inductance”. “∆𝐼𝑝 ” is the
change in current in the primary coil in the time ∆𝑡 second. The negative sign indicates the
direction of induced emf in according to Lenz’s law.
The phenomenon of mutual induction plays an important role in the design of transformers and
other heavy electrical machinery.
S
Mutual Inductance:
“The ratio of emf induced in the secondary coil to the rate of change of current in the primary
𝜉𝑠
coil is called Mutual Inductance”. i.e. 𝑀 = ∆𝐼𝑝
P

∆𝑡

Value of mutual inductance depends upon following;

1. No. of turns in two coils.
2. Distance between two coils.
3. Shape of the coil.
U

4. Cross-sectional area of coils.

5. Magnetic properties of medium present between coils.
Unit of Mutual Inductance:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 −𝑆𝑒𝑐
The unit of mutual inductance is “Henry”. Which is equal to .
𝐴𝑚𝑝

Definition of Henry:
“Mutual inductance of a pair of coils is said to be 1Henry if an emf of one volt is induced in the
secondary coil when current in the primary is changed at the rate of 1Ampere per second”.

Page 128 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

If the current passes through a coil is suddenly changed then the magnetic flux linked with the
coil itself also changes as a result which an emf is induced in it. This phenomenon is known as
self-induction. The emf induced in the coil also known as back emf because its direction is
always such that it opposes the cause of its induction (Len’s Law).

I
-I
The magnitude of back emf or self induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current in the coil:

∆𝐼
S 𝜉∝−

𝜉 = −𝐿
∆𝑡
∆𝐼
∆𝑡
Where “L” is the constant of proportionality known as “ self inductance” of the coil. The
S
negative sign indicates the direction of induced emf in according to Lenz’s law.
Self Inductance:
“The ratio of induced emf to the rate of change of current in the coil is called Self Inductance”.
𝜉
P

i.e. 𝐿 = ∆𝐼
∆𝑡
The value of self inductance depends upon the following;
1. The no. of turns in coil.
2. Area of cross section of the coil.
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3. The magnetic properties of the material of coil.

Unit of Self Inductance:
The unit of self inductance is “Henry”.
“Self Inductance of a coil is said to be 1Henry if a back emf of 1Volt is induced in it when the
current is changed at the rate of 1Ampere per second”.

Page 129 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, a potential difference is established
between its ends. The potential difference is called motional emf.
Explanation:
When the conductor is moved in a uniform magnetic field with velocity 𝑣⃗, the free electrons in
the conductor also move along with it with same velocity. A magnetic force acts on each
electron which is given by;
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

I
This force pushes the free electrons from end “b” to end “a” of the wire. As a result upper end
becomes more and more positive and lower end negative. Transfer of electrons stops when
force F is balanced by the electrostatic attraction between ends “a” and “b”. hence, under given

-I
conditions, a certain value of emf is obtained, between ends “a” and “b”, it is called motional
b
emf.
+
Derivation of Formula:
Suppose;

𝜃 = Angle between 𝑣⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗.

S
q = Total charge transferred from end “b” to “a”.
B = Flux density of uniform magnetic field.
F θ
B
S
l = Length of the conductor.
⃗
Force on charge “q” is; ⃗
v

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)
⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 -
P

Work done on the charge from “b” to “a”. a

𝑊 = 𝐹×𝑙
𝑊 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝑙
Motional emf is given by;
U

𝑊 𝑞𝐵𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝑙 ∆𝑃𝐸
𝜉= = ∴𝑉=
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞

𝜉 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

This equation shows that the magnitude of motional emf is directly proportional to the length
and velocity of conductor and also the perpendicular component of magnetic field. i.e “ 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃”.
Electromechanical Device:
An electromechanical device is that which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Page 130 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Electric Motor: A motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Generator: A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Definition:
A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle:
When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an emf is induced in it. This emf is of alternating

I
nature.
Construction:

-I
A simple A.C Generator consists of a coil of insulated wire which is wound on a soft iron
cylinder. It is known as “armature”. The ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings. The slip
rings are in contact with two separate carbon brushes. The contact with external circuit is made
through these carbon brushes. Armature can be rotated freely on an axle between poles of a
permanent, strong horse shoe magnet.
Working:
S
When the coil is rotated in the magnetic field such that at a particular instant, its plane is
perpendicular to magnetic field, then its longer side will move parallel to the field, at this
S
instant no emf is induced in it. As the coil continues the motion, component of linear velocity of
longer sides perpendicular to the field increases and becomes maximum when plane of the coil
is parallel to the field.
During this quarter revolution, emf increases from zero to maximum value. Maximum emf is
induced when plane of the rotating coil is parallel to the field. During the next quarter
P

revolution emf decreases to zero when the plane of the coil again becomes perpendicular to
the field. During the remaining half revolution emf induced varies in the same manner but in
opposite direction. Emf induced in the longer sides of the coil is in opposite direction and sends
current in the same direction through the coil hence they add up whereas emf induced in the
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shorter sides is in the same direction and sends the current through the coil in opposite
direction hence the net emf induced in shorter sides is zero. In one rotation of the coil one cycle
of alternating emf is obtained. The number of cycles of alternating current obtained per second
is called “frequency of A.C”.

Page 131 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 I
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Derivation:
Let “l” be the length, “b” be the breadth of the coil and “𝑣” be the instantaneous linear velocity
S
of the longer side of the coil in the magnetic field of flux density “B”, then emf induced in each
longer side of loop of wire is given by:
𝜉 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hence the total emf induced at any instant in each turn of the coil will be;
S
𝜉 = 2𝐵𝑣𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
If the coil has “N” turns, then total emf induced in it is given by:
………….(i)
𝜉 = 2𝑁𝐵𝑣𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
P

If “𝜔” is the constant angular speed of the coil then:

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
1
Putting r=2 b
1
𝑣 = b𝜔
U

2
𝜃
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 ∵ 𝜔=
𝑡
On substituting the above values of v and 𝜃 in equation (i), we get:
1
𝜉 = 2𝑁𝐵 b𝜔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
2
𝜉 = 𝐵𝑁𝜔𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
But, lb = A
𝜉 = 𝐵𝑁𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ……………(ii)

Similarly angular velocity “𝜔” is related to frequency “𝑓” by the following relation:

Page 132 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
∵𝑇 = , = , ∵ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝜔 𝑓 𝜔

𝜉 = 𝐵𝑁2𝜋𝑓𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡
………….(iii)
Equation (i), (ii) and (iii) give us the emf induced in the rotating coil at any instant.
Expression For Maximum emf:
The emf induced in the coil will be maximum when 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1, which is possible when the angle
“𝜃” between v and B is 90, at this particular moment plane of the coil will be exactly parallel to
the magnetic field.

I
𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑁𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑁𝜔𝐴
𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐵𝑁𝐴

-I
Relation BetweenInstantaneous emf “𝜉” and maximum emf “𝝃𝒎𝒂𝒙 ”:
The instantaneous and maximum emf induced in the coil are related by:

S 𝜉 = 𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜉 = 𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜉 = 𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡

In the rotating coil emf induced changes its magnitude and direction with time, such an emf is
S
known as alternating emf. The current caused by alternating emf will also change continuously
its magnitude and direction. Under the influence of alternating emf free electrons of the
conductor will simply vibrate about their mean position.
P

Transformer is an electric device which is used either to step up or step down an alternating
emf (Voltage). It works on the principle of “Mutual Induction”.
Construction & Working:
U

A transformer consists of two coils known as “primary” and “secondary”.

These coils of insulated copper wires are wound one on top of the other on a laminated soft
iron core. On one of the coils, known as the “primary coil”, an alternating emf (Voltage) is
applied. Due to self induction an emf. “𝜉p” is induced in the primary coil, given by;
∆𝜑
𝜉𝑝 = −𝑁𝑝 … … … … (𝑖)
∆𝑡
∆𝜑
Where “Np” is the no. of turns in primary coil and is the rate of change of flux through
∆𝑡
primary coil. Since, the secondary coil is wound on top of the primary coil, therefore the flux

Page 133 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ∆𝜑
linked with the two coils will be practically equal. In other words the rate of change of flux “ ∆𝑡 ”
for both coils are same.
Due to mutual induction emf. Induced “𝜉𝑠 ” in the secondary coil is given by;
∆𝜑
𝜉𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
∆𝑡
Where “Ns ” is the no. of turns in secondary coil.
Dividing eq(ii) by eq(i)
∆𝜑
𝜉𝑠 −𝑁𝑠 ∆𝑡
= ∆𝜑
𝜉𝑝 −𝑁𝑝 ∆𝑡

I
𝜉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝜉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

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Efficiency of Transformer:
Efficiency may be defined as;
“The ratio of power output to power input”
Power Output = 𝜉𝑠 𝐼𝑠
Power Input = 𝜉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 ∴ 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑎𝑠𝑉 = 𝜉
S
If the power loses in a transformer are neglected then,
Power Output = Power Input
S
𝜉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 = 𝜉𝑝 𝐼𝑝
𝜉𝑠 𝐼𝑝
=
𝜉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
This relation shows that in a step up transformer for which (𝜉𝑠 > 𝜉𝑝 ), “𝐼𝑝 ” will greater than “𝐼𝑠 ”.
P

Similarly in step down transformer for which (𝜉𝑠 < 𝜉𝑝 ),“𝐼𝑝 ” will less than “𝐼𝑠 ”.
Step Up Transformer:
If Ns >Np then “𝜉𝑠 ” will also be greater than “𝜉𝑝 ”. A transformer in which 𝜉𝑠 > 𝜉𝑝 is known as
“Step Up Transformer”. It increases the applied voltage.
U

Step Down Transformer:

A transformer in which Ns <Np, gives lower emf through the secondary coil i.e. (𝜉𝑠 < 𝜉𝑝 ) is
known as “Step Down Transformer”. It decreases the applied voltage.
Uses of Transformer:
1. Step up transformer is used for sending electricity to long distance.
2. Step down transformer is used to decrease the large voltage up to 220 volts.
3. In electric bell the step down transformer is used to set the voltage up to 4 volts.
Power Loses In A Transformer:
1. Power loses in transformer is mainly due to resistance of its wires.

Page 134 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

To minimize this source of power loss, thick copper wire is used in the coil which carries larger
current.
2. Eddy current induced on the surface of iron core due to the changing magnetic flux,
produce heating effect.
To minimize this effect core is made up of thin sheets of soft iron separated by a thin layer of
varnish.

i. Charged particles fired in a vacuum tube hit a fluorescent screen. Will it be possible to know whether

I
they are positive or negative?
Ans: Yes, the charge on particles in motion can be found by applying magnetic field perpend icular to the
motion of the charges and by observing the deflection. A positive charge in an inward perpendicular

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magnetic field is deflected upward. In an electric field, a positive charge will be deflected towards the
negative side (Cathode).
ii. Beam of electrons and protons moving with same velocity enter in a uniform magnetic field at right
angle, which will suffer the more deflection? What will be the effect on the beam of electrons if their
velocity is doubled?
Ans: Since;

For electron and proton; q = e

S 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑚

= 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
S
Given that 𝜃 = 90o
Now
𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑒𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 90𝑜
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑒𝐵𝑟
𝑚𝑣
P

𝑟=
𝑒𝐵
Or
𝑟∝𝑚
Above equation shows that radius is directly proportional to the mass of the particle.So the particle of
greater mass will deflect less and great will be the radius and vice versa. So we conclude that electron will
U

suffer more deflection then proton.

Since radius is directly proportional to the velocity, therefore if we double the velocity of electrons the
radius will also be doubled, but the deflection is halved.
iii. Two identical loops, one of copper and the other of aluminum, are similarly rotated in a magnetic field
of induction. Explain the reason for their different behavior. Is electric generator a “ge nerator of
electricity”? Where is the electricity before it is generated? What do such machine generate?
Ans: Since the conductivities of copper and aluminum are different, they show different behavior with
the induced emf. As the conductivity of copper i s higher than that of aluminum, so a copper loop will have
greater induced current than an identical aluminum loop moving with the same speed in the same
magnetic field.

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 An electric generator is not a generator of electricity (i.e. quantity of charge). Electricity is present in the
conducting coil of the generator before it was driven in an electoral circuit.
A generator provides emf to drift the free electrons in the conducting coil. In fact, a generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
iv. What is the difference between magneto and A.C generator? What is meant by the frequency of
alternating current?
Ans: Any small generator employing a permanent magnet is commonly called magneto and it is used in
ignition system of petrol engines, motor bikes and motor boats, etc.
The field magnets of large generators are electromagnets and these generators are called alternators. The
performance of A.C generator is more satisfactory when the armature is stationary and the field magnet
rotates around the armature. Stationary armature is called “stator” and rotating magnet is called “rotor”.
Alternating current (A.C) is produced by a voltage source whose terminal polarity reversed with time. The

I
number of cycles per second made by an A.C is called it frequency (f). Its unit is hertz (Hz). We have f = I/T.
An A.C reverses its polarity 2f time per second. An A.C with frequency of 50Hz has a time period of 1/50 =

-I
0.02 second. This A.C reaches at zero value every 0.01 second.
v. What kind of fields do surround a moving charge and static charge.
Ans: When an electric charge is in motion, it is surrounded by an electric filed as well as a magnetic field,
but a static charge is surrounded by only an electric field.
vi. Can a current carrying coil be used as a compass?

vii.
compass.
S
Ans: A current carrying coil behaves as a bar magnet. Thus when it is suspended freely, it can be used as a

How can you justify that magnetic force on a moving charge in a uniform magnetic field is the
centripetal force. Can magnetic force does work on the charge particle?
Ans: The magnetic force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗) or |𝐹⃗ | = 𝑞𝑉𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃), is perpendicular to velocity it will not affect
S
the magnitude of the velocity but only changes its direction. The magnitude of the velocity remains
constant. Since magnitude of q,V,B are constant magnetic force is the constant force. Therefore it is a
centripetal force which moves the charged along the circular path. Magnetic force does no t work on
moving charge particle because it is always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.
viii. What changes occur inside the magnetic field of a solenoid carrying steady current?
P

If the length is doubled but the number of turns remains same.

If the number of turns is doubled but the length remain same.
Ans: Magnetic field inside a solenoid due to current “I” passing through it is given by:
𝐵 = 𝜇 0 𝑛𝐼
Where n= N/L where “N” is the total no of turns and “L” is the length of the solenoid.
U

Therefore
𝑁
𝐵 = 𝜇 0 𝐼 − − − − − (𝑖)
𝐿
If the length of the solenoid is doubled we can write the equation (i)
𝑁
𝐵′ = 𝜇 0 𝐼
2𝐿
1 𝑁
𝐵′ = ( 𝜇 0 𝐼)
2 𝐿
1
𝐵′ = 𝐵
2
Thus doubling the length of a solenoid the magnetic field is halved.
If the number of turns is doubled and “L” remains same the equation (i) can be written as;

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 2𝑁
𝐵′ = 𝜇 0 ( )𝐼
𝐿
𝑁
𝐵′ = 2𝜇 0 ( ) 𝐼
𝐿
𝐵′ = 2𝐵
This equation shows that magnetic field increases two times.
ix. Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
Ans: According to Lenz’s law the induced emf or back emf is always opposite to the cause that prod ucing
it. If the magnetic flux through the circuit is increasing then the induced emf acts to decrease the
magnetic flux. If the magnetic flux is decreasing than the induced emf acts to increase the value of the
magnetic flux. Hence the induced emf does not always act to decrease the magnetic flux through the
circuit. it can also increase the magnetic flux.

I
x. Can an electron at rest be set in motion with a magnet?
Ans: No, when an electron is at rest, it has no magnetic field. So in, the absence of any magnetic field of
its own, it cannot interact with a magnet.

-I
xi. In what ways can a voltage be induced in a wire?
Ans:1) By moving a wire in a magnetic field. 2) By moving magnet near it.3) By changing current through a
circuit near it.
Ex # 14.1
S
Exercise based on Force on a moving charge, Force on a current
carrying conductor, Torque on a current carrying coil in a
uniform magnetic field, Magnetic Flux & Flux Density:
S
MCQs:
i. Which is not magnetic substance:
a) Cobalt b) Nickel c) Copper d) None of these
ii. A substance which behaves like a magnet in the presence of a strong magnetic field is
called_____________.
P

a) Magnetic substance b) Ferromagnetic c) Magnet d) None of these

iii. The best and quickest method of making magnets is the _____________.
a) Electrical method b) Single touch method c) Both d) None of these
iv. The most efficient method of demagnetizing a magnet is to use ______________.
a) Heat b) Alternating current c) Direct current d) None of these
U

v. Opposite poles of magnets______________ each other.

a) Attract b) Repel c) Both d) None of these
vi. The direction of magnetic lines was given by_____________.
a) Newton b) Christi an Orested c) Maxwell d) None of these
vii. A magnet which can be energized by an electric current is called_________________.
a) Bar magnet b) Electrical magnet c) Electromagnet d) None of these
viii. Heavy pieces of iron are lifted by______________.
a) Hydraulic lift b) Electromagnet c) Solenoid d) None of these
ix. ______________ is a device which converts electric energy into sound energy.
a) Electromagnet b) Electric bell c) Telephone receiver d) None of these
x. A/An____________ force is experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

Page 137 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Mechanical b) Electrical c) Magnetic d) None of these
xi. The branch of physics which deals with the study of magnetic field associated with moving charges or
current is called___________.
a) Current electricity b) Magnetism c) Electromagnetism d) None of these
xii. Magnetic field of induction is a_____________.
a) Scalar quantity b) Vector quantity c) Both d) None of these
xiii. The lines of force of induced magnetic field in the region surrounding a current carrying straight wire
are______________.
a) Hyperbolic b) Parabolic c) Circular d) None of these
xiv. “According to right hand rule when a current carrying conductor is griped with th e right hand, a thumb
indicates the direction of current”.
a) Middle finger will indicate the direction of magnetic field

I
b) A thumb will indicate the direction of magnetic field
c) Curl of fingers will indicate the direction of magnetic field

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d) None of these
xv. The direction of the magnetic lines of force can be found by_______________.
a) Left hand rule b) Right hand rule c) Ampere’s rule d) None of these
xvi. Force on a moving charge (q) in a uniform magnetic field is given by_______________.
a) 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞 (𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗) b) |𝐹⃗ | = 𝑞𝑉𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 c) Both d) None of these
xvii.

xviii.
a) Parallel to both 𝑉⃗⃗ and 𝐵

a) Maximum
⃗⃗
S
Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is_______________.
b) Perpendicular to both 𝑉⃗⃗ and 𝐵

b) Zero c) Infinity
⃗⃗ c) Both d) None of these
When a charge particle (q) moving with velocity V in a magnetic field perpendicular to B, force exerted on
it is_______________.
d) None of these
S
xix. When a charge particle (q) moving with velocity V in a uniform magnetic field parallel to B, force exerted
on it is________________.
a) Maximum b) Zero c) Infinity d) None of these
xx. The force exerted on a wire of length one meter carrying one ampere current place at right angle to the
field is called______________.
P

a) Inductance b) Magnetic induction c) Electromagnetic induction d) None of these

xxi. The SI unit of magnetic induction is_____________.
a) Weber b) Weber/Meter c) Tesla d) None of these
xxii. The force experienced by a charge particle is maximum when charge particle is projected at an
angle___________.
U

a) 60 o b) 90 o c) 180 od) None of these

xxiii. The force experienced by a charge particle is zero when charge particle is projected at an
angle___________.
a) 0 o b) 90 o c) 120 od) None of these
xxiv. Force on conductor carrying current in a uniform magnetic field is given by__________.
a) 𝐹⃗ = 𝐼 (𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) b) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 c) Both d) None of these
xxv. Force on current carrying conductor in B is________________.
a) Parallel to both L and B b) Perpendicular to both L and B c) Both d) None of these
xxvi. When the current carrying conductor is kept perpendicular within the uniform magnetic field force
exerted on is________________.
a) Maximum b) Zero c) Infinite d) None of these

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 xxvii. When the current carrying conductor is kept parallel within the uniform magnetic field force exerted on
is________________.
a) Maximum b) Zero c) Infinite d) None of these
xxviii. Force on current carrying conductor maximum when it is kept at angle______________.
a) 90 o b) 0 o c) 180 od) None of these
xxix. Force on current carrying conductor Zero when it is kept at angle______________.
a) 0 o b) 90 o c) 150 od) None of these
xxx. Force exerted on current carrying conductor of unit length is_________________.
a) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 b) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 c) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 d) None of these
xxxi. Torque on a current carrying coil in magnetic field is______________.
a) 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 b) 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 c) 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 d) None of these
xxxii. The number of magnetic lines of force crossing surface area normally is called____________.

I
a) Magnetic intensity b) Magnetic flux c) Magnetic force d) None of these
xxxiii. Magnetic flux is a_____________.

-I
a) Vector quantity b) Scalar quantity c) Both d) None of these
xxxiv. Magnetic flux is defined as______________.
𝐵⃗⃗
a) ⃗⃗ × ∆𝐴⃗
∆𝜑𝑚 = 𝐵 ⃗⃗. ∆𝐴⃗
b) ∆𝜑𝑚 = 𝐵 c) ∆𝜑𝑚 = d) None of these
∆𝐴⃗
xxxv. The magnetic flux will be maximum when the angle between B and ∆A is___________.

xxxvi.

xxxvii.
a) 0 o
S
b) 90 o

b) 90 o
c) 120 o

c) 180 o
d) None of these
The magnetic flux will be zero when the angle between B and ∆A is___________.
b) 0 o d) None of these
The magnetic flux per unit area and area at right angle to the magnetic field is called_______________.
a) Magnetic flux b) Magnetic flux density c) Magnetic intensity d) None of these
S
xxxviii. The Si unit of magnetic flux is_____________.
a) Tesla b) Weber c) Henry d) None of these
xxxix. The SI unit of magnetic flux density is____________.
a) Tesla b) Henry c) Weber/metre 2 d) Both A&C
xl. 1 Weber is equals to_____________.
a) 1N-1 mA-1 b) 1NmA-1 c) 1N2 m2 A-1 d) None of these
P

xli. 1 Tesla is equals to_____________.

a) 1 Wm-2 b) 1W -1 m-1 c) 1W 2 m2 d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
C B A B A C C B C C C B C C B
xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx.
U

C B A B B C B A C B A B A A B
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xli.
B B B B A B B B D B A

Questions From Past Papers:

i. A charge particle +q enters perpendicular in a uniform magnetic field B with velocity V. write down the
formula for the force acting on the charged particle and define the unit of induction.
(1993)
ii. A charge particle projected perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field. Write the express ion for the force
acting on it. (1995)

Page 139 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iii. Write short note on: force on current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. (1996)
iv. What do you mean by magnetic flux and flux density? Given their units. How are they related to each
other? (1997)
v. Differentiate between magnetic flux and magnetic flux density. (2001)
vi. Derive an expression for the torque on a current carrying rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform
magnetic field when its plane makes an angle 𝛼 with the field. (2003)Pre Med
vii. Define magnetic field. Derive the relation for the magnitude of magnetic field of induction B. Give its
units. (2004)
viii. Derive the relation for the force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field.
(2004)
ix. Derive the equation for the couple of torque acting on a current carrying rectangular coil placed in a
uniform magnetic field. (2005)

I
x. Derive an expression for the force on a straight conductor of length “L” and an area of cross section “A”
when it is subjected to a magnetic field “B” at an angle “𝜃”. (2008)

-I
xi. Derive a relation for a torque due to a current carrying coil in a magnetic field. (2009)
xii. Prove mathematically that the radius of circular path for a charge moving in a magnetic field is given as
𝑚𝑉
𝑟= , where all symbols have their usual meanings. (2010)
𝑞𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

xiii. Derive the relation for the force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field.

xiv.

xv.
(2011)
S
Derive an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor, placed in a uniform magnetic field.
(2013)
Prove mathematically that the radius of circular path for a charge moving in a magnetic field is given by
𝑟 =
𝑚𝑉
𝑞𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
. (2014)
S
xvi. Derive an expression for the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic
field. (2015)
xvii. Derive an expression for the force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a uniform
magnetic field. (2017)
xviii. Prove mathematically that radius of the circular path for a charge moving in magnetic field is
P

𝑚𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟= . (2018)
𝑞𝑏

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. A coil of 100 turns and area (4cmx2cm) is placed in a uniform ma gnetic field of 0.45T. The coil carries a
U

current of 1.5 amperes. Calculate the torque on the coil when the plan is at 60 o with B.
(1996) Ans: 0.027Nm
ii. A coil of 50 turns i s wound on an ivory frame 3cmx6cm which rotates in a magnetic field of induction B = 2
Web/m2 . What will be the torque acting on it if a current of 5 amp passes through it and the plane of the
coil makes an angle of 45 o with the field. (2003)Pre Eng Ans: 0.6363Nm

Numericals Form Book:

i. A coil of 50 turns wound on a rectangular ivory frame 2cmx4cm is pivoted to rotate in a magnetic
field of 0.2Weberm-2 . The face of the coil is parallel to the field. How much torque acts over the coil
when a current of 0.5 amp passes through it? What will be the torque when the coil is rotated by 60 o
from its initial position? Ans: 0.4x10 -2 N-m, 0.2x10 -2 Nm

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 ii. A proton enters a uniform magnetic field of induction B=0.300 Tesla in a direction making an angle of
45 o with the direction of field. What will be the magnitude of force if the velocity of proton is 10 4 ms -
1? Ans: 3.4x10 -16 N
iii. A steady current of 25A is passing through a horizontal power line 50m in length held between two
poles in the north south direction. The earth’s magnetic field is 10 -4 tesla at that place and angle of
dip is 60 o. Find the force on the wire. Ans: 0.108N
iv. A 50 turn rectangular coil of wire 4cm by 5cm is suspended in a vertical plane. A horizontal uniform
magnetic field of 2T is maintained in the plane of coil. Compute the torque experienced by the coil
when a current of 0.3A flows through it. Ans: 0.06 Nm
Assignment # 14.1
i. Derive the formula for force of induction on a charged particle, enter in a uniform magnetic field. Also

I
derive the expression for its radius.
ii. Derive an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor, placed in a uniform magnetic field.

-I
iii. Derive an expression for the torque on a current carrying coil in a uniform magnetic field.
iv. Differentiate between magnetic flux and magnetic flux density.
v. A uniform field, B=3x10 -4 T exists in the +x-axis. A proton shoots through the field in the +y-axis with a
speed of 5x10 6 m/s. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the force on the proton. a) Repeat with the
proton replaced by an electron. Ans: 2.4x10 -16 N in –z-axis, 2.4x10 -16 N in +z-axis.
vi.

vii.

viii.
S
A cathode ray beam (electrons) is bent in a circle of radius 2cm by a uniform field with B=4.6x10 -3 T. What
is the speed of the electrons? Which are entered perpendicular to the field. Ans: 1.6x10 7 m/s
A 5cm long wire is moved in a magnetic field of 0.8T perpendicularly. The wire is carries a current of 30A.
Find the force on the wire. Ans: 1.2N
A rectangular coil of 25 turns is suspended in a field of 0.2T. The plane of the coil is parallel to the
S
direction of the field. The dimensions of the coil are 15cm and 12cm. What is the current in the coil if
there is torque of 5.4Nm acting on it? Ans: 60A

Ex # 14.2
Exercise based on J.J Thomson’s Experiment:
P

MCQs
i. Magnetic force exerts by the magnetic field on a moving charge particle behaves as_____________.
a) Centripetal force b) Electric force c) Both d) None of these
ii. When charge particle is projected perpendicular to uniform magnetic field its path is_____________.
U

a) Elliptical b) Circular c) Straight line d) None of these

iii. Which one of the following particles moving in the magnetic field can’t be deflected?
a) Neutron b) Electron c) Proton d) None of these
iv. The magnetic force acts on a charge particle only when it is in______________.
a) Motion b) Rest c) Equilibrium d) None of these
v. When an electron enters in a magnetic field with a velocity V its magnitude of velocity will be
_____________.
a) Changed b) Unchanged c) Zero d) None of these
vi. The magnitude a velocity of a particle will not changed because the magnetic force is_____________.
a) Perpendicular to velocity b) Parallel to velocity c) Opposite to velocity d) None of
these

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 vii. The magnitude of F remains constant because:
a) “q,V and B are constant” b) V and B are constant c) Only B is constant d) None of these
viii. The e/m of an electron moving in a circular path in a magnetic field is equal to_____________.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
a) b) c) d) None of these
𝐵𝑟 𝐵2 𝑟2 𝐵𝑟2
ix. When electron is accelerated through a potential difference V o energy gained by the electron is given
by______________.
a) Vo2 e b) ½ Voe c) Voe d) None of these
x. The kinetic energy of electron is equal to_____________.
1
a) ½ mV2 = Voe b) ½ mV2 = 2Voe c) = mV2 d) None of these
2𝑉𝑜 𝑒

xi. The velocity of electron determined by P.D method is given by______________.

2𝑉𝑜 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑉𝑜 𝑒
𝑉=√ b) 𝑉 = √ c) 𝑉 = √

I
a) d) None of these
𝑚 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 𝑚

xii. In particle velocity selector method a beam of electron is passes through____________.

a) Magnetic field b) Electric and magnetic field c) Electric field d) None of

-I
these
xiii. In particle velocity selector method electron moves un deflected along a straight line
because________________.
a) The electric force equal to magnetic force

xiv.
a) 𝑉=
𝐸
b) 𝑉=
S
b) Electric force is greater than magnetic force
c) Magnetic force is greater than electric force
d) None of these
Velocity of electron determined by particle velocity selector method is______________.
𝐵 𝐸
𝐵
𝐸
c) 𝑉 = d) None of these
𝐷
S
xv. The radius of the circular path can be determined by the_______________.
a) Shift “a” of light spot from its original path
b) The distance “b” from the point of deflection of the beam in magnetic field
c) Both d) None of these
xvi. The radius of the circular path in magnetic field is_____________.
P

𝑏2 𝑚𝑉
a) 𝑟= b) 𝑟 = c) Both d) None of these
2𝑎 𝐵𝑞

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi.
A B A A B A A A C A A B A B C C
U

Questions From Past Papers:

i. Describe J.J Thomson’s experiment for the determination of e/m of an electron. Derive the relevant
formula. (1993)
ii. Describe J.J Thomson’s method of determining the charge to mass ratio of an electron. (1995)
iii. Describe J.J Thomson’s experiment for the determination of e/m of an electron. Derive the relevant
formula. (1997)
iv. What do you meant by magnetic flux and magnetic density? Explain. Describe J.J Thomson’s experiment
for the determination of e/m of an electron. Derive the relevant expression for the same.
(1999)
v. Explain J.J Thomson method to find the charge to mass ratio of an electron. (2001)

Page 142 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 vi. Describe the method to find e/m of an electron by J.J Thomson and derive an expression for it.
(2003)Pre Med
vii. Describe the J.J Thomson’s method for the e/m of an electron and derive an expression for it.
(2003)Pre Eng
viii. Describe the method of determining the ratio of charge and mass of an electron. Derive the mathematical
equation. (2005)
ix. Describe the method of determining the ratio of charge and mass of an electron. Derive the relevant
mathematical expression. (2009)
x. Describe the method of determining the ratio of charge and mass of an electron. Derive the relevant
mathematical expression. (2012)
xi. Describe the method for determining the ratio of charge to mass (e/m) of an electron. Derive the relevant
mathematical expression. (2015)

I
xii. By giving both the methods of velocity determination, describe J.J. Thomson’s experiment for
charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electron. (2018)

-I
Numericals from Past Papers:
i. An electron having a speed of 1.6x10 6 m/s is moving along a circle of radius 1.82x10 -6m entering
perpendicularly in a uni form magnetic field. Find the value of magnetic field. (1987) Ans: 5Tesla
ii. A 10ev electron is moving in a circular orbit in a uniform magnetic field of strength 10 -4 weber/m2 .

iii.

iv.
S
Calculate the radius of the circular path. (1993) Ans: 0.107m
An electron is moving along a circle of radius 1.8x10 -7 m. calculate the speed of the electron on entering
perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field of 0.5Tesla. (1995) Ans: 15.81x10 4 m/s
𝛼 particles are accelerated from rest at a P.D of 1KV. They then enter a magnetic field B=0.2T
perpendicular to their direction. Calculate the radius. Given m=6.68x10 -27 kg & q = 2e.
S
(1997) Ans: 0.032m
v. A 10ev electron is moving in a circular orbit in a uniform magnetic field of strength 10 -4 weber/m2 .
Calculate the radius of the circular path. (1999) Ans: 0.107m
vi. An electron is accelerated by the potential difference of 1000 volts. It then enters into a uniform magnetic
field of induction B=2.5weber/m2 at an angle of 45 o with the direction of the field. Find the value of the
P

path described by the electron. (2001) Ans: 6.04x10 -5 m

vii. Calculate the speed of an electron entering perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field of 5.0w/m 2 which
moves along a circle of radius 1.8x10 -6m in the field. (2003)Pre Eng Ans: 1.58x10 6 m/sec
viii. How fast the proton of mass 1.67x10 -27kg be moving if it is to follow a circular path of radius 2.0cm in a
magnetic field of 0.7Tesla? (2004) Ans: 1.34x10 6 m/s
U

ix. A proton accelerated through 1000 volts is projected normal to a 0.25 Tes la magnetic field. Calculate the
following.
a) The kinetic energy of the proton on entering the magnetic field
b) The radius of the circular path of the proton (2005) Ans: 1.6x10 -16 J, 0.0182m
x. A proton of charge 1.6x10 -19 C and mass 1.67x10 -27 kg is accelerated by a potential difference of 6x10 5 volts.
Then it enters perpendicularly into a magnetic field of intensity 0.5 Tesla. Find the radius of the circular
path of the proton. (2016) Ans: 0.223m
Numericals From Book:
i. An proton is accelerated by a potential difference of 6x10 5 volts. It then enters a uniform field
B=0.3weber/m2 in a direction making an angle of 45 o with the magnetic field. What will be the radius of
the circular path? Ans: 0.527m

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 ii. Two parallel metal plates separated by 5cm of air have a potential difference of 220 Volts. A magnetic
field B=5x10 -3 weber-m-2 is also produced perpendicular to electric field. A beam of electrons travel un
deflected through these crossed electric and magnetic fields . Find the speed of electrons.
Ans: 8.8x10 5 ms -1

Assignment # 14.2
i. Describe J.J Thomson’s experiment for the determination of e/m of an electron. Derive the relevant
formulae. Also derive the formula for radius of circular path.
ii. Alpha particles (𝑚𝛼 =4mp, q=+2e) are accelerated from rest through a P.D of 1KV. They then entre a
magnetic field B=0.20T perpendicular to their direction of motion. Calculate the radius of their path. Ans:
0.032m

I
iii. Calculate the speed of ions that pass undeflected through crossed E and B field for which E=7.7KV/m and
B=0.14T. Ans: 55000m/s.
iv. What might be the mass of a positive ion that is moving at 1.0x10 7 m/s and is bent into a circular path of

-I
radius 1.55m by a magnetic field of 0.134T? Ans: [q(3.3x10 -27 )kg], where q is the ion’s charge.

Ex # 14.3
Exercise based on Ampere’s Law:

i.

ii.
The equation𝐵 =
a) Gauss’s law
𝜇𝑜𝐼
2𝜋𝑟
S
MCQs
is known as_____________.
b) Biot-Savrat’s law c) Ampere’s law d) None of these
Ampere’s law is applicable for steady current passing through any surface bounded by the closed path
S
called_____________.
a) Amperian loop b) Ampere’s loop c) Ampere’s path d) None of these
iii. Ampere’s law is used to calculate_______________.
a) Magnetic flux b) electric field intensity c) Magnetic flux density d) None of
these
P

iv. The relation between the tangential component of magnetic field of induction at points on closed curve
and the net current through the area bounded by the curve is given by______________.
a) Ampere’s theorem b) Gauss’s Theorem c) Biot-Savrat’s Theorem d) None of these
v. A long wire wound around a cylinder frame of non magnetic material is a:
a) Toroid b) Sol enoid c) Rectangular coil d) None of these
U

vi. When current passes through a solenoid it behaves like a______________.

a) Loop b) Bar magnet c) Conductor d) None of these
vii. The magnetic flux density due to current carrying solenoid is calculated by using:
a) Ampere’s law b) Gauss’s law c) Faraday’s law d) None of these
viii. Magnetic flux density “B” of a solenoid having “n” no of turns per unit length and current “I” throu gh each
turn is given by_____________.
𝜇𝑜𝐼
a) 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝑜 𝑛2 𝐼 b) 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝑜 𝑛𝐼 c) 𝐵 = d) None of these
2𝜋𝑟
ix. The magnetic field inside a solenoid due to current is__________________.
a) Strong and uniform b) Weak c) Non-uniform d) None of these
x. The magnetic field outside the solenoid due to current is__________________.
a) Strong b) Uniform c) Zero d) None of these

Page 144 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xi. A coil of insulated copper wire wound on circular frame is called_____________.
a) Solenoid b) Toroid c) Circular solenoid d) None of these
xii. Magnetic flux density “B” of a toroid is equal to________________.
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼 𝜇𝑜𝐼
a) 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝑜 𝑛𝐼 b) 𝐵 = c) 𝐵 = d) None of these
2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
xiii. If the Amperian loop is within the core of toroid then________________.
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼 𝜇𝑜𝑁𝐼
a) 𝐵= b) 𝐵 = 0 c) 𝐵 = d) None of these
2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
xiv. If Amperian loop is outside the core of toroid then_______________.
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼 𝜇𝑜𝑁𝐼
a) 𝐵= b) 𝐵 = c) 𝐵 = 0d) None of these
2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
xv. The value of B is non-uniform within the toroidal coil, because;
a) Magnetic field “B” varies as the inverse or radius ( B∝1/r)
b) Magnetic field “B” is directly proportional to radius

I
c) Magnetic field does not depend on radius
d) None of these

-I
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
C A C A B B A B A C B B A C A
Questions From Past Papers:
i. State and explain Ampere’s circular law. (1994)
ii.

iii.
iv.
v.
solenoid. S
Derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction “B” due to the current passing through a

State and explain Ampere’s law to find the value of “B”.

(1994)
(1996)
Apply Ampere’s law to find magnetic field of induction inside a long solenoid. (1996)
State and explain Ampere’s circular law. Derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction “B” due
to the current passing through a solenoid. (1998)
S
vi. Write short note on the following: Ampere’s circular law. (2000)
vii. State Ampere’s law.Derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction “B” due to the current in a
long solenoid. (2002)Pre Med
viii. State Ampere’s circular law. Derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction inside a current
carrying a solenoid. (2002)Pre Eng
P

ix. Define: Ampere’s circular law. (2003)Pre Eng

x. Derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction inside a carrying a solenoid with the help of
Ampere’s law. Draw also a neat diagram. (2006)
xi. State Ampere’s law.Derive an expression for the magnetic strength “B” of a toroid. (2008)
xii. State Ampere’s circular law. Apply it to determine the magnetic induction “B” in a solenoid due to cu rrent
U

in it. (2009)
xiii. State Ampere’s law.Derive an expression for the magnetic field of a long solenoid. (2010)
xiv. State Ampere’s law.Derive the expression for the magnetic field of induction inside a long solenoid.
(2013)
xv. State Ampere’s law. Using it, derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction inside a long
current-carrying solenoid. (2015)
xvi. State ampere’s law use it to derive the relation for the magnetic field of induction B at any point
inside a current carrying toroid. (2017)
xvii. State Ampere’s law. Derive the expression for magnetic field of induction B inside a current
carrying solenoid. (2019)

Page 145 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Numericals From Past Papers:
i. A toroidal coil has 300 turns and its mean radius is 12cm. calculate the magnetic field of induction “B”
inside the coil when a current of 5 amperes passes through it. (1985) Ans: 2.5x10 -3 Wb/m2
ii. A solenoid of diameter 5.0cm is 25cm long and has 25 turns. If the current flowing in it is 5 amperes. Find
“B” inside the solenoid. (1988) Ans: 6.28x10 -4 web/m2
iii. Find the current required to produce a field of induction B=2.51x10 -3 web/m2 in a 50cm long solenoid
having 4000 turns of wire. (1990) Ans: 0.25A
iv. A current of 2 amperes is passing through a solenoid. If the solenoid has 24 turns per cm of its length. Find
the value of “B”. (1992) Ans: 6.03x10 -3 web/m2
v. A solenoid 25cm long has a cross section of 5 square cm with 250 numbers of turns on it. If a current is 5
ampere is passed through it. Find “B” in it. (1994) Ans: 6.28x10 -3 web/m2

I
vi. A solenoid 20cm long has three layers of winding of 300 turns each. If a current of 3 amperes is passed
through it. Find the value of the magnetic field of induction. (1998) Ans: 0.016web/m2
vii. A long solenoid is wound with 10 turns per cm and carries a current of 10 amperes. Fin d the magnetic flux

-I
density within it. (2002)Pre Med Ans: 0.0125web/m2
viii. A long solenoid is wound with 35 turns in 10cm, and carries a current of 10A. Find the magnetic field in it.
(2006) Ans: 4.3x10 -3 wb/m2
ix. Find the current required to produce a field of induction B=2.512x10 -3 T in a 50cm long solenoid having
4000 turns of wire. (𝜇 o=4πx10 -7 Wb/A-m).
x.

xi.
toroid. (𝜇 o=4πx10 -7 Wb/A-m).
S
4000 turns of wire. (𝜇 o=4πx10 -7 Wb/A-m).
(2010) Ans: 0.785A
The inner and the outer diameters of a toroid are 22cm and 26cm. If a current of 5.0 amp is passed which
produces 0.025 Tesla flux density inside the core. Find the approximate length of the wire wound on the
(2011) Ans:188.5m
Find the current required to produce a field of induction B=2.512x10 -3 T in a 50cm long solenoid having
(2012) Ans: 0.785
S
xii. A current of 6.25 amperes is maintained in a long straight conductor by a source. Calculate the
force per metre on a similar parallel conductor in air at a distance of 0.5m from the first and
𝑇.𝑚
carrying a current of 2 amperes. (𝜇 𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 ) (2018) Ans: 5x10-6 N
𝐴
P

Numericals Form Book:

i. It is required to produce inside a toroid a field of 2x10 -3 webers.m-2 . The toroid has a radius of 15cm and
300 turns. Find the current required for this purpose. If toroid is wound on an iron core of permeability
300 times the permeability of free space what increase in “B” will occur for the same current.
Ans: 5 amp, 300 times
U

ii. An iron core solenoid with 400 turns has a cross section area of 4.0cm 2 . A current of 2 amp passing
through it produced B=0.5webers -m2 . How large an emf is induced in it. If the current is turned off in 0.1
seconds. What is the self inductance of the solenoid? Ans: 0.8V, L=40mh
iii. There is a current of 25A in a long straight wire. What is the flux density at a point 3cm from the wire.
Ans: 1.05x10 -3 T
iv. A toroid has 3000 turns. The inner and outer diameter are 22cm and 26cm. calculate flux density inside
the core when there is a current of 5.0 amp. Ans: 0.025T

Assignment # 14.3
i. State and explain Ampere’s law to find the value of “B”.

Page 146 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ii. By applying Ampere’s law derive an expression for the magnetic field of induction “B” due to the current
passing through a: a) Solenoid b) Toroid
iii. Compute the value of B in air at a point 5cm from a long straight wire carrying a current of 15A.
Ans: 6x10 -5 T
iv. An air-core solenoid with 2000 loops is 60cm long and has a diameter of 2cm. If a current of 5A is sent
through it, what will be the flux density within it? Ans: 0.021T
v. A uniformly wound air-core toroid has 750 loops on it. The radius of the circle through the center of its
windings is 5cm. What current in the winding will produce a field of 1.8mT on this central circle? Ans:
0.6A
vi. The inner and outer radii of a toroid are 10cm and 12cm. If a current of 4.5A is passed which produces
0.025T magnetic field inside the core. Find the approximate length of the wire wound on the toroid. Ans:

I
Ex # 14.4
Exercise based on Faraday’s law, Mutual induction, Self induction &

-I
Motional EMF:
MCQs
i. Electric current can be produced by changing magnetic field. This phenomenon is

ii.
called_________________.
a) Electromagnetic induction
these
S b) Magnetic induction c) Induction

The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was discovered by________________.

a) Oersted b) Faraday c) Ampere’s d) Both A & B
d) None of
S
iii. Induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux through a loop of wire is
called______________.
a) Faraday’s law b) Lenz’s law c) Gauss’s law d) None of these
iv. Mathematical expression for faradays law is given by_______________.
∆𝜑 ∆𝜑
a) 𝜉= b) 𝜉 = −𝑁 c) 𝜉 = −𝑁∆𝜑d) None of these
P

∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
v. The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the causes which produced is known
as______________.
a) Faraday’s law b) Lenz’s law c) Gauss’s law d) None of these
vi. When e.m.f induced across the conductor the current generated is called:
a) Alternating current b) Induce EMF c) Induced current d) None of these
U

vii. The process in which a change of current in one coil causes an induced e.m.f in another coil nearby it is
called____________.
a) Self induction b) Mutual induction c) Mutual EMF d) None of these
viii. If the current in the primary coil is changed by varying the resistance of the rheostat the magnetic flux
will____________.
a) Remain same b) Change c) Zero d) None of these
ix. Induced e.m.f in the secondary coil is directly proportional to________________.
a) Rate of change of current in the secondary coil
b) Rate of change of current in the primary coil
c) Rate of change of e.m.f in the primary coil
d) None of these

Page 147 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 x. The ratio of induced e.m.f in secondary to the rate of change of current in the primary is
called_______________.
a) Self inductance b) Mutual inductance c) Induced current d) None of these
xi. Mathematical expression for mutual inductance is given by________________.
𝜉𝑠 ∆𝐼𝑝 ∆𝜑𝑠
a) 𝑀=− ∆𝐼 b) 𝑀 = − ( ) 𝜉𝑠 c) 𝑀 = d) None of these
( 𝑝) ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑡

xii. The SI unit of mutual inductance is_______________.

a) Weber b) Henry c) Tesla d) None of these
xiii. The mutual inductance of the pair of coils in which a rate of change of current one ampere per second in
the primary coil causes an induced e.m.f of one volt in the secondary coil is equal to____________.
a) One Henry b) One Ampere c) One Volt d) None of these
xiv. The phenomenon of producing e.m.f in the coil due to change of current in the coil itself is

I
called_______________.
a) Self induction b) Mutual induction c) Self flux change d) None of these

-I
xv. The SI unit of self inductance is________________.
a) Weber b) Tesla c) Henry d) None of these
xvi. The ratio of self induced e.m.f to the rate of change of current in coil itself called:
a) Self inductance b) Mutual inductance c) Induction current d) None of these
xvii. Mathematical expression for self induction is_____________.

xviii.
a) 𝐿=−
𝜉
∆𝐼
( )
∆𝑡
b) −
𝜉
∆𝐼 S
Self inductance of the coil depends upon______________.
a) Number of turns of the coil
these
∆𝐼
c) − ( ) 𝜉d) None of these
∆𝑡

b) Cross -sectional area of the coil c) Both d) None of

S
xix. An e.m.f setup across a conductor when it moves across magnetic field is called:
a) Potential difference b) Motional EMF c) EMF d) None of these
xx. The motional e.m.f developed in the conductor of length “L” when it moves in a magnetic field with a
velocity “V” in the magnetic field strength “B”:
a) 𝜉 = 𝑉𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 b) 𝜉 = 𝑉𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 c) 𝜉 = 𝑉𝐵𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 d) None of these
P

xxi. The motional e.m.f developed in the conductor when it moves in a magnetic field perpendicular to “B” is
given by___________.
a) 𝜉 = 𝑉𝐵 b) 𝜉 = 𝑉𝐵𝐿 c) 𝜉 = 𝑉𝐿d) None of these
xxii. The motional e.m.f develops in the conductor because:
a) Due to magnetic force on each electron it transfers from one end to the other end of the
conductor
U

b) Due to motion of electric field

c) Due to motion of magnetic field
d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
A B A B B C B B B B A B A A C
xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii.
A A C B A B A

Page 148 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Questions From Past Papers:
i. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. What is Lenz’s law? How is it related to electromagnetic
induction. (1993)
ii. What is motional EMF? Derive an expression for the motional EMF by moving a good conductor
perpendicular to the magnetic field. Also derive the result of the faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. (1993)
iii. What is electromagnetic induction? Describe faraday’s law and Lenz’s law. (1996)
iv. Define coefficient of mutual induction with the help of labeled diagram. Describe the expression for the
mutual induction of the pair of coils placed very closed to each other. (1996)
v. Write a short note on: Motional EMF. (1997)
vi. Write a short note on: Mutual induction. (1998)

I
vii. What is electromagnetic induction? Describe faraday’s law and Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.
(1999)
viii. Write a short note on: Self induction & Mutual induction (2000)

-I
ix. Explain the phenomenon of mutual induction and obtain an expression for mutual inductance of two
coils. (2001)
x. What is induced EMF? State the faraday’s law and Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.
(2002)Pre Eng
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
S
Define the following: a) Self induction b) Mutual induction.
What is motional EMF? Derive its expressions?
(2002)Pre Eng
(2003)Pre Med
What are laws of electromagnetic induction? Derive a relation for Mutual induction. (2004)
What is motional EMF? Derive an expressions for it. (2007)
State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Explain the phenomenon of mutual induction or self
induction. (2007)
S
xvi. State the following laws: a) Ampere’s law b) Lenz’s law c) Biot & Savart law (2007)
xvii. Describe the phenomenon of self induction and define self induction of a coil. Give its unit.
(2009)
xviii. State Ampere’s law and explain the phenomenon of mutual induction. (2011)
xix. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Explain the phenomenon of mutual induction, & derive
P

an expression for mutual inductance of two coils, also give its unit. (2012)
xx. In what way is the motional EMF, produced in a conductor placed in a magnetic field, translated into the
relevant mathematical relation? (2012)
xxi. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Explain the phenomenon of mutual induction, & derive
an expression for coefficient of mutual inductance. (2014)
U

xxii. Define motional EMF and derive the relevant formula. (2014)
xxiii. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Explain Mutual induction and derive an expression for
mutual inductance. (2016)
Numericals From Past Papers:
i. Current of 2 amperes passes through an inductive circuit. What is the self inductance of the circuit if the
current falls to zero in 0.1 second? The average value of induced EMF is 20 volts.
(1985) Ans: 1.0 Henry
ii. A train is moving directly towards south with a uniform speed of 10m/s, if the vertical component of th e
earth’s magnetic field of induction is 5.4x10 -5 Tesla. Compute the EMF induced in the axle 1.2m long.
(1986) Ans: 6.48x10 -4 Volts

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 iii. A coil having an area of cross section 0.05m2 and number of turns 100 i s placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field of induction 0.08weber/m2 . How much EMF will be induced in it if the field is reduced to
0.02weber/m2 in 0.01seconds? (1993) Ans: 30Volts
iv. An aero plane is flying in a region where the vertical component of ear th’s magnetic field is 3.2x10 -4 T. If
the wingspan of the aero plan is 50m and its velocity is 360km/h. find the potential difference between
the tips of the wing of aero plane. (1996) Ans: 1.6V
v. What will be the mutual inductance of two coils when the change of current of a 3 amperes in one coil
produces the change of flux of 6x10 -4 Weber in the second coil having 2000 turns?
(2001) Ans: 0.4H
vi. An EMF of 45mili-volts is induced in a coil of 500 turns, when the current in a neighboring coil changes
from 10 amperes to 14 amperes in 0.2 seconds.
a) What is the mutual inductance of the coils?

I
b) What is the rate of change of flux in the second coil? (2002)Pre Eng Ans:
-3 -5
2.25x10 H, 9x10 Web/sec

-I
vii. The current of coil of 325 turns is changed from zero to 6.32 amperes thereby producing a flux of 8.46x10 -
4 Webers. What is the self induction of the coil? (2003)Pre Med Ans: 0.0432H
viii. The current of coil of 500 turns is changed from zero to 5.43 amps. Thereby producing a flux of 8.46x10 -
4 Webers. What is the self induction of the coil? (2004) Ans: 0.07845H

ix. An aero plane is flying in a region where the vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is 3.2x10 -4 T. If

x.
the tips of the wing of aero plane.
S
the wingspan of the aero plan is 50m and its velocity is 360km/h. find the potential difference between
(2007) Ans: 1.6V
A pair of adjacent coil has a mutual inductance of 850mH. If the current in the primary coil changes from 0
to 20A in 0.1sec. what is the change in the magnetic flux in the secondary coil of 800 turns?
(2009) Ans: 2.12x10 -2 Webers
S
xi. An iron core of solenoid with 500 turns has a cross section of 5cm 2 . A current of 2.3 ampere passing
through it produces flux density of B=0.53 Tesla. How large an EMF is induced in it, if the current is turned
off in 0.1 second? What is the self inductance of the solenoid?
(2014) Ans: 1.325V, 0.0576H
xii. An e.m.f of 45milivolts is induced in a coil of 500 turns. When the current in a neighboring coil changes
P

from 15 amps to 4 amps in 0.2 sec, a) what is the mutual inductance of the coils? B) what is the rate of
change of flux in the second coil?(2015) Ans: 8.18x10 -4 H, 9x10 -5 web/s
xiii. An iron core of solenoid with 600 turns has a cross section of 2.0cm2 . A current of 4.0 ampere passing
through it produces B=0.4 web/m2 . What emf is produced in it, if the current is turned off in 0.2 second?
What is its self-inductance? (2016) Ans: 0.24V, 0.012H
U

Numericals From Book:

i. What is the mutual inductance of a pair of coil if a current change of 6 amps in one coil causes the flux in
the second coil of 2000 turns to change by 12x10 -4 weber-m2 . Ans: 400mH
ii. An EMF of 45 m.volt is induced in a coil of 500 turns. When the current in a neighboring coil changes from
10amps to 4amps in 0.2 seconds.
a) What is the mutual induction of the coil?
b) What is the rate of change of flux in the second coil? Ans: 2.25x10 -3 H, 9x10 -5 Weber.s -1
iii. The current in a coil of 325 turns is changed from zero to 6.32 amperes thereby producing a flux of
8.46x10 -4 Webers. What is the self induction of the coil? Ans: 43.5mH
iv. A coil of 600 turns is threaded by a flux of 8x10 -5 webers. If this flux is reduced to 3x10 -5 webers in
0.015s. What is the average induced EMF? Ans: -2.0 Volts

Page 150 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 v. A pair of adjacent coil has a mutual inductance of 1.5mH. If the current in the primary changes from 0 to
20 ampere in 0.050 sec. what is the average induced EMF in the secondary? If the secondary has 800
turns. What is the change of flux in it? Ans:3.75x10 -5 w
vi. A circuit in which there is a current of 5amp is changed so that the current falls to zero in 0.1 sec. if an
average EMF of 200 volts is induced. What is the self inductance of the circuit.
Ans: 4 Henry
vii. The flux density “B” in a region is 0.5weber/m 2 directed vertically upwards. Find the EMF induced in a
straight wire 5cm long perpendicular to “B” when it is moved across the field in a direction at an angle of
60 o with the horizontal with a speed of 100cm.s -1 . Ans: 2.165V

Assignment # 14.4

I
i. State faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s law.
ii. Write short note on:
a) Self-induction

-I
b) Mutual induction
c) Motional EMF
iii. A solenoid is 40cm long, has cross -sectional area 8cm2 , and is wound with 300 turns of wire that carry a
current of 1.2A. The relative permeability of its iron core is 600. Compute.

iv.

v.
S
a) B for an interior point and b) The flux through the solenoid. Ans: 0.68T, 54 𝜇wb
A coil of 50 loops is pulled in 0.020 sec from between the poles of a magnet, where its area intercepts a
flux of 3.1x10 -4 wb, to a place where the intercepted flux is 0.10x10 -4 wb determine the average EMF
induced in the coil. Ans: 0.75V
A copper bar 30cm long is perpendicular to a field of 0.80wb/m2 and moves at right angle to the field with
S
a speed of 0.50m/s. Determine the EMF induced in the bar. Ans: 0.12V
vi. A steady current of 2A in a coil of 4000 turns causes a flux of 10 -4 wb to link (pass through) the loops of the
coil. Compute i) The average back EMF induced in the coil if the current is stopped in 0.08sec ii) The
inductance of the coil. Ans: 0.5V, 0.02H
vii. When the current in a certain coil is changing at a rate of 3A/s, it is found that an EMF of 7mV is induced
in a nearby coil. What is the mutual inductance of the combination? Ans: 2.3mH
P

viii. Two coils are wound on the same iron rod so that the flux generated by one passes through the other
also. The primary coil has Np loops and when a current of 2A flows through it, the flux in it is 2.5x10 -4 wb.
Determine the mutual inductance of the two coils if the secondary coil has N s loops. Ans: 1.3x10 -4 Ns H
ix. The mutual inductance between the primary and secondary of a transformer is 0.30H. Compute the
induced EMF in the secondary when the primary current changes at the rate of 4A/s. Ans: 1.2V
U

Ex # 14.5
Exercise based on A.C Generator & Transformer:
MCQs
i. A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa is called:
a) Electric device b) Mechanical device c) Electromechanical device d) None of
these
ii. A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is______________.
a) Electric motor b) A.C generator c) D.C generator d) None of these
iii. Generator converts mechanical energy into______________.

Page 151 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Heat energy b) Electrical energy c) K.E d) None of these
iv. When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an emf of alternating nature is induced in it. This the principle
of_____________.
a) A.C generator b) D.C generator c) Electric motor d) None of these
v. In A.C generator a coil of insulated wire wound on a soft iron c ylinder is called:
a) Brush b) Slip ring c) Armature d) None of these
vi. When the plane of rotating coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, then the e.m.f induced in it
is______________.
a) Zero b) Maximum c) Negative d) None of these
vii. When the velocity of longer side is perpendicular to magnetic field then the induce e.m.f
is________________.
a) Zero b) Maximum c) Negative d) None of these

I
viii. A device which is used for changing A.C voltages is called____________.
a) Capacitor b) Inductor c) Transformer d) None of these

-I
ix. A transformer is based on the principle of_______________.
a) Self induction b) Magnetic induction c) Mutual induction d) None of these
x. Transformer are used in circuits containing____________.
a) A.C alone b) D.C alone c) Both d) None of these
xi. A transformer consist of an iron core with_____________.

xii.

xiii.
a) Primary coil

b) Hard steel
S
b) Secondary coil c) Both
The best material for the core of transformer is_______________.
a) Stainless steel c) Soft iron
Soft iron core is used in a transformer to______________.
a) Decrease the magnetic flux
d) None of these

d) None of these

b) Increase the magnetic flux c) Both d) None of these

S
xiv. The transformer equation is given by_____________.
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
a) = b) = c) = 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑠d) None of these
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝

xv. If the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than the primary coil (𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝 ) the transformer is
called_____________.
P

a) Step-up b) Step-down c) Both d) None of these

xvi. If the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the primary coil (𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝) the transformer is
called_____________.
b) Step-up b) Step-down c) Both d) None of these
xvii. The efficiency of a transformer is given by_______________.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
U

a) 𝜂= × 100% b) 𝜂 = × 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
c) 𝜂 = × 100% d) None of these
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
xviii. The current in primary “𝐼𝑝” and the current in the secondary “𝐼𝑠 ” are_____________.
a) Inversely proportional to respective voltage
b) Directly proportional to voltages
c) They are proportional to voltages
d) None of these
xix. The relation between the current and voltage of the primary and the secondary is given
by______________.
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝
a) = b) = c) = d) None of these
𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠

Page 152 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.
C A B A C A B C C A C C A B A
xvi. xvii. xviii. xix.
B B A B
Questions From Past Papers:
i. Explain the principle, construction and working of an AC generator. Draw a neat schematic diagram.
(1998)
ii. Write a short note on Transformer. (1998)
iii. Describe the principle, construction and working of transformer and draw a neat schematic diagram.
(1999)
iv. Describe the principle, construction and working of transformer. Derive the relevant mathematical

I
relation among the number of turns, voltages and currents. (2002)Pre Med
v. Describe the principle, construction a nd working of transformer. State the mathematical relations.
(2003)Pre Eng

-I
vi. Describe with neat diagram the working of an alternating current generator. (2004)
vii. What is a transformer? On what principle does it work? What is the difference between step -up and step-
down transformer? Why is a soft iron core used in a transformer? (2005)
viii. Describe with neat diagram the construction and working of transfor mer. Give the relevant expressions.

ix.

x.
xi.
(2008)
S
What is difference between magneto and AC generator? What is meant by frequency of alternating
current?
What is transformer? Name its components and describe its working.
(2010)
(2011)
What is transformer? Write its types with the help of a clear diagram, give its construction and working
and derive relevant expression. (2016)
S
xii. Name the device used to increase or decrease output A.C. voltage. Describe any two factors
affecting its efficiency. (2019)

Numerical From Past Papers:

P

i. A transformer has 1000 turns in its primary coil. If the input voltage of the transformer is 200 volts, what
should be the number of turns of the secondary coil to obtain an output of 6.0 volts?
(1992) Ans: 30turns
ii. A 500 turns coil in AC generator having an area of 1000cm 2 rotates in a magnetic field of value 50 Tesla. In
order to generate 220 volts maximum, how fast is the coil to be rotated? Express your answer in terms of
U

the number of revolutions per second. (1998) Ans: 0.088rad/sec, 0.014rev/s

iii. A transformer has 1000 turns in the primary coil. If the input voltage of the transformer is 200 volts, what
should be the number of turns of the secondary coil to obtain an output of 6.0 volts?
(1999) Ans: 30turns
iv. A step-down transformer having 4000 turns in primary is used to convert 4400 volts to 220 volts. The
efficiency of the transformer is 90% and 9Kwatt output is required. Determine the input power, the
number of turns in the secondary coil and the current in the primary and secondary coils? (2005)
Ans: 10000W, 200turns, 2.23A, 40.9A
v. A step-down transformer reduces 1100V to 220V. the power output is 12.5KW and overall efficiency of
the transformer is 90%. The primary winding has 1000 turns. How many turns do the secondary have?
What is the power input? What is the current in each coil? (2008) Ans: 200turns,
13.8x103Watt, 12.6, 56.81A

Page 153 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 vi. An alternating current generator operating at 50Hz has a coil of 200 turns, while the coil has an area of
120cm2 . Calculate the magnetic field intensity applied to rotate the coil to produce the maximum voltage
of 240. (2011) Ans: 0.31831T
vii. An alternating current generator operates in at 70Hz the area of coil is 500cm 2 . Calculate the number of
turns in the coil when a magnetic field of induction 0.06 web/m2 produces a maximum potential
difference of 149V. (2013) Ans: 113 turns
viii. An alternating current generator operates at 70Hz. the area of coil is 500cm 2. Calculate the
number of turns in the coil when a magnetic field of induction 0.06 tesla produces a maximum
potential differences of 149volts. (2017) Ans: 113 turns
ix. A coil of 400 turns in ac generator having an area of 0.1m 2 is rotating in a magnetic field of 50T
in order to generate a maximum voltage of 220 volts, how fast if the coil to be rotated? Express

I
your answer in revolution/second. (2019)

Numericals From Book:

-I
i. A 100 turns coil in a generator has an area of 500cm 2 rotates in field with B=0.06weber.m-2 . How fast
must the coil rotated in order to generate a maximum voltage of 150 volts?
Ans: 500rad/s
ii. A step down transformer at the end of a transmission line reduces the voltage from 2400 volts to 1200

iii.
S
volts. The power output is 9.0KW and overall efficiency of the transformer is 95%. The primary winding
has 400 turns. How many turns has secondary coil? What is the power input. What is the current in each
of the coils? Ans: Ns =200, Pp=9473watt, I p=3.9 amps, I s =7.5 amps
The overall efficiency of transformer is 90%. The transformer is rated for an output of 12.5 KW. The
primary voltage is 1100 volts and the ratio of primary to secondary turns is 5:1. The iron losses at full load
S
are 700 watts. The primary coil has a resistance of 1.82ohms.
a) How much power is lost because of the resistance of the primary coils?
b) What is the resistance of the secondary coils? Ans: 290watt, 0.124ohm

Assignment # 14.5
P

i. Explain the principle, construction and working of i) AC generator ii) Transformer, also draw a neat
schematic diagram.
ii. A transformer used on a 120V line delivers 2A at 900V. What current is drawn from the line? Ans: 15A
iii. A step-down transformer operates on 2.5KV line and supplies a load with 80A. The rate of the primary
winding to the secondary winding is 20:1. Assuming 100% efficiency, determine the secondary voltage,
U

the primary current and the power output. Ans: 130V, 4A, 10Kw
iv. A step-down transformer is used on a 2.2KV line to deliver 110V. How many turns are on the primary
winding if the secondary has 25 turns? Ans: 500 turns
v. A 400 turns coil in AC generator having an area of 800cm2 , rotates in a magnetic field of value 45T. In
order to generate 220V maximum, how fast is the coil to be rotated? Express your answer in terms of the
number of revolutions per second. Ans:
vi. An alternating current generator operating at 75Hz, ha s a coil of 150 turns, while the coil has an area of
100cm2 . Calculate the “B” applied to rotate the coil to produce the maximum voltage of 200V. Ans:

Page 154 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)
(1999)
i. Which of the two charged particles of the same mass will be deflected most in a magnetic field?
a) Fast moving b) slow moving
(2001)
ii. The maximum magnetic force will act in a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field when it is placed:
a) At 60 o to field b) Parallel to the field c) Perpendicular to the field d) At an angle of
45 o to the field
iii. The current produced by moving the loop of a wire across the magnetic field is called.
a) Electric current b) A.C current c) D.C current d) Induced current
iv. The force experienced by a current-carrying conductor when it is placed in a magnetic field is.

I
a) 𝐹⃗ = 𝐼(𝑉⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) b) 𝐹⃗ = 𝐼(𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗) c) 𝐹⃗ = 𝐵⃗⃗ (𝐼 × 𝐿⃗⃗) d) None
v. The phenomenon of producing e.m.f in the coil due to the change of current in the coil itself is called.

-I
a) Mutual induction b) Self induction c) Magnetic flux d) None of the above
(2002)Pre Med
vi. A steady current passing through a conductor produces:
a) An electric field only
b) A magnetic field only

vii.
force experienced by the conductor is.
a) 𝐵𝐼𝐿 b) 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
S
c) Both electric and magnetic fields
d) Neither electric nor magnetic field
If a straight conductor of length “L” carrying a current “I” is placed parallel to a magnetic field “B” the

c) Zero d) Infinite
S
viii. When a charged particle enters a uniform magnetic field perpendicularly, its path is:
a) Spiral b) Circular c) Parabolic d) Straight line
(2002)Pre Eng
ix. Transformer works on:
a) Ohms law b) Self induction c) Mutual induction d) Gauss’s law
P

x. The deflection torque on a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field is maximum when the angle
between magnetic field and the plane of the coil is:
a) 0 o b) 90 o c) 60 o d) 45 o
(2003)Pre Eng
xi. The force acting on a charged particle projected into a magnetic field of induction B in maximum when
U

the angle between B and the velocity of the particle is:

a) 0 o b) 90 o c) 60 o d) 45 o
xii. A transformer is used to change:
a) Capacitance b) Frequency c) Voltage d) Power
(2003)Pre Med
xiii. One Tesla is equal to:
a) 1 Weber/metre2 b) 2 weber 2 /metre2 c) Weber/metre d)
Newton/ampere
xiv. An electric current through a conductor produces around it:
a) An electric field b) A magnetic field c) An electric and a magnetic field d) First a
magnetic field and then an electric field
xv. When the north pole of a bar magnet approaches the face of a closed coil the face becomes:

Page 155 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) South pole b) First north pole and then south pole c) North pole d) No effect is
observed
xvi. In step-down transformer:
a) Ns >Np b) Ns <Np c) Ns = Np
(2004)
xvii. The unit of magnetic flux is Weber. (True or False)
xviii. Ampere’s law can be used to find electric intensity. (True or False)
xix. Henry is the unit of mutual inductance. (True or False)
(2005)
xx. The direction of induction current is given by:
a) Ampere’s law b) Faraday’s law c) Lenz’s law d) Snell’s law
xxi. The path of a neutron moving normal to a magnetic field is a/an:

I
a) Straight line b) Circular c) Oval d) Sinusoidal
xxii. SI unit of induction is:

-I
a) Tesla b) Henry c) Watt d) Weber
xxiii. The force per unit length of a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field is given by:
a) 𝐼𝐵𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 b) 𝐼𝐵𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 c) 𝐼𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 d) 𝐼𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(2006)
xxiv. Which is not magnetic material?

xxv.

xxvi.
a) Iron
The SI unit of magnetic flux is:
a) Tesla
S
b) Nickel

b) Weber
c) Cobalt

c) Gauss
The path of a neutron moving normal to a magnetic field is:
a) A straight path b) A circular path c) An oval path d) A sinusoidal path
d) Silver

d) Ohm
S
(2007)
xxvii. A device which converts the electrical energy into mechanical energy is called:
a) Transformer b) Capacitor c) Galvanometer d) Electric motor
(2008)
xxviii. In a conventional transformer:
P

a) The current moves from primary to the secondary winding without any change
b) E.M.F is induced in the secondary by the changing magnetic flux
c) The heat is transferred from primary to secondary
d) None of the above
xxix. A charged particle moving in the magnetic field B experiences a resultant force:
U

a) Proportional to the kinetic energy

b) In the direction of the field
c) In the direction perpendicular to its motion and field
d) None of these
(2009)
xxx. Which one is not a unit of magnetic flux density?
a) NA-1 b) Wb/m2 c) Tesla d) VA-1 S
xxxi. When an A.C generator is converted into a D.C generator, slip rings are replaced by:
a) A dynamo b) A split ring c) A field coil d) An inductor
xxxii. The practical application of the phenomenon of mutual inductance is:
a) A.C generator b) Transformer c) Rectifier d) Dynamo
(2010)

Page 156 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xxxiii. The e.m.f induced in a coil is independent of:
a) Change of flux b) Number of turns c) Time d) Resistance
xxxiv. Transformers are used in circuits containing:
a) D.C alone b) A.C alone c) Both A.C and D.C d) Non -inductive winding
(2011)
xxxv. The core of a transformer is laminated to reduce the loss of energy caused by:
a) NA∅ b) heating c) Eddy current d) All of these
xxxvi. Two free parallel wires carrying current in the opposite direction:
a) Do not affect each other b) Attract each other c) Repel each other d) None of these
xxxvii. If the number of turns in a coil is doubled, its self inductance will be:
a) Doubled b) Halved c) The same d) Four fold
(2012)

I
xxxviii. The practical application of phenomenon of mutual inductance is:
a) A.C generator b) Transformer c) rectifier d) Dynamo

-I
xxxix. An electric current on passing through a conductor, produces around it:
a) An electric field b) A magnetic field c) Both electric and magnetic field d) First a
magnetic then an electric field
(2013)
xl. The practical application of phenomenon of mutual inductance is:

xli.

xlii.
b) A.C generator

a) An inductor
S
b) Transformer
The direction of induced current is given by:
a) Ohm’s law b) Lenz’s law

b) A field coil
c) rectifier d) Dynamo

c) Coulomb’s law d) Ampere’s law

When an AC generator is converted into DC generator the slip ring is replaced by:
c) A split ring d) A dynamo
S
(2014)
xliii. When an AC generator is converted into DC generator the slip ring is replaced by:
a) A dynamo b) A split ring c) A field coil d) A inductor
xliv. The path of a neutron, moving perpendicular through a magnetic field is:
a) Straight line b) Circular c) Oval d) Sinusoidal
P

(2015)
xlv. If the number of turns in a coil is doubled, its self-inductance will became:
a) halved b) Doubled c) Threefold d) Fourfold
xlvi. when an electron moves in a magnetic field (B) with a velocity (V), the magnetic force acting on it is
perpendicular to:
U

a) V and not on B b) B but not on V c) Neither V nor B d) Both V and B

(2016)

xlvii. The device converts electrical energy into mechanical energy:

a) Generator b) transformer c) electric motor d) transistor
xlviii. The force experience by a current carrying conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field:
a) 𝐹⃑ = 𝐼(𝐿⃗⃑ × 𝐵
⃗⃑) b) 𝐹⃑ = 𝐿(𝑉⃗⃑ × 𝐵
⃗⃑) c) 𝐹⃑ = 𝐼 (𝑉⃗⃑ × 𝐵
⃗⃑) d) 𝐹⃑ = 𝐼(𝐸⃗⃑ × 𝐵
⃗⃑)
(2017)
xlix. If the conventional electric current is flowing from top to bottom in a wire then the direction of
the magnetic lines of induction will be:

a) Anticlock wise b) parallel to the wire c) antiparallel d) clockwise

Page 157 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

l. If the speed of a conductor, moving in a uniform magnetic field perpendicularly is increased, the
induced emf:

a) Increases b) decreases c) remains constant d) becomes zero

(2018)
li. The practical application of the phenomenon of mutual induction is:

a) AC generator b) Transformer c) Rectifier d) Dynamo

lii. Tesla (T) is equal to:

a) Newton x coulomb b) newton x ampere c) newton/ampere x meter

I
d) newton x meter/ampere

(2019)

-I
liii. Non-inductive coil in a resistance box is used to minimize:
a) Eddy current b) Beat loss c) Mutual induction d) Self induction
liv. The path of neutron, moving perpendicularly through a uniform magnetic field is:
a) A straight line b) circular c) oval d) sinusoidal

A
i.

xvi.
B
C
ii. iii.
D
xvii. xviii.
TRUE FALSE TRUE
iv.
B
xix.
B
v.

xx.
C
vi.
B
S
vii. viii.
C B
ix.
C
xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv.
A A C
A

D
x.
B
xi.

xxv.
B
xii. xiii. xiv.
C

A
A

D
B
xxvi. xxvii. xxviii.
B C
xv.
A
xxix.
S
xxx. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xli. xlii. xliii. xliv.
A B B D B D C A B B B B C B A
xlv. xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix l li lii liii. liv.
B D C A D A B C D A
P
U

Page 158 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Electrical
Measuring Instruments

It is an electromechanical instrument used for detecting or measuring a very small amount of

electrical current in a given circuit.
A Galvanometer is sub-divided into two types:
Moving Coil Galvanometer:

I
Principle:
In this type, a rectangular coil is rotated

-I
inside a radial field of induction whereas;
magnetic poles are set at rest. Example:
D’Arsonval Galvanometer and Weston
Galvanometer.
Moving Magnet Galvanometer:
Principle:
In this type, movement of magnetic poles
(in form of needle) is rotated on a dial
S
S
whereas; coils are set at rest.
Example: Tangent Galvanometer.
Construction of Moving Coil
Galvanometer:
P

The main parts of moving coil

galvanometer are discussed below:
i. Magnetic poles:
Concave type pole pieces of
U

powerful horse shoe magnet are

fixed to obtain strong magnetic field.
ii. Soft Iron Cylinder:
A soft iron cylinder is set between pole pieces to provide radial magnetic field to the
rotating coil.( Radial field is a field in which the plane of rotating coil is always parallel to
the magnetic field). It is placed inside the coil, but could not move as the coil is rotated,
such that the coil can rotate freely about the cylinder without touching it.
iii. Rectangular Coil: A number of turns of insulated copper wire are wound on a
rectangular ivory frame inform of a rectangular coil. The ends of copper wire are

Page 159 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 connected with meter movement and spiral spring separately. A thin bronze strip is
connected with each ends of wire, acted as input and output lead to the flowing current.
iv. Meter Movement:
It consists of a very light pointer and a dial. When rectangular coil is rotated in presence
of couple of magnetic induction, the pointer rotates on dial and hence flow of current is
detected.
v. Spiral Spring:
A soft helical spring is connected with the end of coil which is used to restore the
pointer to its initial position when the current is cut off.
Theory of Moving Coil Galvanometer:
To study the theory of moving coil galvanometer, let us consider a rectangular coil inside a

I
radial field of induction, 𝐵 ⃗ which remains parallel to the plane of coil. I
Assume that:

-I
Turns = N
i. The length of coil = L
𝐵⃗
ii. The breadth of coil = b
iii. The area of plane of coil = A = Lb I
iv. The total number of turns in coil = N I

vi.
vii.
S
v. The strength of current passes through the coil = I
The strength of magnetic field = B
The magnitude of deflecting torque on coil due to
couple of induction = BINA Cos𝛼.
L

b
I
S
viii. The magnitude of restoring torque on coil due to
elasticity of helical spring = C𝜃.
Where “c” is the constant of proportionality, called “Couple per unit angul ar twist of the
suspension wire”.(As the coil rotates under the action of deflecting torque, the suspension wire
P

is twisted and an opposing torque is developed which is called restoring torque. It depends upon
the deflecting angle of the coil.)
In case of a balanced galvanometer, the deflecting torque must be equal to the restoring
torque on the coil. Mathematically:
U

𝜏 (𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝜏 (𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐶𝜃 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑖)
In case of radial field, 𝛼=0 and thus cos 𝛼= cos0 = 1.
(i)=> 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 = 𝐶𝜃
𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴
= 𝜃
𝐶
𝐵𝑁𝐴
𝜃=( )𝐼
𝐶
𝜃 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝐼
𝜃∝𝐼

Page 160 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

This relation expresses theory of a moving coil Galvanometer which states, “The angular
twist(deflection) of a coil is directly proportional to the strength of current passes through the
turns of coil, provided geometric constants of coil and strength of magnetic field remains
same”.
Sensitivity of A Galvanometer:
In general, the amount of current per unit angular deflection shows current Sensitivity of a
moving coil galvanometer, it is symbolized by “η”. Mathematically;
𝐵𝑁𝐴
𝜃=( )𝐼
𝐶
𝜃 𝐵𝑁𝐴
=( )
𝐼 𝐶
𝐼 𝐶

I
=
𝜃 𝐵𝐴𝑁
𝐼 𝐶
𝜂 = ( )=

-I
𝜃 𝐵𝐴𝑁
In practice, A sensitive Galvanometer is one in which a small value of current produces large
𝐼
angular deflection i.e. for which “(𝜃 )” is small. For achieving this, either “C” should be made
small or (B,A,N) should be large.
S ⃗ ” up to a
In order to have a sensitive Galvanometer, we normally increase the strength of “𝐵
desirable value.
S
It is an electromechanical instrument used for measuring large current. It is symbolized by
A in electric circuits.
Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer Into An Ammeter:
A moving coil galvanometer of low resistance is used for measuring large magnitude of current.
P

For this, the resistance is decreased by shunting the coil with a very low resistance metallic
strip. Thus, most of the current passes through the shunt while only a limited and safe amount
of current goes through the coil which is, therefore, showed by a limited angular deflection.
In short, “A moving coil galvanometer with a parallel low resistance (shunt) is acted as an
U

Ammeter”. G G A
a I
a Ig b
b a I b
Ig
Is

To Determine Resistance of Shunt: Rs

For this, let us assume that:
i. The range of ammeter = I
ii. The strength of current passes through the coil of galvanometer = Ig
iii. The resistance of galvanometer = R g
Page 161 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 iv. The P.D across the galvanometer = V g = IgRg
v. The strength of current passes through the low resistor(shunt) = Is = (I-Ig)
vi. The resistance of shunt = R s =?
vii. The P.D across the shunt = Vs = Is Rs => Vs = (I-Ig)Rs
According to the characteristics of parallel combination of resistors,
Vs = Vg
Is Rs = IgRg
(I-Ig)Rs = IgRg
𝐼g 𝑅g
Rs =
(I−Ig )
This equation expresses theory of an ammeter. According to this theory, if range of ammeter,

I
resistance of coil and current through the coil of galvanometer are known, the resistance of
shunt can be determined.

-I
It is an electromechanical instrument used for measuring the potential difference between any

in electric circuits. S
two points in a given circuit through which a current is flowing. It is symbolized by

Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer Into A Voltmeter:

V
S
A moving coil galvanometer of very high resistance is used for measuring P.D. between two
points in an electrical circuit. For this, the resistance of coil of galvanometer is increased by
connecting a very high resistance in series with it. thus, most of the applied P.D is appeared
across the series resistor, while only a limited and safe P.D. appears across the coil of
galvanometer which is, therefore, showed by a limited angular deflection.
P

In short, “A moving coil galvanometer with a series high resistor is acted as Voltmeter”.

G V
a Ig a Ig Ig G b a Ig b
b
Rx
U

Vx Vg V

To Determine The Resistance of Series Resistor:

For this, let us assume that:
i. The range of voltmeter = V
ii. The strength of current passes though the coil of galvanometer = Ig
iii. The resistance of galvanometer = R g
iv. The P.D across the galvanometer = V g = IgRg
v. The strength of current passes through the series resistor = Ig
vi. The resistance of series resistor = R x = ?
Page 162 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 vii. The P.D across the series resistor = V x = IgRx
According to the characteristics of series combination of resistors,
V = Vg + Vx
V = IgRg + IgRx
V - IgRg = IgRx
𝑉 − 𝐼g 𝑅g
Rx =
𝐼g
𝑉 𝐼g 𝑅g
Rx = −
𝐼g 𝐼g
𝑉
Rx = 𝐼g
− 𝑅g

I
This equation expresses theory of a voltmeter. According to this theory, if range of voltmeter,

-I
resistance of coil and current through the coil of galvanometer are known, the series resistance
can be determined.

S
A most accurate method for determining an unknown resistance was proposed by Charles
Wheatstone in 1843. The electric circuit used for this purpose is often called, “Wheatstone
Bridge”.
Construction:
S
The Wheatstone bridge consists of four wires of resistance “R 1”, “R2”, “R3” and “R4” that are
stretched on a wooden bench inform of a quadrilateral loop, “ABCDA”. In this closed loop, the
terminal “A” and terminal “C” are connected with a key (K1) B
and battery of low P.D whereas; the terminal “B” and R1 R2
P

terminal “D” are connected with another key (K2) and I1

I1
a Galvanometer.
A G C
Balanced Wheatstone Bridge: I2 I2
If electric potential at terminal “B” and terminal K2
R3 R4
U

“D” is set at the same value i.e. VB = VD,

then no current will be passed through the coil D
of Galvanometer and thus pointer of
Galvanometer shows null deflection.
At this state, a Wheatstone Bridge is said to be “Balanced”. + -
Theory of Wheatstone Bridge: K1 V
At the state of balanced Wheatstone bridge, VB = VD, therefore;
∆𝑉(𝐴𝐵) = ∆𝑉(𝐴𝐷)
𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 --------------------(i)
Similarly,

Page 163 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ∆𝑉(𝐵𝐶 ) = ∆𝑉(𝐶𝐷)
𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4--------------------(ii)
Now dividing eq (i) by eq (ii)
𝐼1 𝑅1 𝐼2 𝑅3
=
𝐼1 𝑅2 𝐼2 𝑅4
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
This expression represents theory of a balanced Wheatstone Bridge. According to this
expression; if any three resistances of the bridge are known, then fourth unknown resistance
can be determined.

I
It is an electrical measuring instrument used to determine an unknown resistance after noting

-I
down lengths of wire and known resistance at balanced state of the circuit.
Principle:
It is based on Wheatstone Bridge principle.

S
The apparatus has unknown resistance “X” between point A and B, a known resistance “R” from
resistance box between points B and C, a high resistance wire of uniform thickness and 1m long
between points A and C, a galvanometer between points B and D with a jockey K2 and a cell
between point A and C with key K1.
Suppose no current passes through the galvanometer when key K2 is at point D. then R 1 = x, R2 =
S
R, R3 = 𝜌lx , R4 = 𝜌lR G
Where; 𝜌 = resistance per unit length of wire
x
∵𝑅 ∝𝐿 R
𝑅 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝐿 R.B
P

𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿
𝑅 B
𝜌=
𝐿 lx K2 lR
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿 A C
D
lx = length of wire on the side of unknown resistance X
U

lR = length of wire on the side of known resistance R

According to Wheatstone Bridge principle;
𝑅1 𝑅3
= K1 Cell
𝑅2 𝑅4

𝑋 𝜌 lx 𝑋 lx
= => =
𝑅 𝜌lR 𝑅 lR

lx
𝑋= ×𝑅
lR

Thus by measuring the length l x and lR the value of unknown resistance X can be calculated.

Page 164 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 i. What is the function of the concave pole pieces and the coaxial Soft-iron cylinder in
the moving coil galvanometer?
Ans: The concave magnetic poles provide magnetic field and the cylindrical core make
the magnetic field radial and stronger.
ii. Why is it necessary to have some form of controlling couple in the moving coil
galvanometer?
Ans: Controlling couple is necessary to control the motion of the coil. It is proportional
to the current to be measured. It is produced by using spring control method, which
consists of two hair springs attached to a spindle wound in the opposite directions. As

I
the coil rotates the spring wind up and produces a counter torque. The coil comes to
rest (the final deflection of the pointer is given) when the deflecting torque ( or

-I
magnetic torque) is counter balanced the controlling torque (or restoring torque).
iii. What is meant by sensitivity of a galvanometer? On what factors does it depend? How
can we have large sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer?
Ans: A galvanometer is sensitive if it gives large deflection for a very small current. The
S
sensitivity of a galvanometer is the current per unit angular deflection.
𝐼
i.e. 𝜂 = (𝜃 ) = 𝐵𝐴𝑁
𝐶

sensitivity depends on “C” (couple per unit twist), “N”(number of turns), “A” (area of
S
coil), “B” (strength of magnetic field).
For large sensitivity, a soft-iron core (sphere or cylinder) is placed inside the coil and the
poles are made circular or cylindrical. This makes “B” stronger and radial.
iv. Which galvanometer usually has greater sensitivity, aluminum pointer and scale or
lamp and scale type? Why?
P

Ans: Lamp and scale type galvanometer has greater sensitivity, because it gives large
deflection for a very small current.
v. We want to convert a galvanometer into a) an ammeter b) a voltmeter. What do we
need to do in each case?
U

Ans: a) To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, we connect a low resistance in

parallel (called Shunt). b) to convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, we connect a high
resistance in a series.
vi. Why is it necessary for an ammeter to have zero or negligibly small resistance?
Ans: Because large current can flow through the ammeter.
vii. What is necessary condition must a voltage measuring device satisfy?
Ans: A voltage measuring device must contain a very high (in fact, infinite) resistance, so
that it will, practically, draw no current form the circuit across which it is connected.

Page 165 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

viii. Why must an ammeter be connected to a circuit in series and a voltmeter in parallel.
Ans: An ammeter is a device of low resistance and it must be connected is series to
measure full scale deflection of the current passing through circuit. In this way we
observe the actual current passing through the circuit, whether if we connect in parall el
it will act like a shunt and we will not observe actual current through circuit.
In opposite, Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit or device for
which potential difference is required. If we connect the voltmeter in series (which not
so) then maximum potential drop will across its terminals due to high resistance and we
cannot observe actual potential difference of the circuit.
ix. An ammeter and voltmeter of just suitable ranges are to be used in a circuit. what
might happen if by mistake their positions are interchanged?

I
Ans: If, by mistake, an ammeter is connected in parallel to a circuit, it acts as a shunt
and it will not be damaged.

-I
When a voltmeter, by mistake, is connected in series to a circuit, its coil will be burnt out
due to heavy current, because of its extremely high resistance.
x. The terminals of ammeters are usually made of thick and bare wire while those of
voltmeters are quite thin and well insulated. Explain why?

S
Ans: An ammeter must have very low resistance. So its terminals should have almost
zero resistance. Hence its terminals must be made of thick, bare wire.
A voltmeter must have very high resistance. So its terminals should be thin and well
insulated to avoid sparking between the terminals.
S
xi. In a balanced wheat stone bridge, will the balance be affected if the position of the
cell and the galvanometer are interchanged?
Ans: No.
xii. In a slide wire bridge( metre bridge), is it absolutely necessary to have the bridge wire
one meter long?
P

Ans: No. The length of wire may be 1m.

xiii. A post office box is a compact wheat stone bridge. Then why is it so named?
Ans: A post office box is so named because it was originally used for measuring the
resistance of telegraphic wires and for fault-finding work in the post and telegraph
U

office.
xiv. Which is the more accurate instrument a metre bridge or a P.O. Box?
Ans: A P.O. Box is more accurate instrument then a metre bridge, because the higher
the value of the “ratio arm”, the greater the accuracy in the measurement of the
unknown resistance.

Page 166 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Ex # 15.1
MCQs based on Galvanometer:
i. Galvanometer is a/an ____________ instrument.
a) Electronic b) Mechanical c) Electromechanical d) None of these
ii. Galvanometer is sub-divided into____________ types.
a) Two b) Three c) Four d) None of thes e
iii. In moving magnet galvanometer _______________ are rotated on a dial.
a) Coil b) Magnetic pole c) Both d) None of these
iv. Galvanometer is an instrument used to measure_____________.
a) Resistance b) EMF c) Small current d) None of these

I
v. When current flow through the coil of a galvanometer it experiences___________.
a) Force due to electric field b) Electric force c) Couple d) None of these
vi. Usually internal resistance of galvanometer is_____________.

-I
a) High b) Very low c) Zero d) None of these
vii. A soft-iron cylinder is placed inside the coil of a galvanometer to make the magnetic
field:

viii. S
a) Stronger and radial b) Only stronger c) Only radial d) None of these
The current passing through the coil of a galvanometer is____________.
a) Inversely proportional to the angle of deflection
b) Directly proportional to the angle of deflection
c) Does not depend on angle of deflection
S
d) None of these
ix. The magnitude of deflection of coil decreases with time is called_____________.
a) Damping b) Sensitivity c) Resistance d) None of these
𝑐
x. The galvanometer can be made sensitive if the value of the factor is____________.
P

𝐵𝐴𝑁
a) Large b) Small c) Constant d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.
C A B C C A A B A B
U

MCQs based on Ammeter:

i. Ammeter is used to measure____________.
a) Small current b) Large current c) Voltage d) None of these
ii. Shunt resistance “R s ” is equal to____________.
𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
a) b) c) d) None of these
𝐼−𝐼𝑔 𝐼−𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔 −𝐼

iii. Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting___________________.

a) High resistance in series b) Low resistance in parallel
c) Low resistance is series d) None of these

Page 167 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iv. The low value of resistor which is connected parallel to convert the galvanometer into
an ammeter called________________.
a) Conductance b) Inductance c) Shunt d) None of these
v. A resistance of galvanometer is 6Ω, maximum current of 2A is measured by it. The
required resistance to convert into an ammeter reading up to 6A will be____________.
a) 4Ω b) 3Ω c) 6Ω d) None of these
vi. An ammeter is always connected:
a) In series with the circuit through which current is to measured
b) In parallel with the circuit through which current is to measured
c) In series with the circuit across which potential difference is to be measured
d) None of these

I
vii. A galvanometer has resistance 50 ohms and deflects full scale when a current of 10mA
flows on it. What shunt resistance is required to convert it into an ammeter of range

-I
10A.
a) 5Ω b) 0.05Ω c) 0.005Ω d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
B B B C B A B

i.

ii.
a) Current
S
MCQs based on Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is used to measure______________.
b) Potential difference c) Resistance d) None of these
For the conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter we connect a__________________.
S
a) Low resistance in series with galvanometer
b) High resistance in parallel with galvanometer
c) High resistance in series with galvanometer
d) None of these
iii. A resistance used in galvanometer to make it voltmeter is called______________.
P

a) Low resistance b) Multiplier c) both of these d) None of these

iv. A voltmeter is always connected in______________.
a) Series with circuit b) Parallel to circuit c) Both of these d) None of these
v. Which of the following must be high resistance instrument?
U

a) Ammeter b) Voltmeter c) Galvanometer d) None of these

vi. Mathematical expression for high resistance which is connected in series with
galvanometer is given by_____________.
𝑅𝑔 𝑉 𝐼
a) 𝑅𝑥 = −𝑉 b) 𝑅𝑥 = (𝐼 ) − 𝑅𝑔 c) 𝑅𝑥 = (𝑉𝑔 ) − 𝑅𝑔 d) None of these
𝐼𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

B C B B B B

Page 168 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 MCQs based on Wheatstone bridge:
i. Wheatstone bridge used to determine unknown_____________.
a) Capacitance b) Voltage c) Current d) None of these
ii. In using Wheatstone bridge the quantity which is to be balanced is______________.
a) Voltage b) Resistance c) Current d) None of these
iii. The condition under which no current will flow through the galvanometer is
called________________.
a) A balance condition b) Null point c) Both of these d) None of these
iv. Wheatstone bridge is balanced when_____________.
a) Current through galvanometer is maximum
b) P.D across galvanometer is maximum

I
c) P.D across the ends of galvanometer is zero
d) None of these

-I
v. Wheatstone bridge is balanced for which:
a) Current through the galvanometer may be zero
b) Current through the galvanometer must be zero
c) Resistance of galvanometer must be zero

vi.

i.
d) None of these

a) 𝑅3
= 𝑅2
ii.
4
b) 𝑅2
= 𝑅3
iii.
S
Under balanced condition the expression for Wheatstone bridge is given by:
𝑅1 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅
4
c)
𝑅2
𝑅1
= 𝑅4
iv.
𝑅
1
d) None of these
v. vi.
S
D A C C B B

MCQs based on Metre bridge:

i. A metre bridge is used to determine unknown__________________.
P

a) Resistance b) Current c) Voltage d) None of these

ii. A metre bridge is the instrument based on the principle of________________.
a) Potentiometer b) Wheatstone bridge c) P.O. Box d) None of these
iii. Metre bridge is also called____________.
U

a) Slide wire b) Wheatstone bridge c) Resistance bridge d) None of these

iv. The length of the wire of the metre bridge:
a) May be one metre b) Must be one metre c) Must be less than one metre
d) None of these
v. If the unknown resistance “X” is connected in one gap and the known resistance “R” is
connected in the other gap of the metre bridge then for balanced condition unknown
resistance is given by________________.
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
a) 𝑋 = 𝑅 (𝐿𝑥 ) b) 𝑋 = 𝑅 ( 𝐿𝑅 ) c) 𝑋 = 𝐿 𝑥 ( 𝑅𝑅) d) None of these
𝑅 𝑥

Page 169 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 i. ii. iii. iv. v.
A B A A A

MCQs based on Potentiometer:

i. Potentiometer is used to find out_____________.
a) Unknown resistance b) Unknown potential between points of a circuit
c) both unknown resistance and potential d) None of these
ii. The instrument used to compare the EMFs of two cells is called_______________.
a) Ohm meter b) Potentiometer c) Voltmeter d) None of these
iii. The length of the wire of potentiometer:
a) Must be one metre b) May be one metre c) May be 10 metre

I
d) None of these
iv. A potentiometer is a kind of _______________.

-I
a) Ammeter b) Voltmeter c) Ohm meter d) None of these
v. Under balanced condition the expression for potentiometer is given
by_______________.
𝐸𝑥 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑥 𝐸𝑥 𝐼𝑥
a) = b) = c) = d) None of these
𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑥 𝐸𝑥 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠
vi.

i.
measurement.
a) Greater
ii.
b) Smaller
iii.
S
The larger the length of wire of potentiometer, the ____________ is the accuracy of

c) Does not depend on length

iv. v.
d) None of these
vi.
S
B B C B C A

Miscellaneous MCQs:
i. Post office Box is used to find unknown_______________.
P

a) Current b) P.D c) Resistance d) None of these

ii. P.O. Box is based on the principle of_______________.
a) Galvanometer b) Wheatstone bridge c) Mutual induction d) None of these
iii. Which was first introduced for finding the resistance of telegraph:
U

a) Wheatstone bridge b) Metre bridge c) P.O. Box d) None of these

iv. Which one is the useful device for quick measurement of resistance:
a) Ohmmeter b) Wheatstone bridge c) P.O. Box d) None of these
v. A single device used to measure current, voltage and resistance is called_____________.
a) Multi meter b) AVO-meter c) Both a and b d) None of these

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

C B C A C

Page 170 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Questions From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)
i. Describe with the help of neat diagram the construction and theory of a moving coil
galvanometer. (1995)
ii. How will you convert a galvanometer of resistance “R g” in to a voltmeter to measure
the voltage from 0-V volts. (1995)
iii. Write short note: Wheatstone bridge. (1996)
iv. Describe with a neat diagram the construction and working of a moving coil
galvanometer. Show that the deflection is directly proportional to the current. What is
sensitivity? What does sensitivity depends upon? (1997)
v. Describe with the help of neat diagram the construction and theory of a moving coil
galvanometer. Describe sensitivity and mention the factors on which it depends. (1998)

I
vi. Write short note on: Wheatstone bridge (1998)
vii. Write short note on: Wheatstone bridge (1999)

-I
viii. Describe with the help of neat diagram the construction and theory of a moving coil
galvanometer. Show that the deflection is directly proportional to the current. (2000)
ix. What is sensitivity? What does sensitivity depend upon? (2000)
x. Write a short note on: Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and a voltmeter.

xi.
xii.
xiii.
(2000) S
Describe how a galvanometer can be converted to a voltmeter?
State and prove Wheatstone bridge principle.
(2001)
(2002)Pre Med
Describe with the help of neat diagram the construction and theory of a moving coil
S
galvanometer. Show that the deflection is directly proportional to the current.
(2002)Pre Eng
xiv. How can a moving coil galvanometer be converted into an ammeter and voltmeter?
Describe any one in detail. (2003)Pre Med
P

xv. Describe how a galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter and derive a
mathematical expression for it. (2003)Pre Eng
xvi. What is meant by a balance Wheatstone bridge? Derive an expression for it.
(2003)Pre Eng
xvii. Describe the conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter (2004)
U

xviii. With the help of diagram how a galvanometer is converted into an ammeter. Derive the
equation for the shunt resistance. (2005)
xix. What is the principle of a Wheatstone bridge? Derive an expression for its balanced
condition. (2006)
xx. Describe with a diagram the working of a moving coil galvanometer. Show that the
deflection is directly proportional to the current. (2006)
xxi. Describe the conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter. (2007)
xxii. What is Wheatstone bridge? How is it used to determine an unknown resistance? (2008)

Page 171 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xxiii. Draw a labeled diagram of the pivoted coil type moving coil galvanometer. Prove that its
deflection is directly proportional to the current in the coil in a radial magnetic field.
(2009)
𝑅1 𝑅3
xxiv. Describe Wheatstone bridge. Prove that for a balanced wheat stone bridge = .
𝑅2 𝑅4
(2010)
xxv. Give the construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer. Show that current “I”
is directly proportional to the angle of twist. On what factors do the sensitivity of
galvanometer depends? (2011)
𝑅 𝑅
xxvi. How does a balanced Wheatstone bridge lead to the relation 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 ? Prove
2 4

mathematically. (2012)

I
xxvii. Give the construction and working of moving coil galvanometer. Prove that the
deflection is directly proportional to the current is radial magnetic field. (2013)
xxviii. How can a galvanometer be converted into an ammeter? Derive the relevant

-I
expression. (2014)
𝑃 𝑅
xxix. State Ohm’s law. Show that for a balanced Wheatstone bridge 𝑄 = 𝑋 . (2014)
xxx. Describe the construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer with the help of a

xxxi.
S
neat diagram. Show that the current (I) is directly proportional to the deflection (𝜃).
(2015)
How is a galvanometer converted into voltmeter. Give the related mathematical
expression. (2016)
S
xxxii. Explain the functions of the various parts of a moving coil galvanometer and prove that the
amount of current flowing is directly proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension. (2017)
𝑃 𝑅
xxxiii. State Ohm’s law. What is a Wheatstone bridge? Show that for a balanced = . (2018)
𝑄 𝑋
xxxiv. How can a galvanometer be converted into an Ammeter? Derive the relevant expression. (2018)
P

xxxv. How can a galvanometer be converted into a voltmeter? Derive the relevant
mathematical expression. (2019)
xxxvi. Describe the construction and working of moving coil galvanometer. Also show that the
deflection produced in the coil is proportional to the current passing through it. (2019)
U

Numericals From Past Papers (complete chapter):

i. A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 50 ohms and it gives a full-scale
deflection for P.D of 150mV. What should be the resistance of the shunt used with the
galvanometer in order to use it as an ammeter reading up to 4 amperes?
(1987) Ans: 0.0375Ω
ii. A galvanometer of resistance of 50 Ω gives full-scale deflection with a current of 0.005
amperes. How will you convert it into an ammeter measuring maximum current of 1.0
ampere? (1989) Ans: 0.251 Ω

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 iii. A galvanometer of resistance 60 Ω gives full-scale deflection with a current of 4mA, a
resistance of 10940 Ω is connected in series with the coil to convert it into voltmeter.
Find the range of voltmeter obtained. (1995) Ans: 44volts
iv. A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 25 Ω and it gives a full-scale deflection
for a P.D of 50mV. If the galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter reading up to
50 volts, what should be the resistance of the series resistor? (1997) Ans: 24975 Ω
v. A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 50 Ω and it gives a full-scale deflection
for P.D of 100mV. If the galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter reading up to
50 volts, what should be the resistance of the series resistor? (2000) Ans: 24950 Ω
vi. The coil of a galvanometer having a resistance of 50 ohms and current of 500micro-
ampere produces a full-scale deflection in it. Compute:

I
a) The shunt required to convert it into an ammeter of 5 ampere range.
b) The series resistance required to convert it into a voltmeter of 300 volt range.

-I
(2002)Pre Eng Ans: 0.005 Ω, 599950 Ω
vii. An ammeter deflects full-scale with a current of 5 amperes and has a total resistance of
0.5 ohms. What shunt resistance must be connected to it measure full scale current up
to 30 amperes? (2003)Pre Med Ans: 0.1 Ω
viii.

ix.
S
A 300volts voltmeter has total resistance of 20 kilo-ohms. What additional resistance is
required to convert it into a voltmeter, reading up to a maximum of 600 volts?
(2003)Pre Eng Ans: 20000 Ω
A 250 volt voltmeter has total resistance of 20000 Ω. What additional series resistance
S
must be connected to it to increase its range to 400 volts? (2004) Ans: 12000 Ω
x. A maximum 50mili-ampere current can be allowed to flow through a 19.8 ohm coil of a
galvanometer. The galvanometer is to be used to measure 5-ampere maximum current.
Calculate the length of a copper wire to be used as a shunt. the diameter of te wire is
4mm, the specific resistance (𝜌) of copper is 1.6x10-8ohm-m. (2005) Ans: 0.2 Ω, 157.1m
P

xi. An ammeter deflects full-scale with a voltage of 2.5 volts, and has a total resistance of
0.5 Ω. What small resistance must be connected to measure 20A full-scale?
(2006) Ans: 0.166 Ω
xii. A 300 volts voltmeter has a total resistance of 20kilo-ohms. What additional resistance
U

is required to convert it into a voltmeter, reading up to a maximum of 600 volts?

(2007) Ans: 20000 Ω
xiii. A galvanometer has a resistance of 100 ohms. A difference of potential of 50mV gives
the full-scale deflection. Calculate the shunt resistance to read from 0-5A. What is the
value of series resistance if the galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter to read
up to 250V? (2008) Ans: 0.01 Ω 499900 Ω
xiv. A galvanometer whose resistance is 50 Ω deflects full-scale for a potential difference
100mV across its terminals. How can it be converted into a voltmeter of 50V range?
(2010) Ans: 24950 Ω

Page 173 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xv. A galvanometer of resistance of 50 ohms gives full scale deflection with a current of
10mA. A shunt of 0.05 ohm is connected in parallel to convert it into an ammeter. Find
the range of the ammeter. (2012) Ans: 10.01 ampere
xvi. A voltmeter measuring up to 200V has a total resistance of 20000 ohms. What
additional series resistance must be connect to it to increase its range to 600V.
(2013) Ans: 40000 Ω
xvii. A galvanometer, having resistance 50 Ω, deflects full scale for a potential difference of
100mV across the terminals. What resistance should be connected to increase its range
to 50 volts? (2014) Ans: 2450 Ohm
xviii. A galvanometer, whose resistance is 60 ohms, deflects full scale for a potential
difference of 100 millivolts across its terminals. What shunt resistance must be

I
connected to convert it into an ammeter of 5 ampere range? (2015) Ans: 0.10 ohm
xix. A 400volts voltmeter has a total resistance of 40,000Ω. What additional series resistance must
be connected to it to increase its range to 750volts? (2017) Ans: 35000 ohm

-I
Numericals From Book (complete chapter):
i. A galvanometer has a resistance of 50 ohms and it deflects full scale when a current of

ii.
amperes? S
10miliamperes flows in it. How can it be converted into an ammeter of range 10
Ans: By connecting a shunt of 0.05 Ω
A galvanometer whose resistance is 40 ohms deflects full-scale for potential difference
of 100mili volts across its terminals. How can it be converted into an ammeter of 5
ampere range? Ans: By connecting a shunt of 0.02 Ω
S
iii. The coil of a galvanometer which has a resistance of 50 ohms and a current of 500micro
amperes produce full-scale deflection in it. Show by a diagram how it can be converted
to (a) an ammeter of 5 ampere range and compute the shunt resistance, (b) a volt meter
of 300 volt range and compute the series resistance. Ans: a) 0.005 Ω, b) 599950 Ω
P

iv. A galvanometer of resistance 2.5 ohms deflects full-scale for a current of 0.05 amperes.
It is desired to convert this galvanometer into an ammeter reading 25 amperes full
scale. The only shunt available is of 0.03 ohm. What resistance R must be included in
series with galvanometer coil as shown in fig for using this shunt? Ans: 12.47 Ω
U

R
G

Rs
v. An ammeter deflects full-scale with a current of 5 amperes and has a total resistance of
0.5 ohms what shunt resistance must be connected to it to measure 25 amperes full -
scale? Ans: 0.125 Ω
vi. A 300 volt voltmeter has a total resistance of 20,000 ohms. What additional series
resistance must be converted to it to increase its range to 500 volts? Ans: 13333 Ω

Page 174 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

vii. A galvanometer has a resistance of 20 ohms and gives full-scale deflection when a
current of 0.001 ampere flow in it. Find out a) The value of the shunt resistance to
convert it into an ammeter of range 10 amperes. b) The value of the series resistance to
convert it into an voltmeter of range 10 volts. Ans: a) 0.002 Ω,b) 998 Ω

i. Describe with the help of neat diagram the construction and theory of moving coil
galvanometer.
ii. What is sensitivity of a galvanometer? Derive its expressions. On what factors does the

I
sensitivity depend?
iii. Describe the conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter, also derive the relevant
expressions.

-I
iv. What is Wheatstone bridge? Derive its expression.
v. What is metre bridge? How can it be used to find unknown resistance?
vi. A galvanometer has a resistance of 400 Ω and deflects full scale for a current of 0.2mA through
it. How large a shunt resistor is required to change it to a 3A ammeter? Ans: 0.027 Ω
vii.

viii.
S
Voltmeter is to deflect full scale for a PD of 5V across it and is to be made by connecting a
resistor Rx in series with a galvanometer. The 80 Ω galvanometer deflects full scale for a PD of
20mV across it. Find Rx. Ans: 19920 Ω
A 36 Ω galvanometer is shunted by a resistor of 4 Ω. What part of the total current will pass
through the galvanometer? Ans: 1/10 or 10%
S
ix. What shunt resistance should be connected in parallel with an ammeter having a resistance of
0.04 Ω, so that 25% of the total current will pass through the ammeter? Ans: 0.013 Ω

MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)

(1999)
P

i. To increase the accuracy of potentiometer_____________.

a) A uniform wire of large length should be used
b) A uniform wire of a small length should be used
c) Non uniform wire should be used
U

(2001)
ii. A galvanometer can be used to measure the current by connecting:
a) Low resistance in series b) High resistance is series c) Low resistance in
parallel
(2002)Pre Eng
iii. AVO meter is used to measure:
a) Current b) Voltage c) Resistance d) All of them
iv. A metre bridge is used to measure:
a) Voltage b) Inductance c) Capacitance d) Resistance
v. A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting:

Page 175 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Low resistance is series b) High resistance is series c) Low resistance in
parallel d) High resistance in parallel
(2003)Pre Med
vi. Potentiometer is a device for measuring:
a) Potential difference between the two points of a circuit
b) Voltage between the two points of a circuit
c) EMF of the current source
d) All the above
(2003)Pre Eng
vii. A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a:
a) Low resistance in series b) High resistance in series c) low resistance in

I
parallel d) High resistance in parallel
viii. To increase the accuracy of a potentiometer_____________.

-I
a) A uniform wire of large length should be used
b) A uniform wire of a small length should be used
c) Non uniform wire should be used
ix. The principle of post office box is based on:

x.
S
a) Telegraph b) Terminal potential difference c) Multi meter d) Wheatstone
bridge

In Wheatstone bridge circuit we balance:

(2006)
S
a) Resistance b) Current c) Voltage d) All of these
xi. The unit of least count on a galvanometer scale represents:
a) Division b) Ohm c) Volt d) Henry
𝐶
xii. 𝐼 = (𝐵𝑁𝐴 )𝜃 hence to increase the sensitivity of a galvanometer, we must decrease the
P

value of:
a) 𝜃 b) N c) B d) C
(2007)
xiii. A moving coil galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting to it:
a) Low resistance in series b) High resistance in series c) High resistance in
U

parallel d) Low resistance in parallel

(2008)
xiv. The sensitivity of galvanometer can be increased by increasing:
a) Magnetic field b) Area of coil c) Number of turns d) All of them
(2009)
xv. The working principle of a post office box is:
a) Wheatstone bridge b) Potentiometer c) Telegraph line d) None of these
(2010)
xvi. A single device containing ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter is called:
a) VTVM b) CRO c) Potentiometer d) Multi meter
Page 176 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 (2011)
xvii. If the length of the wire of potentiometer is increased the accuracy in the determination
of null point:
a) Increases b) Remains the same c) Decreases d) Become zero
(2012)
xviii. AVO meter is used to measure:
a) Electric current b) Voltage c) Resistance d) All of them
(2013)
xix. Meter bridge is used to measure:
a) Electric current b) Voltage c) Resistance d) Capacitance
(2014)

I
xx. This is a high resistance instrument:
a) Voltmeter b) Ammeter c) Galvanometer d) Motor

-I
(2015)
xxi. An instrument which can measure and compare potentials without drawing any current
from the circuit is known as a/an:
a) Ammeter b) Voltmeter c) Potentiometer d) AVO-meter
xxii.
S
A device consisting of ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter is called:
a) Potentiometer b) multimeter d) CRO
(2017)
d) VTVM

xxiii. In a moving coil galvanometer, pole pieces of U-shaped magnet are made concave:
S
a) To make the field radial b) to weaken the field c) to increase the sensitivity of
galvanometer d) to decrease the sensitivity of galvanometer
𝑅1 𝑅3
xxiv. When the condition 𝑅2
=
𝑅4
is satisfied in a wheatstone bridge, the current in the galvanometer
becomes:
P

a) Zero b) maximum c) half

d) double
(2018)
xxv. In electric circuit, Rheostat can be largely used as the:
a) Source of current b) source of potential c) potential divider d) power supply
(2019)
U

xxvi. Concave magnetic poles, with a fixed soft-iron cylinder in a moving coil galvanometer,
make the magnetic field:
a) Weak b) radial c) zero d) infinite
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.
A C D D C D C A D C A
xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii.
D D D A D A D C A C B
xxiii xxiv xxv. xxvi.
A A C B

Page 177 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Electromagnetic Waves
And Electronics

Faraday discovered the law of magnetic induction that a magnetic field, which is changing with
time, causes an induced electric field. Maxwell showed that the opposite is also true. A
changing electric field causes an induced magnetic field. This symmetrical relationship between
changing electric and magnetic fields is taking place through any region the electric and

I
magnetic fields will propagate out of this region in the surrounding space. Such moving electric
and magnetic fields are known as “electromagnetic waves”. When an electromagnetic wave is
passing through some point in space both the electric and magnetic fields at that point are

-I
changing with time. Maxwell showed that the electric field “E” and the magnetic induction “B”
fluctuate. “E” and “B” are zero at the same time and they are reverse direction together with
each cycle. Another prediction of the Maxwell theory is that “E” and “B” are mutually

the wave.
Speed of Electromagnetic Waves:
S
perpendicular to each other and that both are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of

Speed of an electromagnetic wave depends upon the permeability “µ” and permittivity “𝜀” of
S
the medium through which it travels. In vacuum speed of an electromagnetic wave is given by:
1
C=√
μo εo
But µo = 4πx10-7 Web/A-m 𝜀o = 8.85x10-12 C2/N-m2
P

1
C=√
4π × 10−7 × 8.85 × 10−12
C = 2.99 × 108 m/s
Hence speed of all electromagnetic waves including light waves in vacuum is 2.99 × 108 m/s
U

(3 × 108 m/s).
Production of Electromagnetic Waves:
Electromagnetic waves can be produced only with the help of accelerated charged particles.
Stationary charge gives rise to a stationary electric field whereas a charge moving with uniform
velocity produces a stationary magnetic field. Electric and magnetic fields radiate out in the
form of electromagnetic waves when charges have accelerated motion
Modulation:
The process of combining audio frequency (a-f) and radio frequency (r-f) waves to accomplish
translation is called “Modulation”.

Page 178 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

The higher frequency wave (i.e. r-f wave) of constant amplitude and frequency is called a carrier
wave, whereas the audio frequency wave is called “Modulated Signal”.

The branch of physics in which we study about internal structure of solid and the electrical
nature of solid, is called “Solid State Physics”.
The Band Theory of Solids:
According to Bohr’s theory of atomic structure the electron in an atom can occupy only allowed
energy levels. The lowest available energy level is called the ground state of the atom whereas

I
the higher energy levels are called its excited states.
In a solid atoms are very close to each other so that their outer orbits overlap and spread out
into energy bands. These bands are of two types,

-I
1) Valence band
2) Conduction band
Valence band:
S
Valence band corresponds to the ground state of the atom. Electrons of outer orbits are usually
found in the valence band where they are firmly held to individual atom.
Conduction band:
When electrons of valence band get energy from external source, they jump on a higher energy
S
level, this is called “Conduction Band”.
Forbidden Gap:
The space between valence band and conduction band is called “Forbidden Gap”. This gap does
not consist of any electron.
P

Classification of Solids:
By the help of band theory, solids are divided into three types.
1) Conductors
2) Insulators
U

3) Semi conductors
Conductors:
In conductors valence band overlaps the conduction band and the forbidden energy gap
practically does not exist or instead of two bands there is only one band which is not filled.
Under these conditions electrons can freely move causing electric current.
Insulators:
In an insulator valence band is full, the conduction band is empty and the two bands are
separated by a large forbidden energy gap. Under this condition electrons cannot move freely
from valence to conduction band. Hence current cannot be passed through these materials.

Page 179 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Semi Conductors:
In Semiconductors there is a narrow forbidden energy gap between the two bands. Under this
condition some high energy electrons may jump from valence to the conduction band, resulting
a weak conductivity.
Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by heating it or by adding a suitable
impurity in it. On heating a semi conductor energy of electrons in the valence band increases
and they cross forbidden gap. Similarly on adding suitable impurity more low energy states are
formed thus decreasing the width of forbidden energy gap, resulting in an increase in electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor. In both cases the resistance of semi conductor decreases.

I
conduction band conduction band conduction band
Wide forbidden gap narrow forbidden gap
valence band

-I
valence band
Conductor valence band Semi Conductor

Insulator
Intrinsic Semi Conductors:
S
Elements of group IV of the periodic table are semi conductors. Atoms of this group are
tetravalent. It means that in the outer orbit of each atom there are four electrons. In pure form
elements of this group such as germanium and silicon have crystalline structure. In a crystal of
these elements each atom is surrounded by four other atoms. They form covalent bonds with
S
their neighboring atoms, so that the outer most orbit of each atom is completely filled (having 8
electrons). In pure form germanium and silicon are called “Intrinsic Semi Conductor”. They have
a narrow forbidden energy gap. Due to thermal excitation some electrons cross this narrow
forbidden gap, resulting in very low electrical conductivity. Their electrical conductivity lies
P

between good conductors and insulators.

Electrical conductivity of semi conductors can be improved by adding a suitable impurity in it. In
semiconductors the charge carriers are electrons and holes.
A hole is a positively charged region produced by the removal of an electron.
U

Extrinsic Semi Conductor/ Doping:

On adding suitable impurity conductivity of a semiconductor can be improved. Elements of
group III and V of the periodic table are added as an impurity. The process of addition of
impurities in a semiconductor to improve its conductivity is called “Doping”. The doped
semiconductor material is called “Extrinsic Semi Conductor”.
Types of Doping:
There are two types of doping.
1) Acceptor Doping
2) Donor Doping

Page 180 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Acceptor Doping (p-type semi conductor):
When a semi conductor is doped with a group III element, such as aluminum, boron or gallium
etc. a deficiency of electron is produced in the semiconductor. The deficiency of electron
corresponds to a positively charged region which is called a “hole”. The semiconductor crystal
thus becomes capable of accepting extra electron. This process of producing a deficiency of
electron in a semiconductor is called “Acceptor Doping”. The semiconductor thus formed is
called p-type semi conductor.
In a p-type semi conductor current is due to the flow of holes.
Donor Doping (n-type semi conductor):
When a semi conductor is doped with an element of group V such as arsenic, antimony or

I
phosphorous etc an excess electron of the donor material is available for conduction. The
doping material is called “Donor Impurity” and the semi conductor thus formed is called n-type

-I
semi conductor.
In an n-type semi conductor current is due to the flow of electrons.

S
When a block of p-type material is in contact with n-type material their junction is called “pn-
junction”. In n-type material there is a high concentration of free electrons whereas in p-type
material there is a high concentration of holes. Hence at the junction some electrons will
diffuse from n-type to p-type and holes from p-type to n-type. Due to the diffusion of electrons
S
from n-type to p-type a positive charge appears on n-side of the junction, which prevents
further diffusion of electrons. Similarly on p-side of the junction negative charge appears, which
prevents further diffusion of holes. A kind of barrier is set up at the junction that prevents the
flow of electrons and holes across the junction. This barrier is called “Potential Barrier”. Now a
P

current can be made to flow across the junction only when a potential difference enough to
overcome this potential barrier is applied.
U

The application of electric potential across a pn-junction is called “Biasing”.

Types of Biasing:
There are two types of biasing.
1) Forward Biasing
2) Reverse Biasing
Forward Biasing:
If the voltage applied externally across a pn-junction is such that it cancels the potential barrier
and helps the flow of current then it is called Forward biasing. When a pn-junction is forward
biased it offers low resistance to the flow of current.

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Forward biasing can be done by connecting positive terminal
P N
of the battery with p-type and negative terminal with n-type
semi conductor.
Reverse Biasing: + -
If the external voltage applied across the junction is such that it
P N
helps potential barrier, it is called reverse biasing. When a
pn-junction is reverse biased it offers high resistance and does
not conduct. - +
Reverse biasing can be done by connecting the negative terminal of a battery with p-type and
positive terminal with n-type material.

I
-I
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called “Rectification”.
A semi conductor pn-junction diode can be used as a “Rectifier”.
There are two types of rectification.
1) Half Wave Rectification
2) Full Wave Rectification S
When an alternating current or voltage is applied across a semi-conductor diode, during the
S
positive half cycle the junction is Forward Biased and offers low resistance hence it conducts.
Whereas during the negative half cycle it is reverse biased and offers high resistance so it does
not conduct. Hence in the external circuit current flows only when positive half cycle acts across
the diode, no current flow when negative half cycle acts across it. Hence only half cycle of A.C
P

current or voltage is rectified, this is called “Half Wave Rectification”. The circuit used for this
process is called “Half Wave Rectifier”.
Circuit Diagram:
U

In this process a diode, transformer, load resistance and source of A.C is used. The input A.C
signal is sent through the primary coil of transformer and output D.C signal is taken out through
the load resistance.

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In order to rectify the complete cycle of alternating voltage or current two semi conductor
diodes are used. The two diodes alternatively supply current in the external circuit in one
direction only. One diode supplies direct current to the external circuit only during the positive
half cycle whereas the negative half cycle the second diode supplies direct current to the
external circuit.
Circuit Diagram:

I
-I
S
S
On this process two diodes “D 1” and “D2”, transformer, load-resistance and source of A.C supply
are used.
For the half positive cycle of A.C signal the end “A” of secondary coil is positive whereas the end
P

“B” is negative , hence “D 1” is forward biased but “D 2” is reverse biased, “D 1” conduct but “D2”
does not conduct.
Similarly for the half negative cycle of A.C signal the end “A” is negative whereas the end “B” is
positive, hence “D1” is reversed biased but “D2” is forward biased, “D 2” conducts but “D1” does
U

not conduct.
The direction of current pass through the loud resistance in both cases is same.
Photodiodes:
Certain semi conductors convert light energy directly into electrical energy (Due to a process
called photo-electric effect). Diodes in which such materials are used are called “Photodiodes”.
Photodiodes are small in size and require low operating voltage.
Photodiodes are used to read computer punch cards and tapes, in light detection systems, l ight
operated switches etc.

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Light Emitting Diode (LED):
A diode gives light when it is energized is called Light Emitting Diode (LED). It converts electrical
energy into light energy.
LEDs are used in every day appliances such as clocks, calculators etc.
By using suitable materials light of different colors can be obtained.

It is a semi conductor device used to amplify current it consists of three electrodes.

The word transistor has been derived from two words “Transfer” and “Resistor”.
Types:

I
There are two types of Transistors.
1) P-N-P Transistor.

-I
2) N-P-N Transistor.
Parts:
Transistor consists of three parts.

Collector

Base
B
S
The central part is “Base” and remaining two parts are “Emitter” and “Collector”.

C
Collector

C
B
Base
S
E
n-p-n E p-n-p
emitter emitter

Three terminal are connected to three electrodes which connect to the circuit. p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors are shown in the above symbol where ( ) shows the direction of current.
P

Operation of Transistor:
The Emitter-Base junction is forward biased whereas the Collector-Base junction is reversed
biased. If we ignore the Emitter-Base junction then due to reverse biasing no current pass
through the Collector-Base junction. Due to the forward biasing of Emitter-Base junction
U

current passes through the collector-Base junction. It means collector current (I C) depends upon
emitter current (IE).
Working of n-p-n Transistor:
In n-p-n transistor a thin p-type semi conductor layer is sandwiched between two n-type layers.
If the negative terminal of a battery is connected to an n-type layer and the positive terminal of
another battery is connected to the other n-type layer, and remaining two terminals are
connected to the p-type layer, then the n-p junction (Emitter-Base Junction) is forward biased
whereas p-n junction (Collector-Base Junction) is reverse biased. Electrons flow from Emitter to
Base, due to this “IE” current is obtained. When electrons flow in p-type layer some electrons

Page 184 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

(less than 5%) combined with holes (+ve charge) and remaining electrons (more than 95%) flow
to the Collector and produce “IC” current. By combining the some electrons with the holes “I B”
current is produced.
IE = IB + IC

In n-p-n transistor the flow of current is due to Electrons.

n p n
_ _
I
O
IB
E _ O
O
_
_
IC
_

I
_ O _

Emitter Base Collector

-I
- + - +

Working of p-n-p Transistor:

layers.
S
In p-n-p transistor a thin n-type semi conductor layer is sandwiched between two p-types

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to a p-type layer and the negative terminal of
another battery is connected to the other p-type layer and remaining two terminals are
S
connected to n-type layer, then the p-n junction (Emitter-Base Junction) is forward biased
whereas n-p junction (Collector-Base Junction) is reverse biased. Holes (+ve charges) flow from
Emitter to Base, due to this “IE” current is produced. When holes flow in n-type layer some
holes (less than 5%) combined with electrons, due to this “I B” current is produced, and
P

remaining holes (more than 95%) flow to the Collector and produce “I C” current.
IE = IB + IC
In p-n-p transistor the flow of current is due to “Holes” (+ve charge).
p n p
U

_ IB
IE _ IC
_
_

Emitter Base Collector

+ - + -

Page 185 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Transistor As An Amplifier:
Amplifier is a device which converts the weak signal into the strong signal.
Transistor is used as an amplifier, for this a weak signal is supplied to Emitter-Base junction
whereas the output signal is obtained at Collector-Base junction, across a load resistance “Rc”.
Emitter-Base junction is made forward biased, for this A.C voltage is applied to input junction.
This voltage causes the input junction is forward biased.
As the resistance of input circuit is less, therefore the slightly variation in signal voltage causes a
large variation in Emitter current (I E), which causes the same variation in Collector current (I C). IC
current flow in load resistance “Rc” and provides a large amount of voltage. Hence a weak
signal is converted into a strong signal.

I
IE IC

-I
IB Rc
s i gnal

- +S - +
S
i. Under what circumstances does a charge radiate electromagnetic waves?
Ans: A charge radiates electromagnetic waves when it is accelerated.
ii. In an electromagnetic wave, what is the relationship, if any, between the variations in
the magnetic and electric fields?
P

Ans: In an electromagnetic wave, the transverse sinusoidal oscillating electric field and
magnetic field propagated at right angles to each other and to the direction of motion.
iii. A radio transmitter has a vertical antenna. Does it matter whether the receiving
antenna vertical or horizontal?
U

Ans: The receiving antenna should be vertical just like the transmitting antenna. A
horizontal receiving antenna will intercept much less radio frequency signals.
iv. Explain why are light waves able to travel through a vacuum, where as sound waves
cannot?
Ans: Light waves are electromagnetic waves. Sound waves are produced due to the
vibration of the molecules of a medium. Hence sound waves require a medium, whereas
light waves do not require medium for their propagation.
v. Explain the condition under which radiation of electromagnetic waves take place from
a certain source?

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 Ans: when a transmitting antenna is coupled with an alternating source of potential
(known as oscillator), charges (electrons) are accelerated up and down the antenna. This
creates a fluctuating electric flux, which generates a magnetic flux. Hence the waves
propagates from the antenna are electromagnetic waves.
vi. What are semiconductors? Describe the structure of germanium crystal.
Ans: In Semiconductors there is a narrow forbidden energy gap between the two bands.
Under this condition some high energy electrons may jump from valence to the
conduction band, resulting a weak conductivity. Electrical conductivity of a
semiconductor can be increased by heating it or by adding a suitable impurity in it.
In a crystal of these elements each atom is surrounded by four other atoms. They form

I
covalent bonds with their neighboring atoms, so that the outer most orbit of each atom
is completely filled (having 8 electrons).

-I
vii. Can a diode be used for amplifying a weak signal?
Ans: Normally, a diode cannot be used for amplifying a weak signal. But specially
constructed diode (e.g. tunnel diode) can be used as an amplifier and oscillator for
microwave frequencies.
viii.

ix.
Ans: See in notes
Are radio waves form of light?
S
What is the difference between n-type and p-type germanium?

Ans: since both radio waves and visible light are electromagnetic in nature, hence we
S
can say that radio waves are a form of light (of frequency 4x10 14 to7.5x1014Hz).
x. Give the energy band description of semiconductors.
Ans: See in notes
xi. Discuss the effect of temperature on semiconductors.
P

Ans: On increasing the temperature of semiconductors, energy of electrons in the

valence band increases and thy cross forbidden gap, resulting in an increase in electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor, the resistance of semiconductor decreases.
xii. What is pn-junction? Explain the formation of potential barrier in pn-junction.
Ans: When a block of p-type material is in contact with n-type material their junction is
U

called “pn-junction”. In n-type material there is a high concentration of free electrons

whereas in p-type material there is a high concentration of holes. Hence at the junction
some electrons will diffuse from n-type to p-type and holes from p-type to n-type. Due
to the diffusion of electrons from n-type to p-type a positive charge appears on n-side of
the junction, which prevents further diffusion of electrons. Similarly on p-side of the
junction negative charge appears, which prevents further diffusion of holes. A kind of
barrier is set up at the junction that prevents the flow of electrons and holes across the
junction. This barrier is called “Potential Barrier”. Now a current can be made to flow

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 across the junction only when a potential difference enough to overcome this potential
barrier is applied.

Ex # 16.1
MCQs (Complete Chapter):
i. In _____________ we study about electron emitting devices.
a) Electricity b) Electronics c) Electrostatics d) None of these
ii. Germanium and silicon belong to group _____________.
a) IIIA b) IV A c) VA d) None of these

I
iii. If Ge or Si is doped with pentavalent element, then___________ substance is formed.
a) N-type b) P-type c) Both a & b d) None of these

-I
iv. If Ge o Si is doped with a _______________ element, then p-type substance is formed.
a) Trivalent b) Tetavalent c) Pentavalent d) None of these
v. P-type impurity is also called __________ impurity.
a) Acceptor b) Donner c) Pentavalent d) None of these
vi.

vii.
a) P-type
S
____________ impurity is also called donner impurity.
b) N-type
P-type substance can accept____________.
a) Protons b) Holes
c) Both

c) Electrons
d) None of these

d) None of these
S
viii. P-type substance have free____________.
a) Protons b) Holes c) Electrons d) None of these
ix. _____________ is an electronic device consists of a p-n junction.
a) Diode b) Triode c) Transistor d) None of these
P

x. Transistor consist of_____________ p-n junctions.

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) None of these
xi. Diode is used as a/an________________.
a) Amplifier b) Modifier c) Rectifier d) None of these
U

xii. _____________ p-n junction has the lowest electrical resistance.

a) Normal b) Forward biased c) Reversed biased d) None of these
xiii. _____________ p-n junction is the most insulated.
a) Normal b) Forward biased c) Reversed biased d) None of these
xiv. For full-wave rectification we use ____________ diodes in circuit.
a) One b) Two c) Three d) None of these
xv. For ____________ wave rectification we use only one diode.
a) Half b) Full c) Double d) None of these
xvi. ______________ converts A.C into D.C.
a) Transistor b) Amplifier c) Rectifier d) None of these

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 xvii. _______________ can be used as an amplifier.
a) Diode b) Transistor c) Both d) None of these
xviii. ______________ changes a small voltage input into a large voltage output.
a) Amplifier b) Rectifier c) Modifier d) None of these
xix. Every modern airport is equipped with a/an_______________.
a) Amplifier b) Rectifier c) Radar system d) None of these
xx. We can watch a cricket match live from England in Pakistan due to ______________.
a) Radar system b) Telecommunication c) Communication satellite
xxi. The substance that have intermediate value of resistivity (10 -1Ωm) are
called_____________.

I
a) Conductor b) Insulator c) Semiconductor d) None of these
xxii. A pure semiconductor is called______________.

-I
a) Intrinsic semiconductors b) Extrinsic semiconductors c) Both of these
d) None of these
xxiii. In case of semiconductors:
a) There is a wide forbidden gap between conduction band and valance band

xxiv.
d) None of these
S
b) Conduction band and the valance band overlap each other
c) There is narrow forbidden gap between conduction band and valance band

The process of addition of impurities to a pure semi conductor is called_____________.

S
a) Doping b) Welding c) Mixing d) None of these
xxv. The doped semiconductor materials are called_______________.
a) Intrinsic semiconductors b) Extrinsic semiconductors c) Both of these
d) None of these
P

xxvi. When tri-valent substances are added to germanium or silicon the semiconductor
formed is called________________.
a) P-type b) N-type c) PN-type d) None of these
xxvii. When pentavalent substance are added to germanium or silicon the semiconductor
formed is called________________.
U

a) P-type b) N-type c) PN-type d) None of these

xxviii. Accepter impurities are impurities of__________________.
a) Group IV b) Group V c) Group III d) None of these
xxix. Donor impurities are impurities of__________________.
a) Group IV b) Group V c) Group III d) None of these
xxx. In P-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are______________.
a) Electrons b) Holes c) Protons d) None of these
xxxi. In N-type semiconductors majority charge carriers are______________.
a) Electrons b) Holes c) Protons d) None of these

Page 189 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 xxxii. A hole of a semiconductor is treated as_______________.
a) Positive charge b) Negative charge c) Neutral d) None of these
xxxiii. In semiconductor material, current flows due to ________________.
a) Positive charge b) Negative charge c) Both of these d) None of these
xxxiv. The junction which is formed by melting P-type and N-type semiconductor by a special
manufacturing process (Thermo compression) is called_______________.
a) P-n junction b) Junction diode c) Both of these d) None of these
xxxv. Depletion region consist of________________.
a) Holes only b) Electrons only c) Neither holes nor electrons d) Both electrons
and holes

I
xxxvi. When p-type is connected to positive terminal and N-type is connected to negative
terminal of battery is called______________.

-I
a) Forward biasing b) Reverse biasing c) Biasing only d) None of these
xxxvii. When p-type is connected to negative terminal and N-type is connected to positive
terminal of battery is called______________.
a) Forward biasing b) Reverse biasing c) Biasing only d) None of these
xxxviii.

xxxix.
b) High
S
When p-n junction is connected forward biased its junction resistance
becomes____________.
a) Low c) Both of these d) None of these
When p-n junction is reverse biased its junction resistance becomes____________.
S
a) Low b) Zero c) High d) None of these
xl. A semiconductor diode conducts when it is_______________.
a) Forward biased b) Reverse biased c) Both of them d) None of these
xli. During the positive half-cycle of half wave rectification the diode:
P

a) Does not conduct b) Conducts c) Either of these d) None of these

xlii. Output of rectifier is_______________.
a) Alternating current b) Direct current c) Pulsating direct current
d) None of these
xliii. The words transistor means_____________.
U

a) Transconductance b) transforming conductor c) Transfer resistor

d) None of these
xliv. In a transistor if the central region is p-type then this type of transistor is known
as___________________.
a) p-n-p transistor b) n-p-n transistor c) Either of these d) None of these
xlv. In a transistor if the central region is n-type then this type of transistor is known
as___________________.
a) p-n-p transistor b) n-p-n transistor c) Either of these d) None of these
xlvi. The transistor consists of______________.

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 a) Two layers of doped semiconductors
b) Three layers of doped semiconductors
c) Four layers of doped semiconductors
d) None of these
xlvii. In sequence the three layers of a transistor are called______________.
a) Base, emitter, collector b) Emitter, base, collector c) Collector, base, emitter
d) None of these
xlviii. For normal operations of a transistor:
a) Emitter-base junction forward biased and collector-base junction reverse biased
b) Emitter-base junction reverse biased and collector-base junction forward biased

I
c) Both of these
d) None of these

-I
xlix. In N-P-N transistor arrowhead is directed_____________.
a) Outward b) Inward c) Has no direction d) None of these
l. In P-N-P transistor arrowhead is directed_____________.
a) Outward b) Inward c) Has no direction d) None of these
li.

these
S
In a P-N-P transistor emitter current is equal to______________.
a) 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝑐 b) 𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝑐 c) 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐵 d) None of
S
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.
B B A A A B C B A B
xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx.
C B C B A C B A C C
xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx.
P

C A C A B A B C B B
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl.
A A C C D A B A C A
xli. xlii. xliii. xliv. xlv. xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix. l.
U

C B C B A B B A A B
li.
A

Questions From Past Papers (complete Chapter):

i. Write short note on: Band theory of solids. (1997)
ii. Write short note on: n-p-n or p-n-p transistor. (1998)
iii. Write short note on: Semiconductor diode (1999)
iv. What is doping? Explain how p-type and n-type semiconductors are made?
(2002)Pre Med

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 v. How are p-type and n-type semiconductor made? Explain with diagram the forward and
reverse biasing of p-n junction. (2002)Pre Eng
vi. What is a transistor? Describe the working of NPN transistor. (2003)Pre Med
vii. What is a semiconductor diode? Describe the working of full-wave rectifier using
semiconductor diode with the help of a circuit diagram. (2005)
viii. What is transistor? Describe the working of a NPN or PNP transistor. (2006)
ix. How are p-type and n-type semiconductor made? Explain with diagram the forward and
reverse biasing of p-n junction. (2007)
x. Calculate the speed of the electromagnetic wave given that 𝜖0 = 8.85 ×
𝐶2
10−12 𝑁.𝑚2 , 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇. 𝑚/𝐴.

I
(2007)
xi. Describe the working of PNP or NPN transistor. (2009)

-I
xii. What is p-n junction? Explain the formation of potential barrier in p-n junction. (2010)
xiii. Explain the formation of potential barrier in p-n junction. (2011)
xiv. What is semiconductor diode? How is it used for half wave rectification? (2012)
xv.
xvi.

xvii.
10−12
𝑁.𝑚2
S
With the help of diagram, explain the working of a full wave rectifier.
Calculate the speed of the electromagnetic wave given that 𝜖0 = 8.85 ×
𝐶2
, 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇. 𝑚/𝐴.
Describe the function of a PN-junction as a halfwave rectifier.
(2013)

(2015)
(2016)
S
xviii. What is transistor? Why is it so called? Show diagrammatically the battery connection to pnp
transistor and npn transistor, for its normal working. (2017)
xix. What is meant by rectification? How does a semiconductor diode work as a half wave rectifier?
(2018)
xx. What is meant by conduction band and forbidden gap? Why does the resistance of a
P

semiconductor decrease with temperature? (2019)

i. Classify the solid on the basis of band theory of solids.

U

ii. Differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

iii. What is doping? Explain how p-type and n-type semiconductors are made?
iv. What is pn-junction diode? Explain the formation of potential barrier in pn-junction.
v. What is biasing? Explain its two types.
vi. What is rectification? Explain with the help the working of half wave and full wave rectifier.
vii. Describe the working of PNP and NPN transistor.
viii. Calculate the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space.

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 MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)
(2001)
i. P-type semiconductor is obtained by adding impurity material of group__________.
a) Five element b) Three element c) Four element d) Six element
(2002)Pre Med
ii. Semi conductor diode can be used as_____________.
a) Amplifier b) Rectifier c) Potentiometer d) Voltmeter
(2003)
iii. The speed of electromagnetic waves is given by:
1 1
a) b) c) √𝜇 𝑜 𝜖𝑜 d) 𝜇 𝑜 𝜖𝑜
√𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜

I
iv. In p-type semiconductor majority charge carriers are:
a) Electrons b) Protons c) Neutrons d) Holes

-I
v. Electrical conductors contain:
a) Only free electrons b) Only bond electrons c) Both free and bound electrons
d) Neither free nor bound electrons
vi. The elements of group IV like Ge and Si can be converted intp p-type semiconductor by:

vii.
S
a) Adding impurities of group V-A elements
b) Adding impurities of group III-A elements
c) Adding impurities of group V-A and III-A elements
d) None of these
The semiconductor diode is used as:
S
a) An amplifier b) An oscillator c) A rectifier d) None of these
(2005)
viii. A semiconductor diode is used as:
a) Amplifier b) Rectifier c) Modulator d) Oscillator
(2006)
P

ix. A pn-junction can be used as:

a) Rectifier b) Amplifier c) Transformer d) Ohm-meter
(2007)
x. The speed of electromagnetic waves is given by:
U

1 1
a) b) c) √𝜇 𝑜 𝜖𝑜 d) 𝜇 𝑜 𝜖𝑜
√𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜
xi. A semiconductor diode is used as:
a) Amplifier b) An Oscillator c) A Rectifier d) None
(2008)
xii. The potential difference applied across pn-junction which results in the reduction in the barrier
potential is:
a) Reverse biased b) Forward biased c) Charging inductor d) Inductor
xiii. In a semiconductor:
a) Electrons move in the conduction band while the holes moves in the forbidden band.
b) Holes moves in the conduction band while the electrons move in the forbidden band.

Page 193 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 c) Electrons move in the conduction band while the holes move in the valence band.
d) Holes move in the conduction band while the electrons move in the valence band.
(2009)
xiv. The device which is used to convert AC into DC is called:
a) Amplifier b) LED d) Commutator c) Rectifier
xv. A diode which gives of visible light when energized, is called:
a) LCD b) Photo-diode c) LED d) Photo voltaic cell
(2011)
xvi. Emitter base junction is forward biased in:
a) PNP transistor b) NPN transistor c) Both PNP and NPN transistor d) Rectifier
xvii. Pn-junction diode works as an insulator if connected:

I
a) To AC source b) In forward bias c) In reverse bias d) All of them
xviii. A photoelectric cell transforms light energy into:

-I
a) Heat energy b) Electric energy c) Magnetic energy d) Sound energy
(2012)
xix. With the increase of temperature the resistance of a semiconductor:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remains same d) Becomes zero

xx.

xxi.
a)
√𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜
b)
𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜
S (2013)
The speed of electromagnetic waves is given by:
1 1
c) √𝜇 𝑜 𝜖𝑜 d) 𝜇 𝑜 𝜖𝑜
A diode which gives of visible light when energized, is:
S
a) Photo diode b) LED c) Photo voltaic cell d) LCD
(2014)
xxii. Hole in a semiconductor is actually the:
a) Electron b) Positron c) Helium nucleus d) Vacancy in the valence band
(2015)
P

xxiii. Donor impurities are:

a) Ge and Si b) In and Ga c) Sb and As d) Li and Ga
xxiv. Those are donor impurities:
a) Li and Ga b) Ge and Si c) Sb and As d) In and Ga
(2017)
U

xxv. In a semiconductor, the energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is:
a) Narrow b) wide c) not present d) infinity

(2018)

xxvi. Emitter base junction is forward biased in:

a) PNP transistor b) NPN transistor c) Both PNP and NPN transistors d) Neither PNP nor
NPN transistor
(2019)
xxvii. The application of electric potential across the diode is called:
a) Doping b) biasing c) impurity addition d) potential barrier

Page 194 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.
B B A D C B C B A A C B
xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv.
C C C C C B B A B D C C
xxv xxvi xxvii.
A C B

I
-I
S
S
P
U

Page 195 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Advent of Modern Physics

Any three dimensional co-ordinate system with respect to which physical measurements are
made is known as a frame of reference. It consists of three mutually perpendicular co-ordinate
axes.
Inertial Frame of Reference:
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s law of inertia is valid. Such a frame
moves with uniform velocity is a non-accelerating frame of reference.

I
All inertial frames of reference are equivalent from the point of view of making physical
measurements.

-I
A physical quantity as measured by different observers moving with respect to each other with
different velocities in different frames of reference may have different values, but the basic
physical laws governing such measurements always remain the same. For example if two
observers in different inertial frames measure the velocity and momentum of two colliding
bodies they may get their different values, but the basic laws such as law of conservation of

Non Inertial Frame of Reference.

S
momentum and energy will remain same for both of them.

A frame of reference having acceleration is called a non-inertial frame of reference. In this

frame the law of inertia is not valid.
S
Theory of relativity is of two types:
i. Special theory of relativity, which deals with bodies or frames of reference moving with
uniform velocity with respect to each other.
P

ii. General theory of relativity, which deals with frames of reference in accelerated relative
motion.
Postulates of Einstein’s theory of relativity:
i. Absolute rest or absolute motion is nothing. All states of rest or motion are relative.
That is, an object at rest w.r.t an observe may be in motion w.r.t to another observer.
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Similarly, an object in motion w.r.t one observer may be at rest w.r.t to another
observer.
ii. All frames of reference moving with uniform velocity w.r.t each other are equivalent for
the statement and description of physical laws. It means that the observers in such
frames may not agree about the measurement of physical quantities such as
momentum, time, force etc. but they all agree about the basic laws of physics.
For example they will all agree about the statement of the law of conservation of
momentum.
iii. Light is in absolute motion that is the speed of light in free space does not depend upon
the motion of source or the motion of observer. The speed of light in free space is same
for all observers.

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Einstein’s special theory of relativity gives the following results.
1. Mass Variation:
If “mo” is the mass of a body at rest in observer’s frame of reference, then it’s mass “m”
as measured by an observer from another frame of reference moving with uniform
velocity “v” with respect to the body’s frame is given by:
𝑚𝑜
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐

I
Here “C” is the velocity of light in free space or in air its value is 3x108m/s.
The above relation shows that mass “m” of the body appears to increase to an observer

-I
moving with velocity “v” with respect to the body. Hence mass of a body depends upon
whether the body is at rest or is in motion relative to the observer. This effect takes
place only if the relative velocity between the object and the observer is comparabl e to
the speed of light “C”. This effect is known as “Mass Variation”.
2. Length Contraction: S
If “Lo” is the length of a rod when it is at rest relative to an observer then its new length
“L” when it is in motion with velocity “v” relative to the same observer, is given by;
𝑣2
S
𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑜 √1 − 2
𝑐
Hence length of the rod appears to reduce when there is relative motion between an
observer and the rod, provided the relative velocity is comparable to speed of light.
This effect is known as “Length Contraction”.
P

Length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion of the body. There is
no change in length of the body perpendicular to the direction of its motion, hence
change appears when the length is parallel to direction of motion.
3. Time Dilation:
U

If “to” be the time interval between two events at a point in space as recorded by an
observer at rest with respect to that point. Then the time interval “t” recorded between
the same two events by another observer moving with velocity “v” relative to that point
is given by;
𝑡𝑜
𝑡=
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
This effect is known as time dilation. “to” is called the proper time and “t” is called
relativistic time.

Page 197 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Above three effects take place only when the relative velocity “v” approaches the speed of light
in vacuum. The relative speed at which these effects become noticeable is called “relativistic
speed”.
2
Factor √1 − 𝑣𝑐2 which appears in these equations is called “Lorentz Factor”. For ordinary relative
velocities this factor is practically unity (1). Hence relativistic effects cannot be detected at
ordinary velocities. These effects cannot be neglected if the relative speed is comparable to the
speed of light.
4. Mass Energy Relation:
Mass and energy are inter convertible. A mass “m” is equivalent to energy “mc 2”, where “c” is

I
the speed of light.
If “mo” is the rest mass of a body then its energy equivalent is moc2.

-I
When the body moves with relativistic speed “v” its mass becomes “m” which is equal to
energy “mc2”. This energy is greater than the rest mass energy by amount equal to K.E of the
body.
i.e. 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸
we write;

Where;
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = total energy
S 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑜𝑐2 + 𝐾
S
𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = Rest mass energy
K = kinetic energy.
P

A black body is one which absorbs all the radiations

of energy striking on its surface i.e. the absorption
power of a black body is 100%.
A hole in the wall of a cavity is very nearly a black
body because any radiation which gets into this
U

hole is almost completely absorbed in the cavity by

multiple reflection. The surface of cavity is painted
black to enhance its absorption power.
Black Body Radiation:
When the walls of a cavity are heated from outside then radiations emitted from the hole in the
cavity is called black body radiation.
Since good absorbers are also good emitters therefore the hole of cavity radiator has nearly
100% emissive power.
Spectrum of black body radiation is continuous. It means that black body radiation consists of
all wavelengths in a certain range.
Page 198 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
Intensity or Monochromatic Emissive Power:
The energy of a particular wavelength emitted per unit time per unit area of a surface is called
intensity or monochromatic emissive power. It is denoted by E . Its unit is watt/m2.
How does intensity of black body radiation vary with wavelength:
Graph shows the energy among
different wavelengths. It is clear
that intensity of short wavelengths
is low. As wavelength increases,
intensity also increases until the E𝜆

I
intensity becomes maximum for a
E𝜆m
certain wavelength 𝜆m. The dominant
color in black body radiation is due to

-I
this wavelength. As wavelength
𝜆m
increases beyond 𝜆m then intensity
begins to decrease. Wa vel ength ( 𝜆)

Emissive Power:
S
Total energy of all wavelengths emitted per unit time per unit area of a surface at a certain
temperature is called emissive power at that temperature. It is denoted by “E” and it is equal to
the area under the curve drawn between intensity and wavelength at a certain temperature.
S
1. Wien’s Displacement Law: Vi s ible
This law states that the wavelength of maximum
Infra red
intensity in black body radiation is inversely Ul tra vi olet
P

regi on
regi on
proportional to the absolute temperature of
black body. i.e. E𝜆
1
𝜆𝑚 ∝
𝑇 6000k
U

1
𝜆 𝑚 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 5000k
𝑇 4000k
𝜆 𝑚 × 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜆m
Wavelength
Value of Wien’s constant is 0.0029mk.
2. Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law or Forth Power Law:
The law states that the total energy of all wavelength radiated per unit time per unit area of a
surface i.e. emissive power is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature.

Page 199 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝐸 ∝ 𝑇4
𝐸 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑇 4
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
Where; 𝜎=5.67x10-8 watt/m2k4.
3. Rayleigh-Jean’s Law:
The law states that the intensity of black body radiation for a particular wavelength is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
1
𝐸𝜆 ∝ 4
𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐸𝜆 =

I
𝜆4
The law is obeyed by radiation of large wavelength but is a failure for short wavelength i.e. for
ultraviolet radiation.

-I
The Rayleigh-Jean law gave values which were found to be much too large i.e. total energy
tending to acquire infinite value even at short wave lengths. This is called ultraviolet
catastrophe, because it is a serious discrepancy from physical point of view. That the energy

light and not ultra violet and x-rays.

4. Plank’s Law:
S
cannot be infinity. By common experience we know that hot bodies actually emits mostly red

In 1900, after the failure of Rayleigh Jean’s law, Max Plank has made some bold step to explain
S
the phenomenon of absorption or emission of radiation.
He firmly believed that a new mechanics should be introduced to explain such a phenomenon
instead of applying classical mechanics.
He thus proposed three fundamental postulates to explain the phenomenon of emission of
radiation, often called Plank’s Law For Radiations.
P

1st Postulate:
The origin of emission of radiations from a cavity radiator is infact, harmonic oscillator of the
cavity.
2nd Postulate:
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The emission or absorption of energy is not considered as a continuous phenomenon, but infact
it is Quantized.
3rd Postulate:
Only those harmonic oscillators emit energy inform of electromagnetic wave those minimum
energy must be equal to “h𝜐” or integral multiple of “h𝜐”.
Thus, Quantization of energy for nth harmonic oscillator can be written as;
En = n h𝜐
Where; n = 1,2,3,4…..
h= Plank’s constant = 6.63x10-34 J-s 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜐 = Frequency of harmonic oscillator.

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In 1887, Heinrich Hertz and Hallwach found that when electromagnetic radiations such as,
visible light. Ultraviolet light, x-rays incident on a metal surface, particles are found to emit out
of the metal surface.
“The phenomenon of emission of particles from a metal surface when it is illuminated by light
of suitable frequency is known as “Photoelectric Emission”. Whereas the emitted particles are
called “Photo Particles”.
In practice, it was observed that Alkali-Metals like Na, K, Cs etc are sensitive to only visible light,
but some other metals like Al, Zn, Cu, Cd etc, are sensitive to ultraviolet and x-rays only.

I
Later on, Lenard has made an attempt to determine e/m of photo-particle, equal to e/m of an
electron. He thus suggested that photo-particles are infact “Electrons”, called “Photo-

-I
Electrons”.
Experimental Arrangement:
The Hallwach’s experimental arrangement
X-Rays
consists of two zinc plates are fixed inside
S
an evacuated bulb. The plates are connected
with the positive and negative terminals of
a battery of known P.D.
A micro-Am meter is connected in the
Zn- Zn+
S
circuit to observe phenomenon of emission
of photo-electrons.
When ultraviolet light of suitable frequency
incident on cathode plate, a very feeble
mA
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current in few micro ampere flow in the circuit. - +

But, when the same radiations incident on anode
plate no such current is found in the circuit concern.
Laws of Photoelectric Effect or Results of Photoelectric Effect:
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After the number of experiment performed by the scientists some fundamental laws were
formulated about the emission of photoelectrons.
These laws are;
i. To every metal surface there must needed radiations in a particular frequency range,
below which no photoelectric emission takes place.

𝝊𝒐

ii. The strength of photoelectric current directly depends on intensity of radiation,

provided 𝜐 > 𝜐𝑜 .

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 iii. The velocity and hence kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted out of metal surface
directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiations, provided 𝜐 > 𝜐𝑜 .
iv. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous phenomenon. The time needed for
emission of a photo-electron from metal surface, is no more longer than 3x10 -9 second.

After the failure of classical mechanics, Albert Einstein proposed a new ideology about the
nature of light on the basis of Plank’s Quantum Theory of Radiation.
According to him;
“A light ray of frequency “𝜐” is composed of tiny packets of energy, called Photons. In

I
radiations of frequency (𝜐) only those photons exist whose energy remains equal to(h𝜐) or
integral multiple of h𝜐”.
Hence, for quantization of energy in photons of radiations we may write as;

-I
En = n h𝜐
Where; n = 1,2,3,4…..
h= Plank’s constant = 6.63x10-34 J-s
𝜐 = Frequency of Light.

According to Einstein’s ideology;

S
S
When a ray of light of frequency “𝜐” is incident on a metal surface such that 𝜐 > 𝜐𝑜 , then
photon of radiations losses its energy completely into two ways.
i. Some part of photon’s energy is utilized in doing work against the lattice-energy of
surface.
ii. The rest of photon’s energy is used in imparting kinetic energy to the liberated electron.
P

𝝋𝒐
The magnitude of photoelectric work function directly depends on the threshold
frequency needed for metal surface.
U

Mathematically;
𝜑𝑜 ∝ 𝜐𝑜
𝜑𝑜 = ℎ𝜐𝑜

Let us assume that;

i. The frequency of incident light = 𝜐
ii. The energy of incident photon = h 𝜐
iii. The threshold frequency for metal surface = 𝜐𝑜
iv. The photoelectric work function needed for the metal surface = 𝜑𝑜 = ℎ𝜐𝑜
v. The K.E gained by the liberated electron

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 1
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Now , applying law of conservation of energy,
ℎ𝜐 = 𝜑𝑜 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝜐𝑜 + 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1
ℎ𝜐 − ℎ𝜐𝑜 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1 1
ℎ (𝜐 − 𝜐𝑜 ) = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∴ 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒
𝑐
ℎ(𝜐 − 𝜐𝑜 ) = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 ∴ 𝜐= 𝜆

I
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ ( − ) = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒
𝜆 𝜆0
where 𝑉𝑜 is stopping potential

-I
and “e” is the charge on an electron.
Where “𝜆” is the wavelength of incident light and “𝜆o” is the threshold or cut off wavelength
𝜆

vacuum.
S and “c” is the speed of light in
S
A photocell is a device used to produce photoelectric current.
Construction: Evacuated
It consists of an evacuated glass tube fitted with two Glass Tube Cathode
electrodes. Cathode plate is made curved and
coated with a thin layer of some photosensitive
P

metal such as “cesium” so that visible light causes Light

photoelectric emission. The anode is made of a
thin rod so as not to obstruct light falling on
cathode. A source of light is installed at a fixed
distance light from the source falls on cathode and
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Anode
the emitted photoelectrons converge at the anode
to produce photoelectric current.
Application or Uses of Photocell: + -
Photo cells work on the basis of photo electric effect. These are widely used in various devices.
Some uses of photo cells are:
i. To count vehicles passing a road or to count the number of articles running on a
conveyer belt.
ii. To automatically open doors.
iii. To operate burglar.
iv. To automatically switch on and switch off street lights.

Page 203 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 v. Small electric cars even small single sealer planes have been developed which make use
of solar panels consisting of a large number of photo cell, that convert solar energy into
electrical energy.

Rest mass of photon is zero. However photon has mass as well as momentum in motion. Its
velocity is equal to the velocity of light.
Energy of a photon may be given by;
E = h 𝜐 (Einstein’s Quantum Theory).
And E=mc2 (Theory of Relativity).

I
Therefore;
𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ 𝜐
ℎ𝜐

-I
𝑚𝑐 =
𝑐
But mc= p = momentum of photon
ℎ𝜐
Therefore; 𝑝=
𝑐
But 𝑐 = 𝜐𝜆
Therefore; S 𝑝=

𝑝=
ℎ𝜐
𝜐𝜆
ℎ
S
𝜆
The momentum of photon is directly proportional to the frequency “𝜐” and inversely
proportional to the wavelength “𝜆” of the radiation.
P

In 1922, A.H Compton has made a successful interaction of x-ray’s photon and free Electron of
material of low atomic number like “Carbon”. This Photoelectron interaction is often called
“Compton Effect”.
Mechanism:
When a x-ray’s photon of every sharp frequency is incident on a carbon block, it gets successful
U

collision with a free electron, transfers energy to electron and scatters with rest of energy.
In this interaction, the energy and frequency of scattered photon will be less than that of
incident photon and hence, the wavelength of scattered photon will be increased than that of
incident photon.
The change in wavelengths of scattered photon and incident photon is called “Compton Shift”
in wavelength and symbolized by “∆𝜆”.

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Derivation For Compton Shift In Wavelength:

𝜐′
𝜆’
‘
ℎ𝜐′
ℎ𝜐′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐
𝑐

ℎ𝜐′ y-a xi s
𝜆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃 𝑐
x-a xi s
ℎ𝜐 𝜑 mvcos 𝜑
m ov=0

I
𝑐

-mvsin𝜑

-I
mv

S m
The collision between photon and electron is elastic, therefore momentum and energy both are
conserved.
For Conservation of Energy:
S
Total initial energy = Total final energy
ℎ 𝜐 + 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜐′ + 𝐸
ℎ 𝜐 − ℎ𝜐′ + 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝐸
ℎ (𝜐 − 𝜐′ ) + 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝐸 − − − −(𝑖)
P

h= Plank’s Constant
𝜐 = Frequency of incident photon
𝜐’ = Frequency of scattered photon
𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = Rest mass energy of electron
U

C = speed of light
E = Energy of electron after collision
For Conservation of Momentum:
Along original direction:
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
ℎ𝜐 ℎ 𝜐′
+0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑐 𝑐
Multiply by “c”.
ℎ 𝜐 = ℎ 𝜐′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑝𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
ℎ 𝜐 − ℎ 𝜐′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑝𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − − − −(𝑖𝑖)
𝜃 = Angle at which photon is scattered
Page 205 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
𝜑 = Angle at which electron is scattered
Perpendicular to original direction:
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
ℎ 𝜐′
0+0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝑐
ℎ 𝜐′
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝑐
ℎ 𝜐′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝𝑐. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 − − − −(𝑖𝑖𝑖)
solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii) simultaneously we get,
(Note: the solution of these equations is not in our syllabus)

I
1 1 ℎ
′
= + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) − − − −(𝑖𝑣)
𝜐 𝜐 𝑚𝑜𝑐2
Now;

-I
𝑐 1 𝜆 1 𝜆′
C= 𝜐𝜆, 𝜐 = or = and =
𝜆 𝜐 𝑐 𝜐′ 𝑐
Therefore eq (iv) gives;
𝜆′ 𝜆 ℎ
= + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑐2

𝜆′ = 𝜆 +
ℎ
S
Multiply throughout by “c”
ℎ
𝑚𝑜𝑐
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
S
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚𝑜𝑐
ℎ
∆𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚𝑜𝑐
Where, ∆𝜆 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
P

Under suitable conditions when a photon passes near a nucleus it disappears and an electron-
positron pair is produced. This phenomenon is known as “Pair Production”.
U

Positron is a positively charged particle its charge and mass are equal to the charge and mass of
an electron, the only difference between the two particle is that positron is positive and
electron is a negative particle. Positron is the anti-particle of electron.
According to Einstein’s mass energy equation. The energy required to create an electron is
“𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 ” (called rest mass energy of electron) when “𝑚 𝑜 ” is the rest mass of an electron. Hence
the minimum energy required for pair production is “2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 ” which is;
2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2
2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 1.638 × 10−13 𝐽
1.638 × 10−13
2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝑒. 𝑉
1.6021 × 10−19

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 2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 1.022 × 106 𝑒. 𝑉
2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 = 1.022 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ∴ 1MeV= 106eV
Pair production takes place only if the energy of the photon is equal or greater than
1.022 𝑀𝑒𝑉. If the energy of the photon is greater than “2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 ” then during the process
“2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 ” energy is used to create the electron-position pair whereas the remaining energy is
carried away by the two particles in the form of K.E. the two particles move in opposite
direction carrying equal amount of K.E.
∴ ℎ𝜐 = 2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒− + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒+
If energy of the incident photon is less than “2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 ” no pair production will take place.
During this process energy, momentum and charge are all conserved.

I
Pair production is also known as “Materialization of Energy”.

-I
If an electron (a particle) and a positron (anti-particle) come close to each other they combine
and destroy each other. This process is the reverse process of pair production and is known as
“Annihilation of Matter”. During this process at least two photons are produced. To conserve
S
momentum these photons move in opposite direction. Charge and energy are also conserved.
(𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− + (𝐾. 𝐸 )𝑒− + (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ + (𝐾. 𝐸 )𝑒+ = 2ℎ𝜐
(𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− is the rest mass energy of electron and (𝐾. 𝐸 )𝑒− is its K.E, similarly (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ is the
rest mass energy of positron and (𝐾𝐸 )𝑒+ is its KE and ℎ𝜐 is the energy of each photon.
S
In 1924, a French physicist Louis-de-Broglie has proposed a new ideology about the nature of
light called “Dual Nature of Light”.
P

According to him, light has dual nature i.e. it exhibits wave nature and matter nature under
appropriate conditions. E.g. when light exhibits wave nature, it produces phenomenon like
Reflection, Refraction, Interference, Diffraction and Polarization etc.
Similarly, when light exhibits matter nature, it produces phenomenon like Photoelectric effect
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and Compton effect.

He further added that “Matter” also has dual nature like radiations (Light). His ideology was
based on three basic postulates given below.
i. Nature loves symmetry.
ii. Strong Parallelism between mechanics and optics.
iii. Integral Rules in atom and wave motion.
By the observations, De-Broglie found that the momentum of an electron and momentum of a
photon is equal.
i.e.
P(electron) = P(photon)

Page 207 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ℎ
𝑚𝑣 =
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Where; m = mass of matter particle like electron.
v = velocity of particle
𝜆 = wave length of matter wave.
This equation originally proposed for electrons are equally applicable to any other particle.
Hence wave length “𝜆” associated with any moving body can be calculated with the help of
above equation. Waves associated with the particles are known as De-Broglie’s waves.

I
Wavelength “𝜆” associated with ordinary bodies moving with ordinary velocities (such as a car)
is very long and hence do not represent any appreciable wave character. But the wavelength
“𝜆” associated with a fast moving light particle (such as electron etc) lies within the range of

-I
electromagnetic spectrum and cannot be neglected.
Davisson and Germer in 1927 experimentally proved the existence of De-Broglie waves
associated with fast moving electrons. Experimentally measured value of the wavelength

S
associated with fast moving electrons matched with the value theoretically predicted by De-
Broglie. Later on same wave like behavior was observed with other particles such as protons,
neutrons and atoms etc.
S
In this experiment electrons showed their wave nature. Electrons emitted from a
filament pass through voltage “V” and gain K.E. These high speed electrons strike a nickel
target and reflect at different angles and the
V
intensity of reflected electron beam is measured by
P

the moveable detector D.

It was found that the intensity of reflected A B
electron beam was different at different angles.
This behavior of electrons was explained by Davisson
U

and Germer. When they assumed that electrons were

not particles but wave. The electrons were showing
diffraction and interference by making maxima and
minima of intensity.
D
Wavelength of Electrons:
Through the voltage, electrons gain k.E i.e.
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑞𝑜 ∆𝑉
1
𝑚 𝑜 𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2

Page 208 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 2 𝑒𝑉
𝑣2 =
𝑚0
2 𝑒𝑉
𝑣 =√
𝑚0
Now;
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑜𝑣
ℎ
𝜆=
2 𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑜√ 𝑚

I
0
ℎ
𝜆=
2 𝑒𝑉

-I
√𝑚 0 2
𝑚0
ℎ
𝜆=
√2 𝑒𝑉𝑚 0

S
Where “e” is the charge and “𝑚 0 ” is the rest mass of electron.

For a microscopic particle it is impossible to measure accurately the momentum and position
S
simultaneously. The principle states that, “The product of uncertainty in the momentum of a
particle at a certain instant and the uncertainty in the position of the particle at the same
ℎ
instant is equal to or greater than 2𝜋
Mathematically;
ℎ ℎ
P

∆𝑝 × ∆𝑥 ≥ ∴ℏ=
2𝜋 2𝜋
Or ∆𝑝 × ∆𝑥 ≥ ℏ
Or ∆𝑝 × ∆𝑥 ≈ ℏ
Where; ∆𝑝 = Uncertainty in momentum
∆𝑥 = Uncertainty in position
U

ℎ = Plank’s constant
Another form of uncertainty principle states that the product of uncertainty in the
measurement of energy and the time available for the measurement of energy is equal to or
greater than ℏ.

∆𝐸 × ∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ
Or
∆𝐸 × ∆𝑡 ≈ ℏ
or

Page 209 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Why the uncertainty principle is of no importance in our everyday life???
Because the value of Plank’s constant “h” is very small that the uncertainties in position and
momentum of even quite light objects far too small to be experimentally observed for
microscopic phenomena such as atomic process, the displacements and momentum are such
that the uncertainty is critically applicable.
X---------------x-----------------x-------------------x--------------------x-----------------x---------------x-----------x

i. Explain why the Compton effect is not observable with visible light?

I
Ans: In Compton’s experiment, x-ray of wavelength 1 oA, equivalent to energy 140eV,
were directed on a graphite block, where binding energies of bounded electrons

-I
were102eV. If visible light is used, it possesses law of frequency and these photons have
energies 0.1eV. This energy is too small to be given to loosely bound electrons to get
them scattered.
ii. In what why do the particles of light (photons) differ from the particles of matter, such
as electrons and proton?
Ans:

i. Non-zero rest mass.

S
Particles of matter (electron, proton etc)

ii. They possess inertia and contain no

Particles of light (Photons)
i. Zero rest mass.
ii. They consists of waves in packets
S
energy “packets”. of discrete amounts (called “energy
iii. Their speed is always less than c packets” or quanta).
(speed of light). iii. They travel with speed equal to
iv. Their energy proportional to the that of light.
2
square of the speed (E=1/2mv ). iv. Their energy is proportional to
P

v. They may be charged or frequency (E=h𝑣).

uncharged. v. They are always electrically neutral.
vi. When in motion, they are guided vi. They are not guided by matter
by the matter waves. waves.
iii. In the photoelectric effect, the energy of a photoelectron in less than that of incident
U

photon. Explain?
Ans: when radiation (a photon) strikes a metal surface, it deposits its entire energy on
some electron in the absorbing surface. If the energy of the photon (h𝑣) exceeds the
energy required by the electron in work against the force binding it to the surface (∅𝑜 ),
it will be emitted with some energy. As K.E=h𝑣 − ∅𝑜 , hence K.E<h𝑣.
iv. If we keep applying a force on a material object, can the object gain the speed of
light?
Ans: if we keep applying a force which can produce a velocity equal to velocity of light (v
= c), then the mass of the material body would become infinite. This is not possible.

Page 210 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 v. Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain.
Ans: No, because this process requires a heavy nucleus to conserve momentum and
energy of the system. The heavy nucleus takes the recoil after stopping the photon.
vi. Can an intense beam of television waves focused on a metal cause photoemission?
Ans: No, because TV waves are low frequency, while a metal requires high threshold
frequency for photoemission.
vii. Both Photoelectric emission and Compton scattering are processes that involve
interaction of radiation with matter. How do they differ?
Ans: In photoelectric effect a energy photon (e.g. ultraviolet light) can lose all its energy
on striking an electrons and the photon vanishes. But in Compton Effect, a high energy

I
photon (e.g. x-ray) loses part of energy and a photon is scattered with the remaining
energy ( and hence frequency decreases).

-I
viii. What happens to total radiation from black body if its absolute temperature is
doubled?
Ans: According to Stephen Boltzmann law the total radiation “E” from a black body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

S
When temperature is doubled T’ =2T
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4

𝐸′ = 𝜎(𝑇′)4
𝐸′ = 𝜎(2𝑇)4
𝐸′ = 16(𝜎𝑇)4
S
𝐸′ = 16𝐸
This shows the total radiation energy will be increase 16 times.
ix. Will higher frequency light ejects greater number of electron than low frequency
light?
P

Ans: No, the number of photoelectrons does not depend upon the frequency of light
but depend upon the intensity of light. Therefore higher frequency light will not emit
more electrons than a low frequency light. It means both high and low frequency light
emit the same number of electrons.
U

x. When a photon disappears in producing an electron and a position, is the energy of

photon equivalent to that of the particles produced? Explain.
Ans: No, the energy of photon is always greater that the res t mass energy of elements
position pair (1.02MeV). The surplus energy is taken by the two particles as their kinetic
energy.

Page 211 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Ex # 17.1
Exercise based on Special theory of relativity:
MCQs
i. A frame of reference moving with constant velocity is called___________.
a) None initial frame of reference b) Inertial frame of reference c) Constant
frame of reference d) None of these
ii. Apparent motion observed in different frames of reference by an observer__________.

I
a) Are same b) Are different c) Both d) None of these
iii. The co-ordinate transformation of one frame of reference into another frame of
reference, moving with uniform velocity is called__________.

-I
a) Newton’s transformation b) Galilean transformation c) Neither of these d)
None of these
iv. For two frames of reference moving relative to each other the relation V = V + V’ for

v.
S
velocity is called_______________.
a) Newton’s transformation for velocities b) Galilean transformation for velocities
c) Both of these d) None of these
An accelerating frame of reference is called___________.
a) Inertial frame of reference b) Non inertial frame c) Both of these d) None of
S
these
vi. An inertial frame is that frame in which_____________.
a) a>0 b) a=0 c) a<0 d) None of these
vii. In inertial frame of reference_____________.
P

a) Newton’s laws of motion are valid b) Newton’s laws of motion are not valid
c) Both of them are true d) None of these
viii. The famous special theory of relativity is proposed by______________.
a) Maxwell b) Coulomb c) Einstein d) None of these
U

ix. The special theory of relativity is based on______________.

a) One postulate b) Two postulates c) Three postulates d) None of these
x. The assumption that all frames of references moving with uniform velocity relative to
each other are equivalent for the statement of description of physical law is called
the___________.
a) Principle of Newton’s law b) Principle of motion c) Principle of relativity d)
None of these
xi. According to the special theory of relativity mass of an object of rest mass mo moving at
speed v is given by________________.

Page 212 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 𝑚𝑜 𝑚𝑜 𝑣2
a) 𝑚 = b) 𝑚 = c) 𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑜 √1 − d) None of these
𝑣 2
√1−𝑣 2 𝑐2
√1−
𝑐 𝑐

xii. According to the special theory of relativity the expression for time dilation is given
by________________.
𝑣2 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜
a) 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 √1 − 𝑐2 b) 𝑡 = 2
c) 𝑡 = 𝑣
d) None of these
√1−𝑣2 √1−
𝑐 𝑐

xiii. According to the special theory of relativity the length of a rod L o in moving frame
appear to an observer in another frame is______________.
𝐿𝑜 𝑣2 𝐿𝑜
a) 𝐿 = b) 𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑜 √1 − 𝑐2 c) 𝐿 = d) None of these

I
2 𝑣
√1−𝑣2 √1−
𝑐 𝑐

xiv. In different inertial frames of reference the velocity of an object observed by observers

-I
in their respective frames will be___________.
a) Same b)Different c) Opposite d) None of these
xv. The special theory of relativity is related to the________________.
a) Non inertial frame b) Inertial frame of reference c) Both of these d) None of

xvi.
these S
The general theory of relativity treats problems involving_____________.
a) Inertial frame of reference b) Accelerated frames of reference c) Both of these
d) None of these
S
xvii. The speed of light is same for all observers_____________.
a) In same frames of reference b) In different frames of reference c) Both of
these d) None of these
xviii. The description of physics laws for all inertial frames are__________.
P

a) Equivalent b) Not equivalent c) Neither of these d) None of these

xix. Einstein’s mass energy relation is given by_______________.
𝑚
a) 𝐸 = 𝑚2 𝑐 2 b) 𝐸 = 2
c) 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 d) None of these
√1−𝑣 2
𝑐

xx. If the rest mass of particle is mo and relativistic mass is m then its K.E will
U

be_________________.
1
a) 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑐 2 b) 𝑚𝑐 2 − 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 c) 𝑚 𝑜 𝑣 2 d) None of these
2
xxi. According to special theory of relativity a moving clock:
a) Ticks faster b) Ticks slower c) Neither runs faster nor slower d) None of
these
xxii. If a body of rest mass mo moving with the speed of light (c) then its mass
becomes______________.
a) Zero b) Double of its rest mass c) Infinite d) None of these
xxiii. According to the special theory of relativity space and time have___________.

Page 213 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Absolute meaning b) Relative meaning c) Selective meaning d) None of
these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.
B B B B B B A C C C B B
xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii.
B B B B C A C B A C B

Questions From Past Papers:

i. Write a short note on Special theory of relativity (1993)
ii. Write a short note on Special theory of relativity (1995)

I
iii. Write a short note on Special theory of relativity (1997)
iv. State the basic postulates of special theory of relativity. (1999)

-I
v. Explain the important results arrived at by Einstein on the basis of this theory. (1999)
vi. Give the postulates and explain the consequences of special theory of relativity.
(2002)Pre Med
vii. Give the postulates of special theory of relativity and discuss the important result

viii.
obtained by Einstein.
S (2002)Pre Eng
What do you understand by the frame of reference and inertial frame of reference?
Give one example of each from daily life. Briefly discuss the three basic equations for
relativity predicting the relativistic changes. (2005)
S
ix. What are the postulates of the special theory of relativity? Explain any three results of
Einstein’s theory of relativity. (2006)
x. Give the assumptions of special theory of relativity and discuss any one of the results
obtained. (2014)
xi. What are inertial and non inertial frame of reference. Also give the consequences of the special
P

theory of relativity. (2017)

xii. Write the principle of relativity and the two postulates of special theory of relativity. (2018)

Numericals From Past Papers:

U

i. A 50m trailer is moving with relativistic speed. It passes over a bridge of length 40m. To
an observer at rest with respect to the bridge at one instant, the trailer seems to overlap
the bridge i.e. the ends of the trailer seem to coincide with the ends of bridge. Find the
speed of the trailer. Ans: 1.8x108m/s (1991)
ii. Find the relativistic speed at which the kinetic energy of a particle of rest mass m o
becomes double its rest mass energy. Given mo=1.67x10-27kg. Also calculate:
a) Rest mass energy
b) Kinetic energy
c) Total energy Ans: 0.94C, 939.37Mev, 1878.575Mev,2818.125Mev (1996)

Page 214 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 iii. Find the speed at which the mass of a particle will be doubled. Ans: 2.56x10 8m/s
(2002)Pre Med
iv. Given moc2=0.511MeV. Find the total energy E and the kinetic energy K of an electron
moving with a speed v = 0.85c. Ans: 0.979MeV, 0.459MeV (2002)Pre Eng
v. If a neutron is converted entirely into energy, how much energy is produced? Express
your answer in joule and electron-volt. Ans: 9.39x108eV (2003)Pre Med
vi. Estimate the relativistic mass and the wavelength associated with an electron moving at
0.9c. Ans: 2.087x10 -30kg, 1.176x10-12m (2006)
vii. Calculate the relativistic speed at which the mass of a particle becomes double its rest
mass. Ans: 2.59x10 8m/s (2008)

I
viii. What will be the relative velocity and momentum of a particle whose rest mass is mo
2√3
and kinetic energy equal to twice of its rest mass energy. Ans: c, 2√ 2moc (2011)

-I
3
ix. Given moc2=0.511MeV. Find the total energy “E” and the kinetic energy K of an electron
moving with speed v=0.85c. mo=9.1x10-31kg, c=3x108m/s (2012)
x. What will be the velocity and momentum of a particle whose rest mass is mo and kinetic

xi.

xii.
S
energy is equal to twice of its rest mass energy. (2014) Ans: 0.94C, 2√2moC
What will be the relativistic velocity of a particle whose kinetic energy is twice of its rest
mass energy? (2015) Ans: 0.94C
What will be the velocity and momentum of a particle whose res t mass is mo and kinetic
S
energy is equal to twice of its rest mass energy? (2019) Ans: 0.94C, 2√ 2moC

Numericlas From Book:

i. In the inertial frame of a pendulum the time period is measured to be 3s. What will be
the period of the pendulum for an observer moving at a speed of 0.95 C with respect to
P

the pendulum? Ans: 9.6s

ii. What will be the length of a bar in the stationary frame if its length along the x-direction
is 1m and the motion is with a velocity 0.75C with respect to the observer at rest.
Ans: 0.66m
U

iii. Given moc2=0.511MeV. Find the total energy E and the kinetic energy K of an electron
moving a speed v = 0.85c. Ans: 0.970MeV, 0.459Mev
iv. The total energy of proton of mass 1.67x10 -27kg is three times its rest energy. Find
a) Proton rest energy
b) Speed of the proton
c) Kinetic energy K of proton in MeV
Given c=3x108m/s, and 1eV=1.60x10-19J Ans: 939MeV, 2.82x108m/s and
1878MeV
v. A particle of rest mass mo has a speed v=0.8C. Find its relativistic momentum, its kinetic
energy and total energy? Ans: 4/3moc, 2/3moc2,5/3moc2

Page 215 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 vi. What will be the velocity and momentum of a particle whose rest mass is mo and whose
√3
kinetic energy is equal to its rest mass energy. Ans: 𝐶, √ 3𝑚 𝑜 𝑐
2
vii. The sun radiates energy at a rate 3.8x10 26w. At what rate the mass of sun diminishes?
Ans: 1.32x1017kg per yr
viii. An electron has rest mass of 9.1x10-31Kg when it is rest relative to an observer. What will
be its mass when it is moving with a speed one half the speed of light c.
Ans: 10.50x10-31Kg
ix. The length of the measuring rod is 1m when it is at rest. What will its length be if it is
2√2
moving with a velocity one third of the speed of light? Ans: 3

I
x. If the average life time of a particle before it decays is 2x10 -6s. What will be its average
life time if it is moving with respect to an observer at speed c/2? Ans:2.3x10 -6s

-I
Assignment # 17.1
i. State the basic postulates of special theory of relativity.
ii. Explain the important results of special theory of relativity.
iii.

iv.
S
Two twins are 25 years old when one of them sets out on a journey through space at nearly
constant speed. The twin in the spaceship measures time with an accurate watch. When he
returns to earth, he chaims to be 31 years old, while the twin left on earth know that she is 43
years old. What was the speed of the spaceship? Ans: 0.943C
A particle of rest mass mo is traveling at a speed of 0.99C. find its relativistic mass. Ans: 7.1m o
S
v. Compute the rest mass energy of an electron in Mev. Ans: 0.512Mev
vi. The sun radiates energy equally in all directions. At the position of the earth (r=1.50x10 11 m), The
sun’s radiation is 1.4KW/m2 . How much mass does the sun lose per day because of the
radiation? Ans: 3.8X1014 kg
1400𝑤
[Hint : A=4𝜋𝑟 2, Δ𝐸/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐴 ( ) , Δ𝐸/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = Δ𝐸 × 86400, ∆𝑚 = ∆𝐸/𝑐 2 ]
P

𝑚2
vii. Find the speed and momentum of a proton (m o=1.67x10-27kg) that has been accelerated through
a PD of 2x109V. Ans: 0.948C, 1.49x10-18NS

Ex # 17.2
U

Exercise based on black body radiation:

MCQs
i. The radiant energy emitted per second per unit area in a unit wavelength range is
called____________.
a) Radiant energy power b) Monochromatic Emissive power (𝐸𝜆 )
c) Radiation power of black body d) None of these
ii. Radiations emitted by black body depend on___________.
a) Temperature only b) Material of the body c) Both of these d) None of these
iii. When a black body is heated the radiations from the hole of the cavity is
called____________.
Page 216 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 a) Black body radiation b) Cavity radiation c) Both of these d) None of these
iv. A perfect black body is__________.
a) Hollow metallic cavity whose exterior walls are blacked
b) Hollow metallic cavity with narrow opening whose interior walls are blacked
c) Neither of these d) None of these
v. The value of Stephen constant for a black body radiation is given by___________.
a) 5.6x10-8Wm-2k-4 b) 5.6x10-6Wm-2k-4 c) 2.9x10-3mk d) None of these
vi. According o Stephen’s law about black body___________.
1
a) 𝐸 ∝ b) 𝐸 ∝ 𝑇 2 c) 𝐸 ∝ 𝑇 4 d) None of these
𝑇4

I
vii. According to Wien’s displacement law of black body radiation wavelength of maximum
intensity and temperature are related by___________.
1
a) 𝜆 𝑚 ∝ 𝑇 b) 𝜆 𝑚 ∝ c) 𝜆 𝑚 ∝ 𝑇 2 d) None of these

-I
𝑇
viii. Wien’s formula is excellent for radiations of______________.
a) Shorter wavelength b) Longer wavelength c) Neither of these d) None of
these
ix.

x.
a) 𝐸𝜆 ∝ 𝜆 b) 𝐸𝜆 ∝
𝜆4
S
According to Rayleigh-Jeans law of black body energy associated with a particular
wavelength is related to wavelength by___________.
1
c) 𝐸𝜆 ∝
1
𝜆2
d) None of these
According to Max Plank, the energy of each quanta is given by:
S
ℎ
a) 𝐸 = 𝜈 b) 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 c) 𝐸 = √ ℎ𝜈 d) None of these
xi. Rayleigh jean formula is valid for_____________.
a) Shorter wavelength b) Longer wavelength c) Neither of these d) None of
these
P

xii. Planks formula for the energy distribution in black body radiation best fits for___
a) Short wavelength b) Long wavelength c) Both of these d) None of these

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.

U

B A A B A C B A B B B C
Questions From Pat Papers:
i. Write a short note on: Black body and it Laws of radiation. (2000)
ii. What is black body and black body radiation? State the laws governing the black body
and black body radiation. Give their mathematical expressions. (2007)
iii. What is a perfect black body? What is Max plank’s assumption to explain black body
radiation? Also write Plank’s law of black body radiation. (2019)

Page 217 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Ex # 17.3
Exercise based on photoelectric effect:

MCQs
i. The minimum frequency of the incident radiations below which no electrons are
emitted from the metal surface is known as____________.
a) Minimum frequency b) work function c) Threshold frequency d) None of
these

I
ii. The emission of electrons when certain metal surface is exposed to electromagnetic
radiations called___________.
a) Compton effect b) Photoelectric effect c) Pair-production d) None of these

-I
iii. The minimum energy of photon required to dislodge an electron from metal without
giving it any K.E is known as_____________.
a) Work function b) Maximum frequency c) Threshold frequency d) None of

iv.

v.
these
S
Photoelectric effect is discovered by_____________.
a) Einstein b) Maxwell c) Hertz d) None of these
The negative potential at which the ejection of photoelectrons just stops is called____.
a) Maximum potential b) Stopping potential c) Potential d) None of these
S
vi. In photoelectric emission the number of photo electrons emitted per second depends
on_____________.
a) Wavelength of incident light b) Frequency of incident light
c) Intensity of incident light d) None of these
P

vii. The strength of the photoelectric current depends on_____________.

a) Frequency of incident radiation b) Intensity of incident radiation c) Angle of
incidence d) None of these
viii. The Einstein’s photoelectric equation is____________.
U

1
a) ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝜙𝑜 b) ℎ𝜈 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 + 𝜙𝑜 c) ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝜙𝑜 d) None of these
2
ix. The photoelectric emission takes place if_______________.
b) ℎ𝜈 < 𝜙𝑜 b) ℎ𝜈𝑜 < 𝜙𝑜 c) ℎ𝜈 > 𝜙𝑜 d) None of these
x. Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of following assumption:
c) Light has particle nature b) Light consist of photons or quanta c) Light has
wave nature d) None of these
xi. The Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation in terms of threshold frequency is written
as____________.
ℎ𝜈−ℎ𝜈𝑜
a) 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 + ℎ𝜈𝑜 b) 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈𝑜 c) 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = d) None
2
of these
Page 218 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 xii. The maximum energy of photoelectron is given by______________.
1 1
a) 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = 2 𝑚𝑣 b) 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ c) 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 d) None of these

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.

C B A C B C B B C B B C

Questions From Past Papers:

i. Explain photoelectric effect. Write down the results obtained from the experiments on
photoelectric effect. (1994)

I
ii. Explain the phenomenon from the quantum theory of light. Derive Einstein’s
photoelectric effect equation. (1994)
iii. What is photoelectric effect? (1996)

-I
iv. Give Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect on the basis of quantum theory of
radiation. (1996)
v. Explain the phenomenon of photoelectric Emission. What are the factors on which it

vi.
vii.
S
depends? Give Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect on the basis of the
Quantum Theory of Radiation. What is photocell? Give its uses in our daily life. (1998)
Write a short note on: Photoelectric effect. (2000)
Define photoelectric effect. Explain it on the basis of quantum theory of light and obtain
Einstein’s photoelectric equation. (2001)
S
viii. Define Threshold frequency and stopping potential and derive Einstein’s photoelectric
effect equation. (2003)Pre eng
ix. What do you understand by photoelectric effect? Write down the definition of work
function, stopping potential and threshold frequency. Establish the relation between the
P

work function and the threshold frequency. (2005)

x. What is photoelectric effect? Discuss some of the important results of this theory.
Derive Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation. (2008)
xi. What is photoelectric effect? Discuss the results with the help of graphs and derive
U

Einstein’s photoelectric equation. (2011)

xii. What is photoelectric effect? Explain its important results. Also derive Einstein’s
photoelectric equation.(2013)
xiii. What is photoelectric effect? Explain it important results. Also derive Einstein’s
photo-electric equation. (2015)
xiv. What is photoelectric effect? What is meant by the terms:
a) Threshold frequency
b) Working function
c) Saturation current

Page 219 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 d) Stopping potential , Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equations in terms of frequency as
well as wavelength (2019)

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. Find the cut off wavelength for a given metal whose work function is 4.14eV. (1987)
Ans: 3002.7Ao
ii. The work function of certain metal is 3.03eV. When this metal is illuminated by the
infrared light of 1.2x1015Hz. Find the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted

I
photoelectrons. (1989) Ans: 1.94eV
iii. The work function of a photo emissive surface is 4.0eV. What will be the velocity of

-I
fastest photoelectrons emitted from it by an incident light of frequency 3.0x1015Hz.
(1992) Ans: 1.722x106m/s
iv. The work function of metal is 2eV. The light of wavelength 3000Ao is made to fall on it.
Find the kinetic energy of the fastest emitted photoelectrons. (1994) Ans: 2.144eV
v.

vi.
S o o
The range of visible light is 4000A to 7000A . Will photoelectrons be emitted by a
copper surface of work function 4.4eV, when illuminated by visible light? Give the
mathematical proof of your answer.
o
(1998)
When the light of the wavelength 4000A falls on a metal surface, stopping potential is
S
0.6 volts. Find the value of the work function of the metal. (2001) Ans: 2.5eV
vii. Sodium surface is shined with light of wave length 3x10 -7m. If the work function of Na =
2.46eV, find the K.E of the photoelectrons. (2003)Pre Med Ans: 1.68eV
viii. Sodium surface is shined with light of wave length 3x10 -7m. if the work function of Na =
2.46eV, find the K.E of the photoelectrons. (2003)Pre Eng Ans: 1.68eV
P

ix. What minimum energy is required in a x-ray tube in order to produce x-rays with a
wavelength of 0.1x10-10m. (2004) Ans: 123985eV
x. -6
Compare the energy of photon of wavelength 2x10 m with the energy of x-ray photon
of wavelength 2x10-10m. (2004) Ans: 104
U

xi. Sodium surface is shined with light of wave length 3x10 -7m. If the work function of Na =
2.46eV, find the K.E of the photoelectrons and also cut off wavelength. (2009)
Ans: 1.68eV, 5061A o

xii. Sodium surface is shined with light of wave length 3x10 -7m. if the work function of Na =
2.46eV, find the K.E of the photoelectrons. (2012) Ans: 1.68eV, 5061Ao.
xiii. Sodium surface is shone with light of 3x10 -7m. Find the kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons and the cutoff wavelength of sodium. Work function of sodium is
2.46eV. (2016) Ans: 1.68eV, 5061Ao

Page 220 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Numericals From Book:
i. What will be the work function of a substance for a threshold frequency of 43.9x10 13Hz?
Ans: 1.82eV
ii. Sodium surface is shined with light of wave length 3x10-7m. If the work function of Na =
2.46eV, find the K.E of the photo electrons and also the cut off wave length. (Given 1ev
= 1.6x10-19J) Ans: 1.68eV, 5.05x10 -7m
iii. What will be the energy of an x-ray quantum of wave length 1.0x10-10m?
Ans: 1.99x10-15J
iv. Compare the enrgy of x-ray photon of wave length 2.0x10-10m with the energy of 2.0𝜇m
infrared photon. Ans: 10 4

I
v. Sodium light of wave length 5.898x10-7m falls on a photocell. A negative stopping
potential of 0.30V is needed to stop the electrons from reaching the collector.

-I
a) Find the work function of the material of the plate.
b) What will be the potential required when light of 4000 oA is used?
Ans: 1.8eV, 1.29Volts
Assignment # 17.2
i.
ii.
iii.
S
Explain photoelectric effect. Write down the results obtained from the experiments.
Derive the Einstein’s equation for photoelectric effect.
Find the energy of the photon of infrared beam of wavelength of 1240nm. Ans: 1ev
S
iv. To break a chemical bond in the molecules of human skin and thus cause sunburn, a photon
energy of about 3.50ev is required. To what wavelength does this correspond? Ans: 3.54x10 -7m
v. The work function of sodium metal is 2.3ev. what is the longest-wavelength light that can cause
photoelectron emission from sodium? Ans: 5.4x10-7 m
vi. What PD must be applied to stop the fastest photoelectron emitted by a nickel surface under
P

the action of ultraviolet light of wavelength 200nm? The work function of nickel is 5.01ev.
Ans: 1.2V
vii. With what speed will the fastest photoelectrons be emitted from a surface whose cut-off
wavelength is 600nm, when the surface is illuminated with light of wavelength 4x10 -7m?
Ans: 6x105 m/s
U

viii. Electron with a maximum KE of 3ev are ejected from a metal surface by ultra radiation of
wavelength 150nm. Determine the work function of the metal, the threshold wavelength of the
metal and the retarding PD required to stop the emission of electrons. Ans: 5.27ev, 235nm, 3V

Ex # 17.4
Exercise based on Compton effect:
MCQs
i. Compton derived the expression for the change in wavelength Δ𝜆 for scattering angle 𝜃
is given by_____________.

Page 221 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ℎ ℎ ℎ
a) Δ𝜆 = 𝑚 𝑐 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) b) Δ𝜆 = 𝑚 𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) c) Δ𝜆 = 𝑐 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) d) None
𝑜 𝑜

of these
ii. When electromagnetic radiation falls on a stationary electron the frequency of the
scattered radiation decreases this effect called______________.
a) Photoelectric effect b) Compton effect c) Radiation d) None of these
iii. The change in wavelength of the scattered photon in Compton effect is called________.
a) Wavelength shift b) Frequency shift c) Compton shift d) None of these
iv. The wavelength of incident radiation in Compton effect____________.
a) Decreases b) Increases c) Remain same d) None of these

I
v. Compton scattering confirms_____________.
a) Quantum theory b) Wave particle duality c) Both of these d) None of these
vi. In Compton effect the law of conservation of energy and momentum_____________.

-I
a) Are valid b) Only one is valid c) Both of them are not valid d) None of these
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.
B B C B C A

Questions From Past Papers:

i.
ii.
iii.
S
Write a short note on: Compton effect
Write a short note on: Compton effect
Write a short note on: Compton effect
(1993)
(1994)
(1995)
S
iv. Write a short note on: Compton effect (1997)
v. Write a short note on: Compton effect (1999)
vi. Explain the phenomenon of Compton effect and obtain an expression for the increase in
wavelength of the scattered photon. (2003)Pre Med
P

vii. Describe the Compton effect. (2004)

viii. Describe the Compton effect. Derive the formula for the Compton shift. (2007)
ix. What is Compton effect? Explain it on the basis of quantum theory. Derive a relation for
the Compton shift. (2009)
U

x. Describe the Compton effect. Derive the formula for the Compton shift. (2012)
xi. Describe the Compton effect. Derive expression for the Compton shift in wavelength.
(2014)
xii. What is Compton effect? Derive an expression for the Compton shift in the wavelength.
(2016)
xiii. Explain Compton’s effect. Derive an expression of shift in wavelength os scattered
photon. (2018)

Numericals From Past Papers:

Page 222 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 i. In Compton scattering process the fractional change in wavelength of x-rays photon is
1% at an angle 120o, find the wavelength of x-rays used in this experiment.
(2007) Ans: 3.63x10-10m
ii. X-rays of wavelength 3.64x10-10m are used in Compton scattering process. Find the fractional
change in wavelength for a scattering angle of 120o. (Given: h=6.63x10-34Js, mn = 9.1x10-31 kg,
c =3x108m/s) (2017) Ans: 0.01

Numericals From Book:

i. In Compton scattering process the fractional change in wavelength of x-rays photon is
1% at an angle 120o, find the wavelength of x-rays used in this experiment.

I
Ans: 3.63x10-10m
ii. X-rays of wavelength 𝜆 𝑜 are scattered from a carbon block at an angle of 45 o with
respect to the incident beam. Find the shift in wavelength. (Given h = 6.63x10 -34Js, m =

-I
9.11x10-31kg and c = 3x108ms -1) Ans: 7.11x10-13m
iii. X-rays are scattered from a target material. The scattered radiation is viewed at an angle
of 90o with respect to the incident beam. Find the Compton shift in wave length.

i.
ii.
Ans: 2.42x10-12m
S
Assignment # 17.3
Derive the expression for momentum of photon.
What is Compton effect? Explain it and derive the relation for Compton shift.
S
iii. X-rays are scattered from a carbon block, if Compton shift is 7.11x10-13 m, find the scattered
angle of photon. Ans: 45o

Ex # 17.5
Exercise based on pair production & annihilation of matter:
P

MCQs
i. The conversion of photon into an electron and position pair when it passes very closer
to heavy stable nucleus is called__________.
U

a) Annihilation of matter b) Compton effect c) Pair production d) None of these

ii. In order to produce pair production, a photon must have energy____________.
a) 0.511Mev b) 0.256Mev c) 1.02Mev d) None of these
iii. The pair production equation can written as_______________.
a) ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸(𝑒 − ) b) ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸(𝑒 + ) c) ℎ𝜈 = 2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 +
𝐾. 𝐸(𝑒 − ) + 𝐾. 𝐸(𝑒 + ) d) None of these
iv. In order to create an electron position pair minimum energy of photon should be_____.
1
a) 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 b) 2𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 c) 2 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 d) None of these
v. The inter conversion of mass energy according to relation 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 is proved by the
phenomenon of_____________.

Page 223 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Pair production b) Compton effect c) Plank’s Quantum theory d) None of
these
vi. When a particle (Electron) and its anti particle (position) moving in opposite direction
come close to each other their mass is converted into photons this phenomenon is
known as____________.
a) Pair production b) Annihilation of matter c) Photoelectric effect d) None of
these
vii. When an electron and position combined two photons produced are of energy______ .
a) 1.02Mev b) 5.02Mev c) 0.51Mev d) None of these
viii. Energy conservation equation of annihilation of matter is represented by____________.

I
a) (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− + (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ + 𝐾𝐸𝑒− + 𝐾𝐸𝑒 + = 2ℎ𝜈
b) (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− + (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ = ℎ𝜈

-I
c) (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− + (𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ = 2ℎ
d) None of these
ix. In annihilation of matter two photons produced___________.
a) Move along same direction b) Move along opposite direction c) Do not move

i.
C
ii.
d) None of these

C
iii.
C
iv.
B
S v.
A
vi.
B
vii.
B
viii.
A
ix.
B
S
Questions From Past Papers:
i. Explain the process of pair production briefly. (2009)
Numericals From Past Papers:
i. Pair annihilation occurred due to a head on collision of an electron and positron having
P

the same kinetic energy, produce pair of photons each having energy of 2.5MeV. What
were their kinetic energies before collision? Given 𝑚 𝑜 c2=0.511MeV.
(2013) Ans: 1.989MeV
ii. A photon wavelength 0.004A o in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus produces an electron-positron
pair. Find the kinetic energy of each particle of the pair in MeV, if the kinetic energy of positron
U

is twice that of electron. (m oc2=8.19x10-14joules, h=6.63x10-34 js and c=3x108m/s)

(2018) Ans: 0.694Mev, 1.388Mev

Numericals From Book:

i. A photon of wave length 0.004Ao in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus produces an electron
positron pair. Find the kinetic energy of each particle if the kinetic energy of positron is
twice that the electron. Given hc = 12.4x10 -3MeV, and moc2 =0.511MeV
Ans: 1.384MeV
ii. Pair annihilation occurred due to a head on collision of an electron and positron
producing 2.5MeV photon moving in opposite directions. What will be the kinetic

Page 224 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 energies of the electron and positron before the collision? Given mc2=0.511MeV.
Ans: 1.989MeV
Assignment # 17.4
i. Explain pair production and annihilation of matter.
ii. An electron-positron pair, each with a KE of 220Kev, is produced by a photon. Find the energy
and wavelength of the photon. Ans: 1.46Mev, 8.49x10-13 m

Ex # 17.6
Exercise based on matter waves and Heisenberg’s uncertainty

I
principle:
MCQs

-I
i. It is impossible to determine both the position and momentum of particle
simultaneously with accuracy this principle is known as___________________.
a) Law of conservation of energy b) Law of conservation of momentum

ii.

iii.
a) Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 ≈
2
S
c) Uncertainty principle d) None of these
Mathematical expression for uncertainty principle is given by_____________.
ℏ
b) Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 ≈ 2ℏ c) Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 ≈ ℏ d) None of these
Uncertainty principle was proposed by____________.
S
a) Einstein b) Compton c) Heisenberg d) None of these
iv. The form of uncertainty principle which related energy of a particle and the time at
which it had the energy is given by______________.
a) Δ𝐸h ≈ Δt b) ΔEΔh ≈ 2Δt c) ΔEΔt ≈ ℏ d) None of these
v. The dimensional representation of plank’s constant is same as that of_____________.
P

a) Momentum b) Torque c) Angular momentum d) None of these

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

U

C C C C C

Questions From Past Papers:

i. Write a short note on: Uncertainty principle. (1998)
ii. Write a short note on: Uncertainty principle. (2000)
Numericals From Past Papers:
i. An electron exists within a region of 10 -10m, find its momentum uncertainty and
approximate kinetic energy. (2006) Ans: 1.055x10-24NS, 6.108x10-19J
ℎ ( ∆𝑝) 2
Hint: [∆𝑝 × ∆𝑥 = , ∆𝐾𝐸 = ]
2𝜋 2𝑚

Page 225 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 ii. If the electron beam in a television picture tube is accelerated by 10,000V what will be
the de-Broglie’s wavelength? (h = 6.63x10-34Js, m = 9.11x10-31kg) (2010)
Ans: 1.28x10-11m
iii. If the electron beam in a television picture tube is accelerated by 10,000V what will be
the de-Broglie’s wavelength? (h = 6.63x10-34Js, m = 9.11x10-31kg) (2011)
Ans: 1.28x10-11m
iv. In a TV picture tube, an electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 12000V.
Determine the de Broglie’s wavelength given that h = 6.63x10 -34Js, e = 1.6x10-19Coul,
me =9.11x10-31kg (2014) Ans: 1.12x10-11m
Numericals From Book:

I
i. Find the wavelength of a 2.0g light ball moving with a velocity:
a) 1.0mm per century b) 1.0m/s Given

-I
(h = 6.63x10-34Js,1yr = 3.15x107s Ans: 1.05x10-18m, 3.3x10-31m
ii. An electron exists within a region of 10 -10m, find its momentum uncertainty and
approximate kinetic energy. (ℏ = 1.05x10-34Js, m = 9.11x10-31kg) Ans:
-24
1.05x10 kgm/s, 6.01x10 J -19

iii.

iv.
S
If the electron beam in a television picture tube is accelerated by 10,000V what will be
the de-Broglie’s wavelength? Ans: 1.28x10-11m
What will be the de Broglie’s wavelength associated with a mass of 0.01kg moving with
a velocity 10ms -1? Ans: 6.63x10 -33m
S
v. Certain excited state of hydrogen atom have a life time 2.5x10 -19s. What will be the
minimum uncertainty in energy? Ans: 2.42x10-12m
vi. What will be the de Broglie wavelength of a mass of 3kg moving with a velocity of
100ms -1? Ans: 2.212x10 -36m
P

vii. What will be the wavelength of a neutron having an energy equal to 0.06eV. Given, rest
mass energy of neutron moc2 = 940x106eV Ans: 1.16x10-10m
viii. Find the uncertainty in momentum and the kinetic energy of a electron if it is found to
exist in a region equal to the diameter of hydrogen atom (10 -10m). Ans: 6.1x10-19J or
U

3.8eV
ix. Determine the minimum uncertainty in the position of a particle of mass 5x10 -3kg
moving with a speed of 2ms -1. The momentum can be determined to an accuracy of one
part in a thousand. Ans: 1.05x10 -29m
x. What will be the uncertainty in energy of an electron thrown to a higher state in an
atom and falling back to the original state in about 10 -8s? Given
ℏ=1.05x10 Js -34 -7
Ans: 0.65x10 eV
Assignment # 17.5
i. Derive two expression for the wavelength of an electron.
ii. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Page 226 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 iii. Compute the de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated from rest through a PD of 9KV.
Ignore relativistic effects. Ans: 1.3x10-11 m.
iv. What PD is required in an electron microscope to give electrons a wavelength of 0.5 oA.
Ans: 600v

MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)

(2001)
i. The relativistic changes in mass, length and time in daily life are not observed because:
a) The masses o objects are very large
b) The size of objects is very large
c) The velocity of objects is very small in comparison to the velocity of light

I
d) None of the above
ii. As the temperature of a black body is raised, the wavelength corresponding to the
maximum intensity:

-I
a) Shift towards longer wavelength b) Shifts towards shorter wavelength
c) Greater frequency and greater wavelength d) None of the above
iii. In Compton effect, the scattered photon has:
a) Greater frequency and smaller wavelength

iv.
d) None of the above
S
b) Smaller frequency and greater wavelength
c) Greater frequency and greater wavelength

(2002)Pre Med
The maximum Kinetic energy of photoelectron emitted from a metal depends upon:
S
a) The frequency of incident light only b) The wavelength of incident light only c)
Work function of the metal only d) None of them
(2002)Pre Eng
v. Max Planck is well known because of his:
a) Energy quantization b) Energy conservation c) Wave particle duality d)
P

Momentum conservation
vi. A frame of reference is called inertial if it is:
a) Rotator b) Accelerated c) Moving with uniform velocity d) Vibratory
vii. According to Uncertainty principle:
a) (∆𝑥 )(∆𝑡) = ℎ b) (∆𝑥)(∆𝑝) = ℏ c) (∆𝐸 )(∆𝑝) = ℎ d) (∆𝑥 )(∆𝐸 ) = ℎ
U

viii. The Einstein photo electric equation is:

1 1 1
a) 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = ℎ𝜈 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2 b) ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑉𝑜 c) 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈𝑜 d) 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 = [ℎ (𝜆 − 𝜆 )]
𝑜
ix. The absorption of an incident radiation by a perfect black body is:
a) 0% b) 100% c) 90% d) 50%
x. Pair production is only possible when incident photon has the wavelength of the order
of:
a) 10-4m b) 10-6m c) 10-10m d) 10-14m
(2003)Pre Med
xi. The reverse of pair production is known as:

Page 227 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Fusion b) Annihilation of electrons and positrons c) Fission
d) Annihilation of electrons and protons

(2003) Pre Eng

xii. The formula for the momentum of photon is:
a) ℎ𝑐/𝜆 b) ℎ/𝜆 c) 𝜆/ℎ d) 𝑐/𝜆
xiii. If the frequency of light causing photoelectron emission is doubled, the kinetic energy of
photoelectron will be:
a) increase by a factor 1/√ 2 b) Double c) Increase by a factor less than 2
d) Increase by a factor greater than 2
xiv. Wein’s law is given as:

I
a) 𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 b) Ω𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 c) 𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 √ 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 d)
4
𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(2004)

-I
xv. The number of photoelectrons emitted from a metal depends upon:
a) The frequency of incident light b) The wavelength of the incident light c) The
colour of the incident light d) The intensity of the incident light
xvi. In pair production we need photons of at least 1.02Mev energy. {True/False}
xvii.
xviii.

xix.
S
The energy of each quantum as proposed by Plank is given by E=h𝜈.
The disintegration of photon into electron and positron near a heavy nuleus is known as:
a) Annihilation b) 𝛽 decay c) 𝛼 decay d) Pair production
The ration of the mass of proton to the mass of electron is 1836.
S
(2005)
xx. One atomic mass unit is equal to:
a) 1.6x10-19J b) 9.1x10-27kg c) 931x106eV d) 9x109eV
xxi. The frequency of the incident radiation corresponding to the work function is called:
a) Fundamental frequency b) working frequency c) Critical frequency
P

d) Threshold frequency
xxii. The radiation from black body depends upon the:
a) Material of the body b) Size of the body c) Shape of the body
d) Temperature of the body
xxiii. As a result of elastic collision between a photon and an electron the:
U

a) Frequency of the photon is increased

b) Wavelength of the photon is increased
c) Energy of the photon is increased
d) X-rays are produced
(2006)
xxiv. The formula for the momentum of photon is:
a) ℎ/𝜆 b) ℎ𝜆 c) 𝜆/ℎ d) 𝑐/𝜆
xxv. the emissive power of a black body radiation is proportional to:
a) T b) T2 c)T4 d)T -4
(2007)
xxvi. A frame of reference is called inertial if it is:

Page 228 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) Rotator b) Accelerated c) Vibratory d) Moving with uniform velocity
xxvii. In Compton effect, the scattered photon has:
a) Greater frequency and smaller wavelength
b) Greater frequency and greater wavelength
c) Smaller frequency and grater wavelength
d) None of the above
xxviii. The wavelength of the material particle of mass “m” moving with a velocity “v” is given
by:
ℎ𝜈 𝑚 𝑣 ℎ
a) 𝜆 = 𝑚 b) 𝜆 = ℎ𝜈 c) 𝜆 = ℎ𝑚 d) 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣
xxix. The absorption of the incident radiation by a perfect black body is:
a) 0% b) 50% c) 90% d) 100%

I
xxx. A Compton shift depends only on photon’s:
a) Scattering angle b) Wavelength c) Frequency d) none

-I
(2008)
xxxi. Galilean transformations are applicable to a frame of reference which is:
a) Stationary b) Moving c) Inertial d) Non inertial

xxxii. A perfect black body:

xxxiii.
S
a) Is a perfect absorber of radiation
c) Is the most efficient radiator d) All of them
b) Has a unit absorptive power

The experimental evidence of Einstein’s mass energy equation is:

a) Photoelectric and Compton effect b) Elastic collision
c) Pair production and annihilation of matter d) Radioactive emission
S
xxxiv. The expression 𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇=constant, represents:
a) Stefan’s law b) Wein’s displacement law c) Rayleigh jean’s formula
d) Plank’s law
(2009)
xxxv. The emissive power of a black body radiation is proportional to:
P

a) T b) T 2 c) T4 d) T -4
xxxvi. The photoelectric emission takes place if:
a) ℎ𝜈 < 𝜙𝑜 b) ℎ𝜈 > 𝜙𝑜 c) ℎ𝜈𝑜 < 𝜙𝑜 d) 𝜈𝑜 < 𝜙𝑜
xxxvii. According to Uncertainty principle:
U

a) (∆𝐸 )/(∆𝑡) = ℎ b) (∆𝐸 ) = (∆𝑡)/ℎ c) (∆𝐸 )(ℎ) = ∆𝑡

d) (∆𝐸 )(∆𝑡) = ℏ
(2010)
xxxviii. The phenomenon of pair production takes place if the energy of photon is greater than:
a) 1.0Mev b) 1.02Mev c) 0.051Mev d) None of these
xxxix. The emissive power of a black body is proportional to:
a) T b) T 5 c) T -4 d) T4
(2011)
xl. As the temperature of black body is raised, the wavelength corresponding to the
maximum intensity shifts towards:
a) Shorter wavelength b) Longer wavelength c) Similar wavelength
d) Lower frequency
Page 229 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
 xli. A photoelectric cell transform light energy into:
a) Heat energy b) Electric energy c) Magnetic energy d) Sound energy
xlii. De-Broglie’s wavelength associated with the particle is given by:
𝑚 ℎ ℎ 𝑚ℎ
a) 𝜆 = ℎ𝜈 b) 𝜆 = 𝑚𝜈2 c) 𝜆 = 𝑚𝜈 d) 𝜆 = 𝜈
xliii. The minimum energy required for pair production is:
a) 1.02Mev b) 102Mev c) 10.2Mev d) 1.02 volt
xliv. In order to increase the kinetic energy of an ejected photo-electron, there should be an
increase in:
a) Frequency of radiation b) Wavelength of radiation c) Intensity of radiation
d) Both wavelength and intensity

I
(2012)
xlv. According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity, the mass of a particle moving with

-I
the speed of light will become:
a) Zero b) Double c) Infinite d) Ten time
xlvi. The mathematical expression 𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇=constant, is called:
b) Stefan’s law b) Wein’s displacement law c) Rayleigh jean’s formula d)
Plank’s law
xlvii.

xlviii. The rest mass of photon is:

S
According to Uncertainty principle:
a) (∆𝑥 )(∆𝑡) = ℏ b) (∆𝑥)(∆𝑝) = ℏ c) (∆𝑥 )(∆𝐸) = ℏ d) (∆𝐸 )(∆𝑝) = ℏ

a) 1 b) Zero c) Infinity d) -1
(2013)
S
xlix. As the temperature of black body is raised, the wavelength corresponding to the
maximum intensity shifts towards:
a) Similar wavelength b) Shorter wavelength c) Longer wavelength d) None
of these
(2014)
P

l. The energy radiated per second per unit area from the surface of a black body is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature raised to power:
a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four
li. de-Broglie wave length is:
𝑚𝜈 ℎ ℎ 𝑚ℎ
U

a) 𝜆 = ℎ b) 𝜆 = 𝑚𝜈2 c) 𝜆 = 𝑚𝜈 d) 𝜆 = 𝜈
(2015)
lii. In Compton’s scattering experiment, the scattered photon has a:
a) Frequency less than that of incident photon b) Frequency greater than that of
incident photon c) Same frequency as that of incident photon d) Wavelength
shorter than that of incident photon
liii. 1 Mev is equal to:
a) 1.6x10-19J b) 1.6x10-13J c) 1.6x1018J d) 1.6x1019J
liv. The rest mass of a photon is:
a) -1 b) zero c) 1 d) Infinite
(2016)

Page 230 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 lv. Stefan Boltzmann’s Law is:
a) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 b) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4 c) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 2 d) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 −4

lvi. The rest mass of photon is:

a) 1 b) -1 c) Zero d) Infinite
(2017)
lvii. In the phenomenon of photoelectric effect, if the frequency of incident radiation is increased, the
required stopping potential:
a) Increases b) decreases c) does not charge d) becomes zero
lviii. A frame of reference is called inertial if it is:
a) Rotatory b) accelerated c) vibratory d) moving with uniform velocity
(2018)

I
lix. De-Broglie’s wavelength is given as:
𝑚𝑣 ℎ ℎ 𝑚ℎ
a) 𝜆 = b) 𝜆 = 2 c) 𝜆 = d) 𝜆 =

-I
ℎ 𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝑣
lx. This particle has no charge, no rest mass and can interact with all charged as well as neutral
particles:
a) Alpha particle b) Neutron c) Photon d) Positron
(2019)
lxi. If mo is the rest mass of an electron, pair production takes place only if the minimum energy
of incident photon is equal to:
2𝑚
a) 𝑐2𝑜

a) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇
2
b) 𝑚 𝑐2
𝑜
lxii. Stefan-Boltzmann law is:
b) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
S c) 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2

c) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 3
d) 2 𝑚 𝑜 𝑐 2

d) 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 2
S
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.
C B B A A C B C B D B
xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii.
P

B D A D True D 1836 C D D
xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii.
B A C D C D D A D D C
xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xli. xlii. xliii. xliv.
B C B D B D A B C A A
U

xlv. xlvi. xlvii. xlviii. xlix. l. li. lii. liii. liv. lv.
C B B B B D C A B B B
lvi. lvii. lviii. lix lx lxi lxii
C A D C C D B

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 The Atomic Spectra

In 1913, after the failure of Rutherford’s atomic theory, Neil Bohr has suggested another
ideology about the structure of an atom, called Bohr’s atomic theory. This ideology was based
on three principles stated below.
1. Electrostatic (or) Stationary State Principle:
In an atom, all electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits under the action of
coulomb’s electrostatic force.

I
An electron while in circular motion never emits energy and hence principles of classical
mechanics cannot applied to the revolving electrons. The orbits of such electrons are

-I
called “Bohr’s Stationary Orbits”.
2. Angular Momentum Principle:
An electron while rotates in a circular orbit has specific angular momentum. Infact, only

ℎ S
those electrons occupy Bohr’s stationary orbits whose angular momentum remains
ℎ
equal to “ 2𝜋 ” (or) integral multiple of “ ”.
2𝜋
Hence, the angular momentum of an electron occupies nth Bohr’s orbit is given by;
ℎ
Ln = n (2𝜋 )
S
Where, n = 1,2,3,4,5,………,∞. It is often called Principle Quantum Number.
h = 6.63x10-34J-sec.
3. Frequency Rule Principle:
According to this, when atom gets excited state, its electron will be shifted from ground
P

state orbit to an excited state orbit. It instantaneously returns back to its ground state
orbit after emitting energy inform of radiations. The amount of radiation energy would
be equal to the difference of energies of the two orbits in which transition of electron
takes place.
U

If “𝐸𝑖 ” and “𝐸𝑓 ” be the energy of an excited state orbit and ground state orbit
respectively, then by the Frequency Rule Principle we may write as;
𝐸𝑖 – 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑣
Where; 𝐸𝑖 > 𝐸𝑓 and 𝑣 is the frequency of emitted radiations.

Consider Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom in which an electron is revolved around nucleus in nth circular
orbit.
Assume that:
1. The magnitude of charge on electron = e.

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 2. The mass of electron = m.
3. The magnitude of charge on nucleus = Ze = (1)e = e.
4. The tangential velocity of revolving electron = v.
5. The radius of nth orbit = rn = ?
When an electron revolves around the nucleus in circular orbit, the electrostatic pull provides
the necessary centripetal force to the revolving electron.
Mathematically:
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑐
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑒 2
∴ 𝐹𝑒 = = 2 = 2
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟

I
𝑚𝑣 2
∴ 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2

-I
=
𝑟2 𝑟
2
𝑘𝑒
= 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2 × 𝑟
S
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2
− − − − − (𝑖)
In this equation, “k”, ”e” and “m” are the known values. Thus if tangential velocity of revolving
electron is obtained, the radius of nth stationary orbit can be determined.
S
To find velocity, applying angular momentum principle which states,
ℎ
𝐿 𝑛 = 𝑛( )
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 = ∴ 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟
2𝜋
P

𝑛ℎ
𝑣=
2𝜋𝑚𝑟𝑛
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑣2 =
4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑟𝑛 2
U

Substituting “𝑣 2 ” in eq (i)
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑚 ( 2 2 2)
4𝜋 𝑚 𝑟𝑛
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑛2 ℎ2
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛 2
𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛 2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑛2 ℎ2

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 𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛
1=
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑛 ℎ = 𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛
2 2

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟𝑛 = 2 2
𝑘𝑒 4𝜋 𝑚
ℎ2
2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 ( 2 2 )
𝑘𝑒 4𝜋 𝑚
2
ℎ2 (6.63 ×10 −34 )
Hence, 4𝜋2 𝑘𝑒2 𝑚 = = 0.53 × 10−10 𝑚 = 0.53 oA
4×( 3.142 ) 2 ( 9×109 )( 1.6×10 −19 ) 2 (9.1×10 −31)

I
Now;
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛2 (0.53 oA)
This expression represents radius of nth Bohr’s stationary orbit for hydrogen atom.

-I
Suppose that an electron is revolving in a circular orbit of radius, “rn”. The revolving electron

S
has some kinetic energy due to its tangential velocity and some potential energy due to its work
which is done against the electrostatic force of attraction of nucleus.
The electrostatic attraction between electron and proton is given by;
𝑒. 𝑒
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘. 2
𝑟
S
𝑒2
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘. 𝑟2 − − − − − −(𝑖)
Because electron is revolving in a circular orbit with the velocity “v” thus centripetal force is
equal to electrostatic force.
i.e. 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑒
P

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑘𝑒 2
= 2
𝑟 𝑟
2
𝑘𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 =
𝑟
U

Multiplying by ½ o.b.s
1 1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝐾. 𝐸 =
2𝑟
Potential energy of electron is given by;
PE = work done against the field.
PE = -qV
𝑞 𝑒
For electron, 𝑞 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑟 = 𝑘 𝑟
Now;

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 𝑘𝑒
𝑃. 𝐸 = −𝑒.
𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑃. 𝐸 = −
𝑟
According the law of conservation of energy,
𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
𝑘𝑒 2 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸= + (− )
2𝑟 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 − 2𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸=
2𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2

I
𝐸=−
2𝑟
𝑜𝑟 𝐸 = −𝐾. 𝐸

-I
Energy for nth orbit is given by;
𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸𝑛 = −
2𝑟𝑛
Putting:
K = 9x109Nm2/c2
e = 1.6x10-19c
𝑟𝑛 =(0.53 oA) 𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 =(0.53x10-10m) 𝑛2
S
S
9 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2
𝐸𝑛 = −
2 (0.53 × 10−10 )𝑛2
P

13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2

This expression represents the energy of nth Bohr’s stationary orbit for hydrogen atom.
U

According to Bohr’s theory when an electron jumps from an inner to an outer orbit it absorbs
energy but when it jumps from an outer to an inner orbit it emits energy. The difference of
energies between the two orbits is emitted in the form of a photon of energy “ℎ𝑣”. Hence if
“𝐸𝑖 ” and “𝐸𝑓 ” represent the energy of the electron in its initial (outer orbit) and final (inner
orbit) energy states respectively then,
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑣
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 1
𝑣= = (𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 ) − − − −(𝑖)
ℎ ℎ

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The energy of nth orbit is given by;
13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2

13.6𝑒𝑉 13.6𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑖 = − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑓 = −
𝑛𝑖 2 𝑛𝑓 2
Putting in eq i
1 13.6𝑒𝑉 13.6𝑒𝑉
𝑣= [− + ]
ℎ 𝑛𝑖 2 𝑛𝑓 2
𝐶 1 1 1
= [13.6𝑒𝑉 (− 2 + 2 )]

I
𝜆 ℎ 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓
1 1 1 1
= [13.6 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 (− 2 + 2 )]

-I
𝜆 ℎ𝐶 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓
−19
1 21.74 × 10 1 1
= [− 2 + 2 ]
𝜆 ℎ𝐶 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓

Here; S
21.74 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
"𝑅𝐻 " is known as Rydberg’s constant
= 1.0968 × 107 𝑚−1 = 𝑅𝐻
S
Now;
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

This expression represents the wave length of the radiation emitted by hydrogen atom.
P

The experimentally measured values of wavelength of light emitted in different spectral series
of hydrogen can also be calculated by the wavelength formula obtained on the basis of Bohr’s
U

theory of atomic structure. This is done by giving different values to “n f” for each spectral
series.
1.Lyman Series:
This series lies in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum of hydrogen. In Lyman series all the
transitions from outer orbits end at the first orbit, so that nf = 1. Hence wavelength of light
obtained in this series can be calculated by giving different values to n i.
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 1 𝑛𝑖
Where ni = 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,…..,∞

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2.Balmer Series:
Balmer series lies in visible part of spectrum of hydrogen. In this series all the transitions from
outer orbits end at the second orbit (i.e. nf = 2)
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 2 𝑛𝑖
Where ni = 3,4,5,6,7,8,…..,∞
3.Paschen Series:
This series lies in infra red region of hydrogen spectrum, this series is obtained when the
electron jumps from outer orbits to the third orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 1 1

I
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 3 𝑛𝑖
Where ni = 4,5,6,7,8,…..,∞

-I
4.Bracket Series:
This series lies in the far infra red region of hydrogen spectrum. Bracket series is obtained when
the electron jumps from outer orbits to the fourth orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 1 1

Where ni = 5,6,7,8,…..,∞
5.Pfund Series:
S 𝜆
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
4 𝑛𝑖

This series also lies in the far infra red region of hydrogen spectrum. This series is obtained from
S
the transition of electron from outer orbits to the fifth orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 5 𝑛𝑖
Where ni = 6,7,8,…..,∞
P

To move an electron from ground state to an excited state energy must be supplied to it. The
energy supplied is equal to the difference of energy between the two states of the atom.
Amount of energy required to move an electron from ground state (for hydrogen atom n = 1)
U

to an excited state (n =2,3,…) is called excitation energy of the state.

An atom of gas can be excited by different methods such as by heating the gas, by passing an
electric discharge through the gas or by illuminating the gas by light of suitable frequency etc.
Usually atoms are excited by passing an electric discharge through a gas. In this method free
electrons are accelerated by suitable potential difference. These accelerated electrons on
colliding the electrons in the atom transfer energy required to excite them.
Accelerating potential difference required to move an electron from ground state to an
excited state is called excitation potential for the state.

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Energy of the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is -13.6 ev. Whereas in the second
orbit its energy is -3.4ev, hence to send the electron from ground state to the first excited state
(second orbit) of hydrogen atom energy needed will be -3.4-(-13.6) = 10.2 ev. In other words
excitation energy for the second orbit of hydrogen atom is 10.2 ev. The corresponding potential
difference through which a free electron must be accelerated so that it transfers 10.2 ev energy
to the electron in the ground state of hydrogen will be 10.2 volt. In other words the excitation
potential for the second orbit with respect to the first orbit of hydrogen atom is 10.2 volt.

When an electron is completely removed from an atom, it is said to be ionized. The amount of

I
energy required to ionize an atom is called ionization energy and the corresponding
accelerating potential is called ionization potential and denoted by I.P. Energy of electron in the

-I
ground state of hydrogen atom is -13.6 ev. If 13.6 ev energy is supplied to the electron it will
jump to such an orbit for which n = ∞ and it will no longer be bound to the atom. Hence the
ionization energy for hydrogen atom is 13.6 ev and the ionization potential will be 13.6 volts.
Types of Emission of Radiation From Atom:
1. Spontaneous Emission:
E2
E2-E1
S Photon
S
E1
When a photon of energy E 2-E1 hits an atom in ground state then the electron is raised
to excited state. The electron in excited state instantaneously comes back to ground
state and emits a photon of energy E 2-E1. This emission is spontaneous emission.
P

2.Stimulated Emission:
E2

E2-E1 Coherent Photon

U

E1
When a photon of energy E 2-E1 hits an atom in excited state E 2 then the atom emits out
a photon of same energy and the two photons combine together to form coherent
photons. This is stimulated emission.

In 1954, physicists developed a method of producing coherent waves in microwaves region,

called M.A.S.E.R which means, “Microwaves Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiations”.

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In 1958, the principle of M.A.S.E.R was upgraded to the visible region by Townes and Schawlow,
called L.A.S.E.R which means, “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiations”.
Principle of LASER: E3
When external photon of energy E 3-E1 hits
the atoms in ground state, the electrons are E2
raised to state E3. But the life time of E 3 is
very small therefore electrons immediately
leave this state and come down to state E 2
which is meta stable. This process of raising

I
electrons from ground state to second
energy state via state E 3 is called E1
“Optical Pumping”.

-I
As the second energy state is meta stable, the electrons keep accumulating and large number
of electrons reach this state leaving the ground state vacant. This condition is termed as
“Population inversion”.

S
From the atoms in state E 2, a few of them undergo spontaneous emission and release photons
of energy E2-E1. These photons hit the other atoms which are still in state E 2 and cause
stimulated emission due to which coherent photons are produced. This is the laser principle.
Production of LASER through Ruby Crystal:
S
Ruby is the crystal of aluminum oxide (Al 2O3) having 0.05 percent of chromium atoms. The
second energy state in chromium atoms is meta stable. The ruby rode is surrounding by a coil-
shaped flash lamp which produces yellow light form optical pumping the ends of the rod are
exactly parallel to each other. One end is fully silvered while the other end is semi-reflecting.
Flash lamp emits photons of energy E 3-E1 which hit the chromium atoms. The electrons
P

accumulate in the energy level E 2 because they reach this state faster than they leave it.
When population inversion is obtained, a few chromium atoms undergo spontaneous emission
and the laser action begins. Coherent photons begin together by repeated stimulated emission
and by reflection from the ends of the rod. In this way red light of wavelength 694.3nm having
U

extremely high intensity can be obtained.

Coherent photons which are parallel to the axis of the tube are useful for producing laser light
while the other photons escape out from the sides of the rod.
Fl a sh La mp
Ruby Crys ta l
Pa rti ally Silvered

Ful ly Si lvered LASER Output

High Voltage
Page 239 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair
Uses of LASER:
Some applications of LASER’s technology are discussed below:
1. The LASER beam is successfully used for long distance communications and as well as
for data-processing.
2. In medicine, LASER’s beam is being used for delicate operations such as the repair of
detached retina in human eye.
3. The LASER technology is commonly used for sharp and fine audio-visual recordings.
4. A very high intensive LASER beam is used for cutting thick metallic sheets. Whereas;
very low intensive beam is used for welding purposes.

I
5. A very high intensive LASER beam can be bounced from the surface of moon like a radar
beam.
6. A LASER beam is commonly used in printing.

-I
7. A LASER beam is used in the field of photography specially in the formation of three
dimensional images, holography.
8. LASER beam is used as a source of potential energy for inducing fusion reaction in
hydrogen.
S
When high speed electrons impinge on a metal surface then photon of ultraviolet light are
S
produced. This ultraviolet light is called X-rays.

Evacuated X-Rays
P

Glass tube

T F
+ -
E
U

+ -
V
Principle:
When high speed electrons are made to stop, their K.E is released in the form of photons.
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass tube. Filament F is heated by battery E to emit
electrons. The emitted electrons pass through very high voltage V supplied between filament F
and target T. The electrons gain K.E and hit the target and X-Rays are produced.

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Spectrum of X-Rays is continuous. It shows that X-Rays consist of all wavelengths in a certain
range.
X-Rays of shortest wavelength and maximum frequency are produced by those electrons which
come to stop in one collision. For such electrons we have;
K.E of electron = Energy of photon
𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒𝑉 𝑐 𝑐
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠; 𝑣 = 𝑜𝑟; 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
ℎ 𝜆 𝜆 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶 𝑒𝑉
=
𝜆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ

I
1 𝑒𝑉
=
𝜆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝐶

-I
ℎ𝐶
𝜆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑒𝑉

This shows that the wavelength of X-Rays is inversely proportional to applied P.D. The range of

Uses of X-Rays:
Some uses of X-Rays are given below:
S
wavelength of X-Rays is 1Ao to 10Ao or 0.1nm to 1nm or 10-10m to 10-9m.

1. In medical science e.g. to check fracture of injured bones.

S
2. In Airports for checking and security purpose.
3. In industry e.g. For checking the quality control in rubber tyre and tube manufacturing.
4. X-Rays are also used to check the quality of welded parts of a machine or tool.
5. In scientific research labs. E.g. To study the crystalline structure of solids.
P

i. If the hydrogen gas is bombarded by electron of energy 13.6eV, would you expected
to observe all the lines of hydrogen spectrum?
U

Ans: If a hydrogen atom is bombarded by electrons of energy 13.6eV, it gas ionized

because -13.6eV is the ground state energy, which is equivalent to the ionization
energy. As such, no spectral lines of hydrogen will be observed.
ii. Hydrogen gas at room temperature absorbs light of wavelengths equal to the lines in
the Lyman series but not those of the Balmier series. Explain?
Ans: Hydrogen gas at room temperature contains electrons in ground state (n=1). If the
energy supplied to the electron is such that the electron is lifted from its ground state to
one of the higher allowed orbits, the atom will be excited and it will absorb energy equal
to the difference of the energies of the electron in the two states. Thus light of
wavelength equal to the lines in the Lyman series will be absorbed.

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 iii. How are x-rays different from the visible radiation?
Ans: The wavelength of x-rays is 1 oA to 10 oA and the wavelength of visible light is 4000
oA to 7000 oA, therefore x-rays are very shorter than visible light therefore, x-rays are

highly penetrating. They can pass through many opaque solids such as wood.
iv. What property of x-rays makes them so useful in seeing otherwise invisible internal
structures?
Ans: In solids, the atoms are grouped together in a regular manner. The inner atomic
distance in a crystal is of the order of the wavelength of x-rays. Hence a crystal is used as
a “transmission grating” to produce diffraction of x-rays. This x-ray crystallography has
helped to locate the internal structure of crystal systems (called basic unit cells).

I
Recently developed internal imaging devices (for human body) include CT
(computerized tomography) scanning. MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) and PET

-I
(positron emission tomography).
v. Explain the difference between laser light and light from an incandescent amp (or
bulb)?
Ans:
Laser Light

emission of radiation.
S
i. It is produced due to stimulated

ii. Laser is highly mono chromatic.

iii. It consists of parallel ways in a
Incandescent Light
i. It is produce due to spontaneous
emission of radiation.
ii. Light from an incandescent bulb is
a mixture of several wavelengths.
S
narrow beam and is highly iii. It is emitted in all directions and
directional (i.e. moves straight spread out.
without spreading).
vi. Hydrogen atom contains only a single electron and yet the hydrogen spectrum
contains many lines. Why is this so?
P

Ans: the atoms of hydrogen can excited to different energy levels. The excited electrons
will not stay there. These will jump to the inner orbits. One de-excitation, an electron
does not necessarily return to the ground state in a single jump. Rather, it may return by
several jumps. Thus several spectral lines of different frequencies are emitted,
U

depending upon the differences of energies between the levels for the transitions. So,
the spectrum of hydrogen contains many lines.
vii. Why does laser usually emit only one particular color of light rather than several
colors?
Ans: A laser beam is highly coherent and monochromatic, i.e. the emitted photons have
the same frequency and wavelength. As each and every color has got its own
wavelength, so laser, being monochromatic, emits only one particular color of light.

Page 242 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 Ex # 18.1

Exercise of Complete Chapter:

MCQs
i. Energy required by an atom to move from ground state to higher state is called____.
a) Ionization energy b) Excitation energy c) Both of these d) None of these
ii. If an electron jumps from lower to higher orbit it will___________.
a) Absorb energy b) Absorb as well as emit energy c) Neither absorb emit

I
energy d) None of these
iii. Hydrogen atom spectrum consists of lines in____________.

-I
a) Ultraviolet b) Visible c) Infra-red d) All of these
iv. According to Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom only those orbits around the nucleus
allowed along which angular momentum of electron is____________.
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋
a) 𝑟 ( ) b) 𝑛 ( ) c) 𝑛 ( ) d) None of these
v.

vi.
2𝜋 2𝜋
The value of Plank’s constant h=________________.S ℎ

a) 6.6510-34J/k b) 8.65x10-34J.s c) 6.625x10-34j.s d) None of these

When electron goes from higher orbit of energy E n to a lower orbit of energy Ep then the
frequency of the emitted radiation is given by___________.
S
𝐸
a) 𝜈 = (𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑝 )/ℎ b) ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸𝑝 c) 𝜈 = (𝐸𝑝 − 𝐸𝑛 )/ℎ d) None of these
𝑛

vii. The radius of 1st orbit of hydrogen atom is______________.

a) 2.120 oA b) 0.92 oA c) 0.53 oA d) None of these
viii. The radius rn of allowed orbit of hydrogen atom are related to principle quantum
P

number as_______________.
1
a) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛 b) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛 c) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2 d) None of these
ix. The numerical value of ground state energy level for hydrogen atom is____________.
a) -13.6eV b) -10.6eV c) 5.6eV d) None of these
U

x. The potential energy of electron at a distance r from the positive charge is given
by______.
𝐾𝑒3 𝐾 𝑒2 𝐾 𝑒2
a) − b) − c) d) None of these
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
xi. The kinetic energy of electron at a distance r from the positive charge is given
by_____________.
𝐾𝑒3 𝐾𝑒2 𝐾𝑒2
a) b) c) d) None of these
2𝑟 2𝑟2 2𝑟
xii. The Paschen series is obtained when an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher
orbit to the orbit where “n” is equal to____________.

Page 243 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

 a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) None of these
xiii. Layman series is obtained when an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit
to the orbit where “n” is equal to____________.
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) None of these
xiv. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit to 2 nd orbit the set of lines
emitted is called_____________.
a) Pfund series b) Balmar series c) Layman series d) None of these
xv. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit to 5th orbit the set of lines
emitted is called_____________.
a) Pfund series b) Balmar series c) Layman series d) None of these

I
xvi. Which of the following series in hydrogen atom lies in the ultra violet region:
a) Balmar series b) Bracket series c) Layman series d) None of these

-I
xvii. Which of the following series in hydrogen atom lies in the visible region:
a) Balmar series b) Bracket series c) Layman series d) None of these
xviii. Which of the following series in hydrogen atom lies in the IR region:
a) Balmar series b) Bracket series c) Layman series d) None of these
xix.

xx. The formula

1
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 −
1
S
When higher energy electron strikes a metal surface of (high atomic weight like
tungsten) it gives rise to_____________.
a) 𝛽-rays b) X-rays c) Gamma rays d) None of these
1
) where n=2,3,4,5…. ,gives the___________.
S
𝜆 1 𝑛2
a) Balmer series b) Bracket series c) Layman series d) None of these
1 1 1
xxi. The formula 𝜆
= 𝑅𝐻 (42 − 𝑛2 ) where n=5,6,7…. ,gives the___________.
a) Balmer series b) Bracket series c) Layman series d) None of these
xxii. The value of Rydberg’s constant R H is_______________.
P

a) 1.097x10-7m-1 b) 1.097x107m-1 c) 1.097x107m d) None of these

xxiii. X-Rays are__________.
a) Stream of negatively charged particles b) Stream of positively charged particles
c) Electromagnetic waves d) None of these
U

xxiv. X-Rays are not deflected by ______________.

a) Electric field b) Magnetic field c) Both of these d) None of these
xxv. The name of the scientists who accidentally invented X-rays is_____________.
a) Faradays b) Newton’s c) Rontgen d) None of these
xxvi. X-rays continuous spectrum is produced by___________.
a) Accelerating protons to high speed b) Heating filament to a high temperature
c) Deaccelerating of high velocity electrons d) None of these
xxvii. The production of X-rays can be termed as inverse of_____________.
a) Compton effect b) Photoelectric effect c) Both d) None of these

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xxviii. The wavelength of X-rays is in the range____________.
a) 0.01nm to 0.1nm b) 1 oA to 10 oA c) 0.001nm to 0.01nm d) None of these
xxix. The light amplification stimulated emission of radiations is known as___________.
a) X-rays b) Laser c) Gamma rays d) None of these
xxx. Characteristic of Laser beam is____________.
a) Highly intense b) monochromatic c) Coherent d) All of these
xxxi. Ruby is a crystal of____________.
a) CaCo3 with the impurity of Cl ions b) Al 2O3 with impurity of Cr c) NaCl with
impurity of Ca ions d) None of these
xxxii. Laser operation consists of__________.

I
a) Population inversion b) Stimulated emission c) Optical pumping and
amplification d) All of these

-I
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii.
B A D B C A C C A B C B A
xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi.
B A C A B B C B B C C C C
xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx. xxxi.
B B B D
Questions From Past Papers:
B
Sxxxii.
D
S
i. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure. (1993)
ii. Derive the expression for the radius and energy of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
(1993)
iii. Write a short note on: Bohr’s atomic theory. (1994)
P

iv. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory. (1995)

v. Derive the expression for the radii and energy of various orbits of hydrogen atom.
(1995)
vi. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure. (1997)
vii. Derive the expression for the radius and energy of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
U

(1997)
viii. Write a short note on: Bohr’s atomic theory. (1998)
ix. Write a short note on: Bohr’s atomic model. (1999)
x. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure. (2000)
xi. Derive the expression for the radius of the nth orbit and total energy of the electron in
the nth orbit of a hydrogen atom. (2000)
xii. Describe the construction and working of Ruby laser. (2001)
xiii. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s atomic model and hence derive an expression for
the radius of nth orbit. (2002)Pre Med

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 xiv. Derive the expression for the radius of the nth orbit of a hydrogen atom. (2002)Pre
Eng
xv. State Bohr’s postulates for a hydrogen atom. (2003)Pre Med
xvi. Describe the construction and working of the Ruby laser. (2003)Pre Eng
xvii. Derive the expression of the following:
a) The energy of an electron in the nth shell of a hydrogen atom
b) The wavelength of the photons emitted in a hydrogen spectrum (2005)
xviii. Applying Bohr’s postulates on hydrogen atom, derive an expression for the radius of the
nth orbit. (2006)
xix. State Bohr’s postulates for the hydrogen atom. Derive the expression for the total

I
energy of the electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogen atom. (2007)
xx. What is Laser? Discuss meta-stable and population inversion in a lasing material. (2008)

-I
xxi. Differential between the principle of production of Laser and light from an incandescent
bulb. Also give their characteristics. (2010)
xxii. Why does hydrogen spectrum contain a large number of spectral lines although it has
only one electron? (2011)
xxiii.

xxiv.
S
State the postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory and derive the expression for the radius of
nth orbit of a hydrogen atom.
Derive the expression of the following when 𝑟𝑛 =
a) The energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom.
(2012)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑜 ℎ2 𝑛2
𝑚 𝑒2
S
b) The wavelength of photons emitted in the hydrogen spectrum. (2013)
xxv. State Bohr’s postulates for hydrogen atom. (2014)
xxvi. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure. Derive the expression for
the radius of nth orbit of a Hydrogen atom. (2015)
P

xxvii. Using Bohr’s atomic theory, derive expressions for the following:
ℏ2 𝑛2
a) The energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom. Given: 𝑟𝑛 = 𝐾𝑚𝑒2
b) The wavelength of photons emitted in the hydrogen spectrum. (2016)
xxviii. What is meant by the term LASER, metastable state and population inversion? (2017)
U

xxix. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory of hydrogen atom. Derive the expression for
the radius of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom. Hence show that the ratio of radius of 3 rd orbit to
that of the 2nd orbit is 2.25. (2017)
xxx. Give the postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory. Derive expression for the:
a) Radius of nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
b) Total energy of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen. (2019)

Page 246 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

Numericals From Past Papers:
i. A blood corpuscle has diameter about 9x10 -6m. In which excited orbit should a hydrogen
atom so that it is just about as big as the blood corpuscle. (1990) Ans 291
ii. The energy of the lowest level of hydrogen atom is -13.6eV. Calculate the energy of the
emitted photons in transition from n = 4 to n = 2. (1993) Ans: 2.55eV
iii. Find the wavelength of light which is capable of ionizing a hydrogen atom. (1995) Ans:
911.5Ao
iv. The energy of an electron in an excited hydrogen atom is -3.4eV. Calculate the angular
momentum of the electron according to Bohr’s Theory. (1997) 2.1x10 -34Js

I
v. What is the wavelength of the radiation that is emitted when hydrogen atom undergoes
a transition from the state n2 = 3 to n1 = 2. (2000) Ans: 6.5x10-7m

-I
vi. What is the longest wavelength of light capable of ionizing a hydrogen atom? What
energy in electron volt is needed to ionize it? (2002)Pre Med Ans: 13.6eV
vii. A photon of 12.1eV absorbed by a hydrogen atom originally in the ground state raises
the atom to an excited state. What is the quantum number of this state? (E 1 = -13.6eV)

viii.
(2002)Pre Eng Ans: 3
S
An electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from the n = 2 energy state to the
ground state (corresponding to n = 1) find the wavelength in the ultraviolet region.
(2003)Pre Eng Ans: 1.21x10-7m
S
ix. In a hydrogen atom an electron experiences transition from a state whose binding
energy is -0.54eV to the state whose excitation energy is 10.2eV. Find
a) The quantum numbers of the two states
b) The wavelength of the photon emitted (2005) Ans: 5, 2, 4.342x10-7m
x. Calculate the Binding Energy of a hydrogen atom. (2007) Ans: -13.6eV
P

xi. Calculate the longest and shortest wavelengths of emitted photons in hydrogen
spectrum in Balmer series where RH = 1.097x107m-1.
(2008) Ans: 656.33nm, 364.6nm
xii. Find the shortest wavelength of photon emitted in the Balmer series and determine its
U

energy in eV. (R H=1.097x107m-1) (2010) Ans: 3646Ao, 3.41eV

xiii. Calculate the energy of the longest wavelength radiation emitted in the Paschen series
in hydrogen atom spectra. (RH=1.097x107m-1, h =
6.63x10-34Js, c = 3x108m/s). (2011) Ans: 1875.6nm
xiv. Find the value of shortest and the longest wavelength of emitted photon in hydrogen
spectra in Balmer series. (where Rydberg constant = 1.097x10 7m-1) (2012) Ans:
3.646x10-7m, 6.536x10-7m
xv. A hydrogen atom in the ground state gets excited by absorbing a photon of 12.15eV.
Find the quantum number of this state. (2013) Ans: 3

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 xvi. Determine the shortest wavelength of photons emitted in the layman series
(RH =1.097x107m-1) (2014)
xvii. Find the shortest wavelength of photon emitted in the Balmer series and determine its
energy in ev. (R H =1.097x107m-1) (2015)
xviii. Find the shortest and longest wavelength of emitted photons in Hydrogen spectra in
Pfund series. (2016)
xix. How much energy is needed to ionize a hydrogen atom originally in ground state?
(h=6.63x10-34Js, c =3x108m/s, RH=1.097x107/m ) (2017)
xx. A photon of what minimum energy is required to excite a hydrogen atom from n=1 to n=3?
(RH=1.097x107m-1 ). (2018)

I
xxi. What is the wavelength of 3rd spectral line of Paschen series in hydrogen atom?
(RH=1.097x107m-1) (2019)

-I
Numericals From Book:
i. Calculate the following:
a) The orbit radius
b) The angular momentum
c) The linear momentum
d) The kinetic energy
e) The potential energy
S
S
f) The total energy for the Bohr’s hydrogen atom in ground state.
Ans: 5.3x10-11m, 1.1x10-34Js, 2.1x10-24kgm/s, 13.6eV, -27.2eV, 13.58eV
ii. What is the wavelength of the radiation that is emitted when a hydrogen atom
undergoes a transition from the state n=3 to n=1 Ans: 103nm
P

iii. Light of wavelength 486.3nm is emitted by a hydrogen atom in Balmer series. What
transitions of the hydrogen atom is responsible for this radiation. Ans: n=4
iv. In the hydrogen atom an electron experiences a transition from a state whose binding
energy is- 0.54eV to another state whose excitation energy is 10.2eV. a) What are the
quantum numbers for these states? b) Compute the wavelength of the emitted photon.
U

c) To what series does this line belongs. Ans: 5,2, 434nm, Balmer series
v. Photon of 12.1eV absorbed by a hydrogen atom, originally in the ground state, raised
the atom to an excited state. What is the quantum number of this state. Ans: 3
vi. Find the wavelength of the first three lines of Layman series of hydrogen. Ans:
121.5nm, 102.5nm, 97.2nm
vii. What minimum energy is needed in an X-ray tube in order to produce X-rays with a
wavelength of 0.1x10-10m. Ans: 1.99x10-10J

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viii. A certain atom emits spectrum lines at 300, 400 and 1200nm. Assuming that three
energy levels are involved in the corresponding transitions, calculated the quantum of
energy emitted at each wavelength. Ans: 4.14eV, 3.1eV, 1.03eV
ix. Calculate the energy of a photon whose frequency is
a) i) 4x1014Hz, ii) 20GHz iii) 30MHz. Express your answer in eV.
Ans: 1.65ev, 8.28x10-5eV, 1.24x10-7eV
b) Describe the corresponding wavelengths for the photons described in (a)
Ans: 750nm, 0.015m, 10m
x. An electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from the n=2 energy state to the
ground state (corresponding n=1). Find the wavelength and frequency of the emitted

I
photon. Ans: 2.47x1015Hz
xi. Calculate the binding energy of the hydrogen atom (the energy binding the electron to

-I
the nucleus). Ans: -13.6eV
xii. Find the shortest wavelength photon emitted in the balmer series and determine its
energy. Ans: 364.6nm
xiii. What is the shortest wavelength of the light capable of ionizing a hydrogen atom? What

xiv.
S
energy is needed to ionize a hydrogen atom? Ans: 9.12x1 -8m, 13.6eV
Calculate the potential difference through which an electron must be accelerated in
order that the short wave limit of the continuous X-ray spectrum shall be exactly
1x10-10m. Ans: 12,400V
S
Assignment # 18.1
i. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure.
ii. Derive the following expressions for hydrogen atom.
P

a) Radius of nth orbit.

b) Energy of nth orbit.
c) Wavelength of the emitted photon from the atom.
iii. Explain the different spectral series of hydrogen atom.
iv. Describe following:
U

a) Excitation energy and Excitation potential.

b) Ionization energy and Ionization potential.
v. Define two types of emission of radiation from atom.
vi. What is LASER? State the principle of laser also define “Optical Pumping” and “Population
Inversion”.
vii. Explain the production of LASER through ruby crystal.
viii. What are X-rays? Explain the production of X-rays.
ix. What wavelength does a hydrogen atom emit as its excited electron falls from n=5 state to the
n=2 state? Ans: 4340 oA.
x. When a hydrogen atom is bombarded, the atom may be raised into a higher energy state. As the
excited electron falls back to the lower energy levels, light is emitted. What are the thre e

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 longest wavelength spectral lines emitted by the hydrogen atom as it returns to the n=1 state
from higher energy states? Ans: 1220oA, 1020oA ans 969oA
xi. What is the greatest wavelength of radiation that will ionize unexcited hydrogen atom?
Ans: 912oA
xii. Unexcited hydrogen atoms are bombarded with electrons that have been accelerated through
12V. What wavelength will the atom emit? Ans: 1220oA
xiii. One spectral line in the hydrogen spectrum has a wavelength of 821nm. What is the energy
difference between the two states that gives rise to this line? Ans: 1.51ev
xiv. What is the wavelength of the series limit line for the hydrogen Paschen series? Ans: 8210 oA

MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)

I
(2001)

-I
i. Balmer series is obtained when all the transitions of electrons terminate on:
a) 3rd orbit b) 4th orbit c) 2nd orbit d) 1st orbit
ii. The laser is a device which can produce:
a) An intense beam of light b) A coherent beam of light c) A monochromatic

iii.
S
beam of light d) All of the above

(2002)Pre Med

The fast moving electrons stopped by a heavy metallic target in an evacuated glass tube,
S
give rise to the production of:
a) 𝛼 particles b) 𝛽 particles c) X-rays d) Protons

(2003)Pre Med
P

iv. According to Bohr’s postulates, the electron revolving around the nucleus in a fixed orbit
radiates:
a) Energy b) no energy c) 𝛾 rays d) 𝛼 rays

(2003)Pre Eng
U

v. In a hydrogen atom Balmer series lines are emitted as the electron falls to the orbit
having:
a) n=1 b) n=2 c) n=3 d) n=4
vi. The laser is a device which can produce:
a) An electron beam of light b) A coherent beam of light c) A neutron beam of
light d) All of these

(2006)

Page 250 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

vii. The frequencies in spectral lines emitted in layman series are in the__________ region:
a) Visible b) Infrared c) X-rays d) Ultraviolet

(2008)

viii. Hydrogen atom spectrum consists of lines in:

a) Ultraviolet region b) visible region c) Infrared region d) All of them

(2010)

ix. Bracket series of hydrogen atom spectrum lies in:

I
a) Ultraviolet region b) Visible region c) Infrared region d) All of these
x. The wavelength of x-ray is in the range:
a) 0.01nm to 0.1nm b) 1Ao to 100Ao c) 0.1Ao to 1m d) 0.1nm to 1.0nm

-I
(2012)

xi. LASER produces:

these S
a) An electron beam b) A neutron beam c) A coherent beam of light

(2013)
d) All of
S
xii. When an electron jumps from 3rd orbit to the 1st orbit in hydrogen atom the line
spectrum belongs to:
a) Bracket b) Layman c) Balmer d) Paschen

(2014)
P

xiii. LASER produces:

a) An electron beam b) A neutron beam c) A coherent beam of light d) None
of these
U

(2015)

xiv. In laser, the life time of an electron in a metastable state is:

a) 10-8sec b) 10-5sec c) 10-3sec d) 108sec
xv. Balmer series is obtained when the transitions of electrons terminate on:
a) 1st orbit b) 2nd orbit c) 3rd orbit d) 4th orbit

(2016)

xvi. Balmer series of Hydrogen atom spectrum line in the:

a) Radioactive region b) infrared region c) visible region d) ultraviolet region

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xvii. Laser is produce due to the:
a) Stimulated emission of radiation b) stimulated absorption of radiation
c) spontaneous emission of radiation d) spontaneous absorption of radiation

(2017)

xviii. In Laser, the lifetime of an electron in meta stable state is the order of:
a) 10-8s b) 10-5s c) 10-3s d) 10-1s
xix. The number of energy levels, required for laser production is:
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
xx. Lyman found a series of lines in the spectrum of hydrogen atom in this region of:

I
a) Ultra violet b) Visible c) Infra-red d) Far infra-red
th
xxi. An electron can revolve in the n orbit if, and only if, its angular momentum is equal to:
ℎ 𝑛ℎ

-I
a) ℎ b) 𝑛ℎ c) d)
𝜋 2𝜋

(2019)

xxii. The ratio of the radius of 3rd Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom to the radius of 1 st Bohr orbit
is:
a) 12:1 b) 3:1
xxiii. The principle of laser production is:
a) Spontaneous emission
d) stimulated emission
Sc) 6:1 d) 9:1

b) induced absorption c) spontaneous absorbation

S
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.
C D C B B B D D
P

ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi.

C D C B C C B C
xvii. xviii. xix xx xxi xxii xxiii
A B B A D D D
U

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 The Atomic Nucleus
Charge Number of Nucleus:
The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called “Charge Number”. It is
denoted by “z”.
Mass Number of Nucleus:
Total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called “mass
Number”. It is denoted by “A”.

I
Any Nucleus X is represented as zXA. For example sodium nucleus is 11Na23 .
No. of neutrons in a nucleus is given by;

-I
N=A–Z
Nuclear Mass:
Total mass of nucleons present inside the nucleus is called “Nuclear Mass”.Or
The sum of the mass of neutrons and the mass of protons is called nuclear mass. It is denoted
by “M”.
Isotopes:
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All such nuclei having same charge number Z but different values of mass number A are called
Isotopes.
S
For example hydrogen has three isotopes;
i. Protium (1H1); Z=1, A=1, and N=0.
ii. Deuterium (1H2); Z=1, A=2, and N=1.
iii. Tritium (1H3); Z=1, A=3, and N=2.
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The spontaneous emission of invisible rays from the elements having atomic number greater
than 82 is called radioactivity. The emitted rays are called radioactive rays and the elements
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which emit such rays are called radioactive elements.

In 1896 Henry Becquerel discovered that uranium atom emits radiations these radiations cause
blackening of photographic plates they can penetrate into glass , water and thin layers of metal.
The nuclei of such heavy elements are unstable and disintegrate spontaneously.

Radioactive elements emit three types of rays;

(i) Alpha rays (ii) Beta rays (iii) Gamma rays
i. 𝛼 −rays consist of positively charged particle. They are helium nuclei with charge
number 2 and mass number 4.

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 ii. 𝛽-rays consist of negatively charged particles. They are electrons, emitted from a
radioactive nucleus.
iii. 𝛾-rays are electromagnetic radiation. These are photons of ultraviolet light.
Properties of Alpha-Rays:
Some essential properties related to the 𝛼 −rays are discussed below:
i. The 𝛼 −rays are composed of positively charged particles called, “𝛼 −Particles”. Each
𝛼 −particle carries two units of positive charge i.e.
q = 2x(charge of proton) = 2x1.6x10-19 C = 3.2x10-19c.
ii. An 𝛼 −particle is a helium nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons.
iii. The mass of a 𝛼 −particle is four times greater than that of a proton i.e. mass of

I
𝛼 −particle = 4x(mass of a proton). m𝛼 = 4x(1.67x10-27) = 6.68x10-27kg.
iv. The speed of 𝛼 −particles was found from 1.4x107 m/sec to 1.7x107 m/sec.

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v. 𝛼 −particles produce intense ionization phenomenon when they are passed through the
gases. Their ionizing power is about 100 times greater than that of 𝛽-rays and about
10,000 times greater than that of 𝛾-rays.
vi. 𝛼 −particles show very low penetrating power. They hardly penetrate 7.0 cm through

vii.
the air.

(e/m) of a proton.
S
The ratio of charge and mass (e/m) of an 𝛼 −particle is calculated to be one-half of the

viii. 𝛼 −particles produce fluorescence when they are incident on zinc sulphide and barium
S
platinocyanide.
ix. 𝛼 −particles produce heating effects when they are incident on a metal surface.
x. 𝛼 −particles affect a photographic plate, but their effects on plate are very feeble.
xi. 𝛼 −particles can be deflected under the action of an electric field and magnetic field.
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This characteristic shows that 𝛼 −particles are infact, charged particles.

Properties of 𝜷-Rays:
Some essential properties related to the 𝛽-rays are discussed below;
i. The 𝛽-rays are composed of negatively charged particles called, “𝛽-Particles”. Each 𝛽-
U

Particle carries one unit of negative charge i.e. q=-e=-(1.6x10-19)C.

ii. The mass of a 𝛽-Particle is equal to mass of an electron. i.e. m𝛽 =m𝑒 =9.1x10-31kg.
iii. The ratio of charge and mass (e/m) of a 𝛽-Particle is equal to that of electron, when
velocity of 𝛽-Particles is non-relativistic.
iv. The speed of 𝛽-Particles was found in the range from 0.3c to 0.99c.
v. 𝛽-Particles show low ionization phenomenon when they are passed through the gases.
Their ionizing power is about 100 times less than that of 𝛼-Particles.
vi. 𝛽-Particles show high penetration power. They can penetrate through 1.0cm aluminum
sheet.

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vii. 𝛽-Particles produce fluorescence when they are incident on calcium tungstate and
barium platinocyanide.
viii. 𝛽-Particles affect photographic plate more effectively. Their effect on photographic
plate are found more prominent than that of 𝛼-Particles.
ix. 𝛽-Particles can be deflected under the action of an electric field and magnetic field. The
direction of their deflection shows that they are negatively charged particles.
x. The magnitude of charge and mass of 𝛽-Particles shows that 𝛽-Particles are identical
with “Electrons”.
Properties of 𝜸-Rays:
Some essential characteristics related to the 𝛾-rays are discussed below;

I
i. The 𝛾-rays are composed of packets of very high energy called, “𝛾-Photons”.
ii. 𝛾-rays are the radiations of very shorter wavelength range from 0.005Ao to 0.5Ao.

-I
iii. 𝛾-rays does not show any deflection under the action of either electric field or magnetic
field. This property verifies that 𝛾-rays are electromagnetic radiations.
iv. 𝛾-rays can travel in space with the speed of light, 3x10 8m/s.
v. 𝛾-rays show very poor ionization phenomenon when they are passed through the gases,

vi.

vii.
30cm thickness.
S
their ionization power is about 10,000 times less than that of ∝-particles.
𝛾-rays shows very high penetrating power. They can penetrate through an iron block of

𝛾-rays produces fluorescence when they are incident on cadmium tungstate, zinc
S
sulphide and barium platinocyanide.
viii. 𝛾-rays effects a photographic plate, their effect is greater than 𝛽-rays.
ix. 𝛾-rays are diffracted by crystals and obey Bragg’s Equation for diffraction.
x. 𝛾-rays show line spectrum consists of sharp spectral lines these lines indicate existence
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of a number of energy levels in the nucleus.

Law of Radioactivity:
In the process of radioactive disintegration the original radio-atom (parent atom) disintegrates
into a new radio-atom (daughter atom) with the emission of nuclear radiation. In 1913, Soddy
U

and Fajan formulated some basic principles to explain the radioactive changes called,
“Displacement Law”. These principles are given below;
i. In all known radioactive series either an alpha particle or a beta particle is emitted. It
simply means, neither more than one of each particle nor both particles are emitted at
the same instant.
ii. When an alpha particle is emitted from a radio atom, it disintegrates into a new
daughter atom whose mass number is less by four units and atomic number is less by
two units.
i.e. A A-4 + He4 (Alpha Particle)
ZX Z-2 Y 2
(Pa rent Nucleus) (Da ughter Nucleus)

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 e.g: 92U238 90 TH
234 (Thorium)

iii. When a beta particle is emitted from a radio-atom, it disintegrates into a new daughter
atom whose mass number remains same but atomic number is increased by one unit.
i.e. ZXA A o
Z+1 Y +-1 𝛽 (Beta particle)
234 234 (Protactinium)
90 TH 91 pa
iv. When a positive beta particle is emitted from a radio-atom, it disintegrates into a new
daughter atom whose mass number remains same but atomic number is decreased by
one unit.
i.e. ZXA A o
Z-1 Y ++1 𝛽 (Positive Beta particle)
234 234 (Actinium)
90 TH 89 Ac

I
v. When a gamma photon is emitted from a radio atom, it returns to the ground state with
same mass number and atomic number.

-I
e.g: ZXA * A
ZX + 𝛾 (Gamma photon)
(Excited State) (Ground State)

S
Soddy and Rutherford analyzed that the rate at which a radio element disintegrates was
independent of any physical or chemical change, but depends on the total number of radio
atoms contained by the radioactive sample at the time of disintegration.
According to them, “ the rate of decay of radioactive atoms at any instant is directly
S
proportional to the total number of radio atoms that exist at that instant”.
If “N” be the total number of radio atoms that present at any instant of “t”, then the rate of
radio atoms that have decayed can be expressed mathematically as;
𝑑𝑁
−( ) ∝ 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
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Here, negative sign shows that number of radio atoms decreases with the passage of time.
𝑑𝑁
− ( ) = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Where, “𝜆” is the constant of proportionality, called “Radioactive decay constant” or “Decrease
U

in activity” of the radio element. Its value depends on the nature of radio element.
Definition of Radioactive Decay Constant:
According to the law of radioactive disintegration,
𝑑𝑁
− ( ) = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
(− 𝑑𝑡 )
𝜆=
𝑁
According to this equation, “the ratio of rate of radio atoms that have decayed to the total
number of radio atoms that exist at the time of decay, is called Radioactive decay constant”.

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Unit of Radioactive Decay Constant:
𝑑𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(− ) ( ) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 1 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐
As, 𝜆= 𝜆= 𝜆= × 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝜆 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Hence, the radioactive decay constant is measured by “per second”.
Activity:
The number of disintegrations per second is called activity and denoted by “A” and is taken as a
positive number. Hence, the activity at any time “t” may be expressed as;
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
Relative Activity:
The ratio N/No is called relative activity. Where No is the number of parent nuclei at time t=0

I
whereas N is the number of parent nuclei at any instant, “t”.
Relative activity decreases as time passes.

-I
A graph is plotted between time and relative 1.0
activity N/No. At the start the value of N/No is
S
equal to 1. Graph shows that the radioactive
decay is fast in the beginning and as time passes,
it slows down. This is exponential behavior.
The exponential behavior is mathematically
N/No
1/2

1/4
S
expressed as; 1/8
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜 t=0 T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2
Where, e = 2.718 and 𝜆 = decay constant. 2 Ti me(t)
P

Half life of a radioactive element is the time in which half of the existing parent nuclei decay
into daughter nuclei. It is denoted by 𝑇 1 .
2
U

Determination of Half Life of A Radioactive Element:

Suppose that we have radioactive sample of a radio element which contains “N o” number of
radio atoms at t=0. If “N” be the total number of radio atoms that exist after any instant “t”,
then according to the law of exponential disintegration we may write as;
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 × 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 − − − −(𝑖)
𝑁𝑜
If 𝑁 = , then t = 𝑇1
2 2

𝑁𝑜 −𝜆𝑇1
Eq(1)=> = 𝑁𝑜 × 𝑒 2
2
−𝜆𝑇1
½= 𝑒 2

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 𝜆𝑇1
2=𝑒 2

Taking “ln” both sides,

ln(2) = 𝜆𝑇1
2
ln(2)
𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
0.693
Or 𝑇1 =
2 𝜆

According to this equation, if radioactive decay constant of a radio element is known to us, the
half life of that element can be determined.
Note:

I
Noted that; radio elements have different range of their half lives e.g. Uranium has half life of
about 4.9x109 years, polonium has a half life of about 140 day and Radium “Ra” has a half life

-I
of about 10-6 seconds. It means, some radio elements have very high, some have moderate and
some have very short range of half lives.
Nuclear Force:

S
In order to hold positively charged protons and neutral neutrons together inside a nucleus a
very strong force exists between them. This force is known as nuclear force, it is stronger than
the repulsive coulomb force between the positively charged protons . Nuclear force is short
range and is independent of charge on the particle. It means that this force is effective over a
very short distance (its range is of the order of size of the nucleus). Hence inside a nucleus each
S
nucleon is attracted by the other irrespective of its charge with a very strong short range
nuclear force.
Mass Defect:
Mass of a stable nucleus is less than the combined mass of its constituent particles in free state.
P

This difference in mass is called mass defect.

Example: A deuterium nucleus (deuteron) is made up of one proton and one neutron.
Combined mass of one proton and one neutron in free state is greater than the mass of
deuteron.
U

Calculation of Mass Defect:

Mass of one proton = 1.6724X10-27kg
Mass of one neutron = 1.6748X10-27kg
Combined mass of proton and neutron = 3.3472X10-27kg
Mass of deuteron = 3.343X10-27kg
Mass defect = 3.3472X10-27-3.343X10-27
∆m = 0.0042X10-27kg

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Binding Energy:
The amount of energy released during the formation of a nucleus is called binding energy of
that nucleus. It is the energy equivalent of mass defect. If ∆m is mass defect then binding
energy is ∆mC 2.
Example: mass defect of deuterium nucleus is;
∆m = 0.0042X10-27kg
Therefore binding energy of deuteron is;
B.E = ∆mC 2
B.E =(0.0042X10-27)(3X108)2
B.E = 3.69X10-13 J

I
Or B.E = 3.69X10-13/1.6X10-19 ev
B.E = 2.3X106 ev

-I
B.E = 2.3 Mev ∴1Mev=106ev
Packing Fraction:
Binding energy per nucleon is called packing fraction. For example binding energy of deuteron

fraction of deuteron is; S

is 2.3 Mev. It is the energy of two nucleons (one proton and one neutron). Therefore packing

2.3
𝑃. 𝐹 = 2 = 1.15𝑀𝑒𝑣/nucleon
S
The nuclear reaction means, “Transmutation of a stable nucleus into another stable nucleus by
interaction with a particle or photon”.
Bohr’s Scheme For Nuclear Reaction:
P

After successful completion of some nuclear reactions, Neil Bohr suggested a general scheme
for nuclear reaction. According to him,
“When a projectile (A) hits a target nucleus (B), it combines to form a new unstable nucleus,
called compound nucleus (C). The unstable nucleus spontaneously disintegrates into a stable
nucleus (D) and outgoing particle is (P) or a photon”.
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A B C D

P
Reaction:
B+A C* D+P
Symbolic Form:
B(A,P)D
The nuclear reaction is often denoted by two symbols inside a parentheses, (A,P); first symbol
represents the projectile and second expresses an outgoing particle. E.g. (∝,P) nuclear reaction
shows that projectile is an “∝ particle” and outgoing particle is a “proton”.

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In a nuclear reaction, projectile may be neutral or charge particle or photon. Neutron is the
most effective one, as it can easily enter into a nucleus without experiencing any repulsion.
Whereas; proton, deuteron and ∝ particle etc, has to be accelerated before they are able to
overcome the repulsion of target nucleus.
Q-Value of Nuclear Reaction:
In general, a nuclear reaction is expressed by the following scheme;
X+a Y+b+Q
Where, “a” is the incident projectile. “X” is the target nucleus. “Y” is the product nucleus.
‘b’ is the outgoing particle. “Q” is the energy either released or absorbed during nuclear
reaction, called “Q-Value of the nuclear reaction”. The Q-Value may be positive or negative,

I
depends on the condition whether energy is evolved out of the nuclear reaction or absorbed
into the nuclear reaction.

-I
i. If K.E of the products of nuclear reaction is greater than the K.E of the reactants, then
energy is evolved out of the nuclear reaction and thus it is referred as “Exothermic” or
“Exoergic” nuclear reaction. In this case, Q-Value of nuclear reaction will be “Positive”.
ii. If K.E of the reactants of nuclear reaction is less than the K.E of the products, then some
S
energy must be needed to initiate the nuclear reaction and thus it is referred as
“Endothermic” or “Endoergic” nuclear reaction. In this case, Q-Value of nuclear reaction
will be “Negative”.
S
“The process of splitting a nucleus into smaller nuclei with the release of energy is known as
nuclear fission”.
During the fission of 92U235 with a slow neutron krypton and barium of roughly equal size are
P

produced along with three neutrons and large amount of energy.

235 + n1 89 144 +3 n1 + energy
92 U 0 36 Kr +56 Ba 0
89 144
36 Kr and 56 Ba are called fission fragments.
In general fission reaction may be written as;
U

1 235 (92U236)*
0 n +92 U X + Y + neutrons + energy
236
(92U )* is exited or compound nucleus of uranium formed after the capture of a neutron,
whereas X and Y are the fission fragments. Fission fragments may also be radioactive and may
decay in number of ways into stable nuclei.
Due to mass defect between Uranium and fission fragments the total mass of fission fragments
is less than the mass of uranium nucleus. This loss of mass (mass defect) is converted into
energy according to Einstein’s mass energy relation. In the above reaction about 200 Mev
energy per fission is released.

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Fission Chain Reaction:
During each fission reaction some neutrons are also emitted. These neutrons are of high
energy, hence if they are slowed down then on colliding with other uranium nuclei they will
produce further fission. This continuous fission process in known as nuclear “Chain Reaction”.
Material used for slowing down fast moving neutrons is known as a Moderator. Graphite or
ordinary water are commonly used as moderators, while heavy water is the best moderator.
Number of neutrons available for fission reaction will keep on increasing. In this manner a chain
reaction is established. Chain reaction is, therefore, a self sustaining reaction. The rate of
reaction or in other words, the speed with which chain reaction proceeds can be controlled by
controlling the number of neutrons available. This can be done by using suitable neutron

I
absorbing rods.
The minimum quantity of fissionable material required to sustain nuclear fission at a uniform

-I
rate is known as Critical Mass. Chain reaction will die if mass of uranium is less than the critical
mass, similarly it proceeds at a faster rate and releases more energy if mass of uranium is more
than its critical mass.
89
36 Kr

36 Kr
89
S 92 U
235
on
1

on

on
1
1
S
144
1 235 56 Ba
on 92 U 1
on
P

89
36 Kr

92 U
235 o n1
1
56 Ba
144 on
o n1
U

144
56 Ba

In a nuclear reactor energy released during nuclear fission is converted into useful electrical
energy. During fission reaction energy released is in the form of heat. The rate of fission
reaction is controlled by using suitable neutron absorbing boron or cadmium rods, so that heat
is obtained at a steady rate. Huge quantity of heat released is removed with the help of a
coolant. The choice of coolant material depends upon type of reactor. Usually ordinary water,
heavy water, mercury, liquid sodium etc, are used as coolants. Heat carried by the coolant is

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then used to operate turbines to produce electricity. Neutron absorbing rods used to control
the rate of reaction are called control rods.
Fission of (92U235) takes place with slow neutrons, hence fast moving neutron released during
fission reaction are to be slowed down before they can produce further fission. A suitable
material, such as heavy water, used for slowing down fast moving neutrons is known as
Moderator.
Nuclear reactors are intense source of neutron and gamma radiations which are extremely
dangerous for life. Hence two kinds of shielding are required. Biological shielding and thermal
shielding. Biological shield is required to protect scientists working in the reactor area. Six to
eight feet thick concrete layer can be used as biological shield, it absorbs neutrons and gamma

I
rays. Thermal shield is required for reactors operating at high power.

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In an atom bomb the rate of fission reaction is left uncontrolled. This is done by taking mass of
uranium more than its critical mass. Under these conditions fission reaction proceeds at such a
rapid uncontrolled rate that the large amount of energy released produces an explosion.
S
The atomic bomb explosion can easily destroy a small city.
Strong shock waves produced during atom bomb explosion destroy buildings etc. whereas large
quantity of storing nuclear radiations (Gamma rays) emitted are extremely harmful for life.
S
“The process of combining two or more light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus with the release
of energy is called nuclear fusion”.
Heavier nucleus formed after combining lighter nuclei has more mass defect in other words
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mass of the heavier nucleus is less than the sum of masses of the lighter nuclei. Mass lost
during this process is converted into energy according to Einstein’s mass energy relation.
During a nuclear fusion more energy per nucleon is released as compared with the energy
released during fission reaction.
U

Consider the fusion reaction between a deuterium and a tritium nucleus,

2 3 4 1
1 H +1 H 2 He + 0 n + energy

During the above fusion reaction a helium nucleus is produced along with a release of about
17.6 Mev energy.
Fusion reaction can therefore produce abundant energy using deuteron as raw material.
It is a very difficult to produce fusion reaction because the positively charged smaller nuclei
repel each other before they can fussed and the repulsive force increases as they are brought
close to each other.
Fusion reaction takes place at a very high temperature (more than a million degrees
centigrade). Hydrogen bomb utilizes fusion reaction, releases more energy, therefore, it has

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more destructive power than an atom bomb. Scientists have not been able to control fusion
reaction as yet, hence the enormous amount of energy released could not be converted into
electricity.
Fusion Reaction In Sun And Stars:
The enormous amount of energy produced by the sun and other stars is due to fusion reaction.
Temperature on the surface of the sun and other stars is very high (more than million degrees
centigrade). Under these conditions fusion reaction can easily take place. To explain fusion
reaction taking place on the sun and other stars proton-proton cyclic process was proposed. In
each such cycle energy released is estimated to be about 25 Mev.
Another cyclic fusion process, called carbon cycle, assumed to be taking place on the surface of
the sun was proposed by Bethe. In this cycle energy released is estimated to be about 26.7Mev.

I
The reaction which takes place in the sun utilizes four hydrogen nuclei to form a helium nucleus
in the following manner.
I. 1H1+1H1 2 0
1 H +1 𝛽 +𝜈(neutrino)

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II. 1H +1H1 2 3
2 He +𝛾
1 3 4 0
III. 1H +2He 2 He +1 𝛽 + 𝜈
Carbon cycle: Bethe proposed solar fusion to occur in the following manner.
I. 6C12+1H1 13
7 N +𝛾
II. 7N13
III. 6C13+1H1
IV.
V. 8O
14
7 N +1 H
15

VI. 7N15+1H1
1
15
13
6 C +1 𝛽 + 𝜈

7 N +1 𝛽 + 𝜈
8 O +𝛾

12
0

6 C +2 He
0
S
14
7 N +𝛾
15

4
S
In this cycle carbon acts as catalyst.

i. Do 𝜶, 𝜷 and gamma rays come from the same element. Why do we find all three in
P

many radioactive samples?

Ans: A radioactive element either emits 𝛼-particle or 𝛽-particle, but never both. Gamma
radiations generally accompany 𝛽 emission and in some cases with 𝛼 emission.
A radioactive element (or sample) is mixture of various nuclides of different relative
U

abundances and with different modes of disintegration. Hence we can find all the three
activates in a radioactive sample at the same time. For example, R-226 is an 𝛼 emitter,
but Ra-25 is a 𝛽 emitter.
ii. It is more difficult to start fusion reaction that fission. Why?
Ans: Fission is caused by captured of neutrons by heavy nuclei. Neutron, being
electrically neutral, is highly penetrating particle for nuclei. But in fusion of two light
nuclei, the positively charged nuclei are repelled by the repulsive forces. So work has to
be done against the repulsive forces of the nuclei.

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 iii. Is it possible, that fusion of two small nuclei may occur without collision at extremely
high energy?
Ans: No, two nuclei must collide with sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate their mutual
“Columb Barrier” and come within the range of the nuclear forces.
iv. Explain how a nuclear reactor produces heat as result of fission?
Ans: In fission the difference of binding energies of reactants and products in converted
into energy. The difference of mass (0.22u) appears as energy (200MeV). If fission takes
place in a bulk solid, most of the disintegration energy appears as an increase in the
internal energy of the solid, which shows a corresponding rise in temperature. This
thermal energy is carried away to the heat exchange by circulating the coolant through

I
the reactor.
v. Can a conventional fission reactor ever explode like a bomb does? Why?

-I
Ans: In a nuclear reactor, a fission explosion is not possible, because the amount of fuel
(e.g. U-235 or py-239) is of sub critical mass and it can shut off control rods in
emergency. Also, liquid “piston” can be inserted directly into the moderator if other
safely devisees fail.
vi.
S
Consider a sample of 1000 radioactive nuclei with a half-life T. approximately, how
many will be left after a time 3T?
Ans: The number of nuclei decayed in one half-life (T1/2 = T) are 500. Also, the number of
nuclei which decay in three period of half-life are 1000/23. Hence the number of nuclei
S
left is 125.
vii. Why is heavy water more efficient moderator than ordinary water?
Ans: Heavy water (D2O) has much lower probability of capturing neutrons but it can
slow neutrons. In fact, heavy water is 1600 times more efficient as moderator than
ordinary water (H2O).
P

Ex # 19.1
Exercise (Complete Chapter):
MCQs
U

i. The spontaneous emission of radiations from heavy nucleus is called_____________.

a) Nuclear fission b) Nuclear fusion c) Radioactivity d) None of these
ii. Alpha particles are____________.
a) Protons b) Positrons c) negatively charge d) Helium nuclei
iii. When a nucleus emits an Alpha particle, its charge number decreases by____________.
a) 3 b) 2 c) 4 d) 5
iv. Beta particles are like___________.
a) Protons b) Electrons c) Positrons d) Both b & c
v. Beta particles carry a charge____________.

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 a) 2e b) -2e c) –e d) +e
vi. The emission of beta particle from the radioactive substance, results in the production
of another atom of_____________.
a) A higher mass no. and a high atomic no
b) The same mass no. and high atomic no.
c) The same mass no. and lower atomic no.
d) The lower mass no. and lower atomic no.
vii. When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its atomic mass decreases by_________.
a) 2 b) 1 c) 4 d) 3
viii. Gamma rays carry a charge__________.

I
a) –e b) +e c) no charge d) -2e
ix. The equation ZXA→Z+1YA+ -eo represents______________.

-I
a) Beta emission b) Alpha emission c) Gamma emission d) None of these
x. The equation ZXA→Z-2YA-4+ 2He4+ represents______________.
a) Beta emission b) Alpha emission c) Gamma emission d) None of these
xi. The equation ZXA∗→ZXA+ 𝛾 represents______________.

xii.

xiii.
a)
𝑁
𝑁𝑜
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Activity is given by_____________.
S
a) Beta emission b) Alpha emission c) Gamma emission d) None of these
The law of radioactive decay is______________.
b) 𝑁𝑜 = Δ𝑁𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 c)
𝑁𝑜
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 d) None of these
S
Δ𝑁 Δ𝑁
a) b) 𝜆𝑁 c) d) Both b & c
𝑁𝑜 Δ𝑡
xiv. In radioactive decay, the new element which is formed due to the disintegration of
original element is called_________.
P

a) Element b) Daughter element c) Parent nuclei d) None of thes e

xv. In a radioactive decay 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝜆 represents___________.
a) Wavelength b) Half life c) Mass of radioactive sample d) Decay constant
xvi. The rate of decay of radioactive element____________.
a) Increases with increase in time
U

b) Decreases with increase in time

c) Decreases exponentially with time
d) Remains constant with increase in time
xvii. Number of nuclei disintegration per second is called______________.
a) Half life b) Decay Constant c) Activity d) None of these
xviii. Decay rate is high if decay constant is____________.
a) Small b) Large c) Medium d) None of these
xix. The rate of decay in radioactive process is directly proportional to number of_____.
a) Parent nuclei b) Daughter nuclei c) Electrons d) None of these

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 xx. The time in which half of the atoms of the parent element decay into daughter element
is called___________.
a) Decay constant b) Mass deficit c) Amount of substance d) None of these
xxi. The half life of radioactive substance depends upon____________.
a) Pressure b) Temperature c) Amount of substance d) No external influences
xxii. Which of the following material has a smaller half life __________.
a) Uranium b) Polonium c) Radium d) Radon
xxiii. Half life of a radioactive substance is given by_______________.
a) T1/2=0.396/𝜆 b) T1/2=𝜆𝑁 c) T1/2=0.693𝜆 d) T1/2=0.693/𝜆
xxiv. What determines the half life of a radioactive element:

I
a) Atomic number b) Mass number c) Temperature d) None of these
xxv. The decrease in the mass of the nucleus when constituent nucleons are combined to

-I
form a nucleus is called____________.
a) Atomic mass b) Molecular mass c) Mass defect d) None of these
xxvi. The energy released when nucleons bound together to form a nucleus is
called____________.

xxvii.

xxviii.
S
a) Atomic energy b) Kinetic energy c) Potential energy d) Binding energy
The binding energy per nucleon is called_________.
a) Packing fraction b) Binding fraction c) Proper fraction d) None of these
The binding energy (B.E) is given as______________.
S
a) B.E=mc2 b) B.E=moc2 c) B.E=∆mc2 d) None of these
xxix. The process of splinting a heavy nucleus into fragments is called___________.
a) Fission reaction b) Fusion reaction c) Nuclear reaction d) None of these
xxx. Nuclear fusion is the source of energy in_____________.
P

a) Nuclear reactor and sun b) Sun and hydrogen bomb c) Nuclear reactor and
atomic bomb d) None of these
xxxi. Sun releases energy by the process of_______________.
a) Nuclear fission b) Nuclear fusion c) Nuclear radiation d) None of these
xxxii. The fusion of deuterium and tritium under high temperature with the release of
U

tremendous amount of energy is termed as____________.

a) Atom bomb b) Hydrogen bomb c) Neutron bomb d) None of these
xxxiii. Fusion reaction that occurs at very high temperature is also termed as______________.
a) Chemical reaction b) Thermonuclear reaction c) Nuclear reaction
d) None of these
xxxiv. The process of nuclear fission was explained by__________.
a) Strassmann and Hann b) Bohr and Wheeler c) Rutherford d) None of these
xxxv. The mass of fissionable material required for self sustaining chain reaction is
called____________.

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 a) Atomic mass b) Critical mass c) Molecular mass d) None of these
xxxvi. Fission chain reaction is controlled by introducing_____________.
a) Iron rods b) Cadmium rods c) graphite rods d) Platinum rods
xxxvii. The number of neutrons produced per fission reaction are_____________.
a) One b) Two c) Three d) Two or Three
xxxviii. The materials used to slow down neutrons are of low atomic numbers and are known
as____________.
a) Reflectors b) Critical masses c) Moderators d) None of these
xxxix. The moderator used in a nuclear reactor is_____________.
a) Aluminum b) Radium c) Calcium d) Cadmium

I
xl. A chain reaction is continuous due to______________.
a) Large mass defect b) Large energy c) Production of more neutrons in fission

-I
reaction d) None of these
xli. Good moderators have_________________.
a) Low atomic number and large slowing down power
b) High atomic number and low slowing down power

xlii.
S
c) Low atomic number and low slowing down power
d) None of these
In the nuclear reactor____________.
a) Fusion reaction takes place b) Fission reaction takes place c) Both of these d)
S
None of these
xliii. The rod which is used to absorb neutrons in the nuclear reaction is made of__________.
a) Calcium b Sulpher c) Uranium d) Cadmium
xliv. The rod which is used to absorb neutrons is called_______________.
P

a) Moderator b) Reflector c) Control rods d) None of these

xlv. The part of nuclear reactor which consists of fissionable material is called___________.
a) Core b) Moderator c) Control rods d) Reflectors
xlvi. The substances that are used as coolants____________.
a) Hydrogen gas b) Oxygen gas c) Helium, CO 2 d) None of these
U

xlvii. A breeder reactor does not require______________.

a) Reflector b) Core c) Coolants d) Moderators
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.
C D B D C B C C A B
xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx.
C A D B D C C B A D
xxi. xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. xxx.
D C D D C D A C A B
xxxi. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl.
B B B A B B D C D C

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 xli. xlii. xliii. xliv. xlv. xlvi. xlvii.
A B D C A D D

Questions From Past Papers:

i. Write a short note on: Radioactivity (1993)
ii. Write a short note on: Fission reaction (1994)
iii. Write a short note on: Fission reaction (1995)
iv. Write a short note on: Radioactivity, Half life of radioactive element, Fusion raction

I
(1996)
v. Write a short note on: Fission reaction (1997)
vi. Write a short note on: Nuclear fusion reaction (1998)

-I
vii. Write a short note on: Nuclear fission, Radioactivity (1999)
viii. Write a short note on: Nuclear fusion (2000)
ix. Define the term radioactivity and half life of a radioactive element and give the law of

x.

xi.
xii.
radioactive decay.

Med
Explain fission reaction.
S (2001)
Describe the changes in parent nucleus as a result of 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 emissions. (2002)Pre

(2002)Pre Eng
Define radioactivity and explain the law of radioactive decay. (2003)Pre Med
S
xiii. Define radioactivity and state the law of radioactive decay. Explain how half life of the
radioactive element can be determined. (2003)Pre Eng
xiv. Define the following: a) Isotopes b) Mass defect c) Binding energy (2004)
xv. Define radioactivity. Derive a relation for the law of radioactive decay. (2004)
P

xvi. State and explain the law of radioactive decay with its exponential curve. (2006)
xvii. What is Nuclear Fission? Discus fission chain reaction. How are moderators used to
control fission in the nuclear reactions? (2008)
xviii. What is the Half life of radioactive nuclei? State the law of decay and give the relation
U

between the decay constant and the half-life. (2009)

xix. Do 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 −rays come from the same element? Why do we find all three in many
radioactive substances? (2010)
xx. Define nuclear fission and nuclear fusion reaction. How can the fission chain be
controlled? Name the process which produces energy in the nuclear reactor? (2011)
xxi. Define radioactivity. Explain the law of radioactive decay. Write the equation showing
the change in the parent nuclei by 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 decay. (2011)
xxii. Do 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 −rays come from the same element? Why are all three found in many
radioactive substances? (2012)
xxiii. How is chain reaction controlled in nuclear reactor? (2013)

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xxiv. What is Nuclear fission? Explain fission chain reaction. (2014)
xxv. Give at least three properties of 𝛼-particles, 𝛽-particles and 𝛾-rays. (2018)
xxvi. Describe the radioactive decay law. Give the relevant mathematical expansion. (2019)

Numericals From Past Papers:

i. Find the binding energy of 52Te126 in MeV if the mass of a proton = 1.0078U, mass of a
neutron = 1.0086U, mass of a Te atoms = 125.9033U (1994) Ans: 1061MeV
ii. 126
Find the binding energy of 52Te in MeV if the mass of a proton = 1.0078U, mass of a
neutron = 1.0086U, mass of a Te atoms = 125.9033U (2001) Ans: 1061MeV
iii. 210
The half-period of 104Po is 140 days. By what percent does its activity decrease per

I
week? (2006) Ans: 3.465% per week
iv. If the number of atoms per gram of 88Ra236 is 2.666x1021 and it decays with a half life of

-I
1622 years, find the decay constant and the activity of the sample. (2009) Ans:
-11 -1 11
1.35x10 sec , 3.61x10 disintegration/sec
v. A deuteron 3.3431x10-27kg is formed when a proton 1.6724x10-27kg and a neutron
1.6748x10-27 kg are combined, calculate the mass defect and binding energy (in Mev).

vi.
(2010) Ans: 4.1x10-30kg, 2.3Mev

mn = 1.0086 and mTe = 125.9033U.

1060.99MeV
S
Find the binding energy and packing fraction in MeV of 52Te126, given that mp = 1.0078U,
(2012) Ans: 1.1387amu,
S
vii. The number of atoms per gram of 88Ra236 is 2.666x1021 and it decays with a half life of
1622 years, find the activity and decay constant of the sample. (2013) Ans:
-11 -1 10
1.35x10 sec , 3.60x10 disintegration/sec
viii. Find the Binding energy and packing fraction (B.E per nucleon) of 52Te126.
P

Given that mp= 1.0078U mn=1.0086U mTe = 125.9033U 1U=931.5Mev (2015)

ix. The number of atoms per gram of 88Ra236 is 2.666x1021 and it decays with a half life of
1622 years, find the activity and decay constant of the sample. (2016)
-11 -1 10
Ans: 1.35x10 sec , 3.60x10 disintegration/sec
U

x. Find the binding energy and packing fraction in MeV of 52Te126, given that mp = 1.0078U,
mn = 1.0086 and mTe = 125.9033U. 1u=931.5MeV (2016) Ans: 1.1387amu,
1060.99MeV
xi. The half life of 104Po210 is 140 days. By what percent will its activity decrease per hour? (2017)
Ans: 0.02%
xii. A deuteron of mass 3.343ax10-27kg is formed when a proton of mass 1.6724x10-27kg and a
neutron of mass 1.6748x10-27kg combine. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy in Mev.
(2017) Ans: 4.1x10-30kg, 2.3Mev
xiii. Find the Q-value of the reaction 94 Pu239 →2 He 4 + 92U235 +Q
a) The isotopic mass of Plutonium = 239.0522U

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 b) The isotopic mass of Uranium = 235.0439U
c) The isotopic mass of alpha particle = 4.0026U
1U=931.5MeV (2018) Ans: 5.3Mev
ix. If the number of atoms per gram of 88Ra236 is 2.666x1021 and it decays with a half life
of 1622 years, find the activity and decay constant of the sample. (2019)
Ans: 1.35x10-11sec-1, 3.60x1010 disintegration/sec

Numericals From Book:

i. When the chlorine atom of mass number 35 and charge number 17, is bombarded by
proton, the resulting atom disintegrates, emitting and 𝛼-particle. Write the equation

I
representing the reaction.
ii. The half life of Radon is 3.80 days what would be its decay constant? Ans: 2.1x10-6s -1

-I
iii. The half life of 104Po210 is 140 days. By what percent does its activity decrease per week?
Ans: 3.465% per week
iv. If a neutron would be entirely converted into energy, how much energy would be
produced? Expression your answer in joules as well as electron volts. Ans:

v.

vi.
1.50x10-10J, 942.0MeV

125.9033U.
S
Find the binding energy of 52Te126, Given that mp = 1.0078U, mn = 1.0086 and mTe =
Ans: 1060.99MeV
If the number of atoms per gram of 88Ra is 2.666x1021 and it decays with a half life of
236
S
1622 years, find the activity and decay constant of the sample.
Ans: 1.35x10-11sec-1, 3.60x1010 disintegration/sec
vii. Find the Q-value of the reaction, when 94Pu239 makes a alpha decay. Given mass of
239 = 239.0522U, mass of U235 = 235.0439U and mass of He4 = 4.0026U. Ans:
94 Pu 92 2
P

5.306MeV
viii. The rate of radiation of energy from the sun is 3.80x1026W. Determine the change in
mass of the sun and calculate the rate at which the mass of the sun diminishes.
Ans: 1.32x1017Kg/Year
U

ix. Sodium 11Na23 has a atomic mass of 22.989U. Find the total binding energy of the
sodium nucleus and estimate the binding energy per nucleon. Ans:8.11MeV

Assignment # 19.1
i. What is Radioactivity? Give the law of radioactive decay.
ii. Describe the changes in parent nucleus as a result of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 emissions.
iii. What is half-life of radioactive element? Explain how half-life can be determined?
iv. Explain the law of radioactive decay with its exponential curve.
v. Explain following.
a) Isotopes

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 b) Mass defect
c) Binding energy
d) Packing fraction
vi. What is Nuclear fission? Explain with an example.
vii. Describe fission chain reaction.
viii. What is Fusion reaction? Explain with an example.
ix. How is fission chain reaction controlled in nuclear reactor?
x. Describe Atom Bomb and Hydrogen Bomb briefly.
xi. What is the binding energy of 6C12 ? mp=1.0078u, mn=1.0086u, mass of 6C12 =12u. Ans: 92Mev
xii. The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5.25years. how long after a new sample is delivered will its activity
have decreased to about one-eighth its original value? Ans: 15.75years

I
xiii. Find the binding energy of 47 Ag107 , which has an atomic mass of 106.905u. Ans: 915ev

MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)

-I
(2001)
i. The nuclei having the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called:
a) Isotopes b) Isobars c) Isotones d) Isomers
(2002)Pre Med
ii.

iii.
a) 92 U235 into 92 U236
92 U
237
S
Breeder reactor is used to convert:
b) 92 U238 into 94 Pu239
d) 92 U235 into 56Ba144 and 36Kr89
c) 92 U235 into

The process in which heavier nucleus is formed from the combination of lighter nuclei is called:
a) Fission b) Fusion c) Radioactivity d) Mass defect
S
(2003)Pre Med
iv. The process of 𝛽-particle emission from a nucleus involves the change in:
a) Mass number b) Charge number c) Mass and Charge number d) No change
occurs
P

v. The process of the splitting of a heavy nucleus into smaller fragments is called:
a) Fusion b) Fission c) Pair production d) Annihilation of matter
(2003)Pre Eng
vi. In the nuclear reaction 7 N +2He →8O17+____________, the missing particle is:
14 4

a) Proton b) Neutron c) Electron d) 𝛼-particle

U

(2004)
vii. The ratio of the mass of proton to the mass of electron is_1836_.
(2005)
viii. One atomic mass unit is equal to:
a) 1.6x10-19 J b) 9.1x10-27kg c) 931x106eV d) 9x109eV
ix. The energy equivalent to mass reduced in the formation of a nucleus is called:
a) Nuclear energy b) Binding energy c) Fusion energy d) Potential energy
x. The atomic number of an element is increased as a result of:
a) 𝛼-radiation b) 𝛽-radiation c) Pair production d) Photoelectric effect
(2006)

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 xi. In the nuclear reaction 7N14+2He 4 →8O17+____________, the missing particle is:
b) Proton b) Neutron c) Electron d) 𝛼-particle
(2007)
xii. −𝜆𝑡
In radioactive decay law, N=N o𝑒 , 𝜆 represents:
a) Wavelength b) Half life c) Mass radioactive sample d) Decay constant
(2008)
xiii. The rate of decay of a radioactive substance:
a) Increases with increasing time b) Remains constant with increasing time c) Decreases
exponentially with the increasing time d) None of these
(2009)
xiv. The half life of radium is 1600 years. After 6400 years the sample of the surviving radium would

I
be its:
a) ¼ b) 1/8 c) 1/16 d) ½

-I
xv. When a nucleus emits a Beta particle, its atomic number:
a) Increases b) Decreases c) Remains constant d) None of them
(2010)
xvi. The radioactive decay law is:

xvii.
a)
𝑁
𝑁𝑜
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
S
b) 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 c)

After alpha-decay, the nucleus has its:

𝑁𝑜
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 d) 𝑁𝑜 = ∆𝑁𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
(2012)

a) Charge number decreased by four b) Charge number increased by four

S
c) Mass number decreased by four d) Mass number increased by four
(2013)
xviii. −𝜆𝑡
In radioactive decay law N=N o𝑒 , 𝜆 represents:
a) Wavelength b) Half life c) Decay constant d) None of these
xix. This was the first experimental verification of Einstein’s Mass-Energy relation:
P

a) Deuteron-induced reaction b) Proton-induced reaction

c) Gamma-induced reaction d) None of these

(2015)
xx. The product of decay constant (𝜆) and half-life (T1/2 ) of a radioactive source is:
U

a) 0.369 b) 0.396 c) 0.693 d) 0.963

(2016)
xxi. When a nucleus emits Beta particle, its atomic number:
a) Increases b) decreases c) remain the same d) sometime increase some decrease
xxii. This is a highly ionizing particle:
a) 𝛼 b) 𝛽 c) 𝛾 d) proton
(2017)
xiv. High energy deuteron may be absorbed by Li to produce:
a) One alpha particle b) two alpha particles c) one alpha and one beta particles
d) one beta and one gamma particles

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 xv. As time passes, the rate of decay of a radioactive element:
a) Decreases b) remains constant c) increases d) becomes infinity
(2018)
xvi. This one is used as fuel for conventional nuclear reactor:
a) 92 U235 b) 90TH227 c) 91 Pu239 d) 88Ra223
xvii. The half-life of radium is 1600 years. After 6400 years, the sample of surviving radium will be its:
1 1 1
a) 𝑡ℎ b) 𝑡ℎ c) 𝑡ℎ d) half
4 8 16
(2019)
xviii. In the process of positive beta emission, charge number of daughter nucleus:
a) In increased b) is decreased c) remains the same d) is double

I
xix. 2
The binding energy of deuteron ( 1H ) is 2.3 MeV, is binding energy per nucleon will be:
a) 1.15 MeV b) 0.2 MeV c) 1 MeV d) 0.51 MeV

-I
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.
A B B B B A 1836 C B B B D
xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix. xx. xxi. xxii. xiv xv
C
xvi
C
C
xvii
C
A
xviii
B
A
xix
A
C
S C B C D A B A
S
P
U

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 Nuclear Radiations

In 1912, C.T.R “Wilson” inverted a particle detector called “Cloud Chamber”. It enables us to
visualize the track of charge particles in their paths.
Basic Principle:
This detector is based on the fact that if there is a sudden expansion of saturated vapor in a
chamber, super cooling of the vapor occurs. Tiny droplets will be formed by condensing over

I
the dust particles presents in the chamber. If, therefore, we have completely dust free and
saturated air and there occurs a sudden adiabatic expansion, then condensation will not take
place there. But, if ions are available in the chamber during the expansion, they serve as nuclei

-I
for condensation. Hence, if an ionizing particle passes through the chamber during an adiabatic
expansion, ions are produced along its path and droplets condense on these ions and thus the
“Track” of the particle becomes visible.
Construction:
S
The cloud chamber consist of a closed chamber having glass top and moveable piston at its bottom. Two
glass windows are provided in the walls of the chamber opposite to each other. A high volatile liquid
such as alcohol is placed above the piston in the chamber. A strong source of light, subatomic particles
source and high speed sensitive camera are also provided.
S
Camera

Light Vapor Particles

P

Liquid
U

piston

Working:
Some quantity of volatile liquid having low boiling point such as alcohol is placed in the chamber above
the piston. The piston is at first moved up, so that the air inside the chamber is cleaned up and then it is
suddenly moved down, so that the internal pressure is dropped. The vapours in the chamber are thus
cooled adiabatically. The super saturated vapours condense in the form of fog. At the right moment the
particle to study is allowed to enter into the chamber and an intense beam of light is used to illu minate

Page 274 of 281 Prepared By: Imran Zubair

the chamber. The ionizing particle leaves positive and negative ions all along its track and tiny fog
droplets condense each ion. The whole track can be seen and photographed in bright light.

A strong electric or magnetic field can be applied to alter the path. From the path diagram of particles
path length, thickness, continuity or discontinuity and the influence of magnetic field, the ionizing
power, penetrating power and e/m can be determined.

The path diagram of 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 rays show that path of 𝛼-particles look like a continuous streak. It shows
that the ionizing power of 𝛼-particles is very large. The path diagram of 𝛽-particles is not continuous and
less prominent. It shows that their ionizing power is less than 𝛼-particles. The path diagram of
𝛾-particles is an indefinite track which shows their weakest ionization power.

I
-I
Geiger counter (also known as G.M. tube) is a portable device widely used as a detector of
ionizing particles or radiations.
Construction:
Metal Cylinder Insulator

Particle
S
Anode

Cathode
To recorder
S
R 109Ω

- +
P

It is simple, small portable device. It consists of a hollow metallic cylinder, one end of which is closed by
an electric insulation. At the other end there is a thin foil of mica through which radiations can enter.
The cylinder usually contains a mixture of argon and alcohol at suitable pressure. A large potential
difference of about 1000V is established between the cylinder wall and the wire. This gives a strong
electric field in the cylinder. Cylinder walls are used as cathode and wire as anode.
U

Working:
When ionizing particles enter the counter through the window, it produces ions and electrons in the gas.
These electrons are accelerated by the electric field. The accelerated ions suffer collisions with other
molecules and produce further ionization. This gives rise to a discharge in the tube and the gas becomes
conducting. A current starts flowing through the circuit. The voltage drops is amplified and recorded by
a loudspeaker or by an electric counter. There is a mechanism in the counter which makes it again
conducting and ready to record another particle. Every ionizing particle acts as a trigger. The number of
particles entering the counter are recorded by the recorder. The number of counts recorded by the
counter is a measure of strength of the radiations.

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Effects of Radiations: When a living tissue is exposed to radiations, the energy absorbed may
produce chemical changes in the cells which affect cell metabolism. Large molecules may be broken up

into free radicals, capable of initiating chemical changes. These changes may become sufficient enough
to damage the cells which lead to the death of cell. Which results in abnormities in growing character of
new cells.

The biological effects are generally of two types, somatic and genetics. Somatic effects an individual
directly. Some of the common somatic effects of radiation are skin-burn, loss of hair, ulceration,
stiffening of lungs, an induction of cataract in the eyes, etc. The most feared somatic effect of radiations
is the induction of many types of cancer.

I
Radiation damage the cells of the reproductive organs of either sex thus damages the genes. This

-I
damage can be transmitted to generation after generation in the form of birth defects and
abnormalities. Thus genetic affects affect the generations.

Uses of Nuclear radiations:

encouraging some of these are:

1. Tracer Technique:
S
Nuclear radiation are widely used for different purposes in various fields and the results are very

The tracer technique has made it possible to understand the chemistry of complex reactions in the
S
biological organisms, which has helped to diagnose and to cure some unknown diseases. 6C14 and
3
1 H are used in tracing digestion of various food molecules.

Tracer studies reveals that 53 I131 can be used for treating thyroid cancer, 20 Ca45 for treating bone
cancer and 11Na24 for tracing rate of flow of blood. Radio isotope 6C14 is used for tracing absorption
P

of CO2 the seat of photosynthesis and distribution of plant food by a technique called
Auto-Radiography.
2. Radio Process in Space:
The new range of sensitive detectors has made it possible to analyze in details the study of cosmic
rays entering the earth’s atmosphere from outer space. Radio signals emanating from the stars
U

reflect radiations of such frequencies that indicate the presence of particular types of molecules.
3. Polymerization:
The radiation process in polymerization has helped to evolve new plastic materials, pesticides and
some complex compounds.
4. Sterilization:
A beam of 𝛽-particles or gamma rays can destroy germs and is thus helpful to sterilize surgical
instruments and other medical appliances.

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 5. Food preservation:
The length of time that a food material can be store depends on the microbial activity that attacks
the food and causes it to spoil. Radiation treatment has shown better results for preservation and
storage of food staff.
6. Treatment of Cancer:
Radiation can be destroy rapidly growing cancer cells. The process is cal led Radiation Therapy, which
is of two types:
1) External Therapy: In this process cancerous cells are destroyed by passing radiations. For
example in treating a localized cancerous tumor a narrow beam of gamma rays from cobalt-
60 is oftenly used.
2) Internal Therapy: In this process radioactive particles are made to enter surgically in the
cancerous tumor where they remain deposited for a long time. For example radio isotopes

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of 53I131 is injected in the blood from where they deposit in thyroid glands and thus provide
treatment of thyroid cancer.

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7. Gauging and Control:
In paper, glass, metal industries, a beta ray source is used to measure thickness and controlling
their sheets without interrupting the production.
8. Radiation Methods in Archeology:
S
Radiation technique made it possible to measure the age of the specimen, i.e. the time elapsed.
This process is called radio-carbon dating as isotope 6C14 called carbon date is used for this
purpose.
S
i. Explain how you would test whether the radiation from a radioactive source is 𝜶, 𝜷 or gamma
radiation?
Ans: When radiations are allowed to pass through an electric field. The 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 particles are
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deflected while gamma rays pass through un-deflected. This technique helps to identify the
radiation.
ii. A particle which produces more ionization is les penetrating. Why?
Ans: When particle ionizes an atom, it losses a part of its energy. Since the greater is the ionizing
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power, the greater is the loss of energy and hence, the smaller is i ts penetrating power.
iii. In how many ways can gamma rays produce ionization of the atom?
Ans: Gamma rays only ionize an atom by collision. Being high energy photon, it can be produce
ionization in three ways.
1. It may lose all its energy in a single collision with the electron of an atom (photoelectric
effect).
2. It may lose only a part of its energy in a collision (Compton effect).
3. It may be stopped by a heavy nucleus giving rise to electron positron pair (materialization of
energy).

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 iv. Name different electromagnetic radiations which are capable of producing ionization of
atoms. By what process do they ionize?
Ans:
1. Ultraviolet rays
2. X-rays
3. Gamma rays.
The rays interact with matter in elastically. They remove electrons from the atoms of the target
material.
v. Lead is heavier and denser than water. Yet water is more effective shield against neutrons?
Ans: To be stopped or slowed down, a neutron must undergo a direct collision (elastic) with a
nucleus or some other particle that has a mass comparable to that of neutron. Water contains
hydrogen. Thus nuclear protons of hydrogen atoms, after collision, move; while neutron is
slowed down. But when neutrons collide with nucleus of lead, it bounces neutrons back almost

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with the same speed. Hence water is a better shield against neutrons than lead.
vi. In a cloud chamber photograph, the path of an 𝜶 particle is a thick and continuous line

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whereas that of a 𝜷 particle is a thin and broken line. Why?
Ans: An 𝛼 particle is highly ionizing than 𝛽 particle.
vii. Why do gamma rays not give line track in the cloud chamber photograph?
Ans: Gamma rays do not produce ionization directly. They interact with atoms to eject

viii.
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electrons. These electrons, like 𝛽 particles, produce irregular cloud tracks to their own which
branch out from the direction of gamma rays.
Which of 𝜶, 𝜷 and gamma rays would you advise for treatment of (i) skin cancer (ii) the cancer
of flesh just under skin (iii) a cancerous tumor deep inside the body?
Ans:
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1. For the treatment of skin cancer, we use 𝛼 particles; as their penetration is small.
2. For the treatment of cancer of flesh just under skin, 𝛽 particles should be used because of
their medium penetration power.
3. For the treatment of deep infection in the body, gamma rays should be used; as they are
highly penetrating.
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ix. Two radioisotopes of an element are available: one of long half-life and the other of short
half-life. Which isotopes is advisable for the treatment of a patient and why?
Ans: For treatment, radio isotopes of short half-life should be used so that any material
remaining in the body quickly decays away.
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Ex # 20.1
Exercise (Complete Chapter):
MCQ’s
i. In Wilson cloud chamber radiations become visible due to reflection of light
from____________.
a) Ions b) Nuclear radiation c) Droplets of fog d) Glass window
ii. The track formed in the Wilson cloud chamber due to Alpha particles
is______________.

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 a) Thin and broken line b) Thick continuous line c) Thick line track in random
direction d) Whole region exposed to radiation
iii. The track formed in the Wilson cloud chamber due to Beta particles is______________.
a) Thin and broken line b) Thick continuous line c) Thick line track in random
direction d) Whole region exposed to radiation
iv. The track formed in the Wilson cloud chamber due to Gamma rays is______________.
a) Thin and broken line b) Thick continuous line c) Thin line track in random
direction d) Whole region exposed to radiation
v. The track formed in the Wilson cloud chamber due to X-rays is______________.
a) Thin and broken line b) Thick continuous line c) Thin line track in random
direction d) Whole region exposed to radiation

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vi. Geiger counter is a device to detect_____________.
a) Mass b) momentum c) Charge d) Radiation

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vii. G.M counter uses_____________.
a) Alcohol only b) Bromine c) Argon d) Argon and alcohol
viii. The thin wire at the centre of G.M tube act as____________.
a) Cathode b) Anode c) Neutral d) None of these
ix.

x.
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Normally G.M counter uses potential difference of_____________.
a) 10Volt b) 100Volt c) 1000volt d) 5000volt
A device for actually observing the paths of Alpha and Beta particles is a_________.
a) Cyclotron b) Geiger counter c) Mass spectrograph d) Wilson cloud chamber
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i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.
C B A C C D D B C B

Questions From Past Papers:

i. Write a short note on: Wilson Cloud Chamber (1993)
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ii. Write a short note on: Wilson Cloud Chamber (1996)

iii. Write a short note on: Wilson Cloud Chamber (1997)
iv. Write a short note on: Wilson Cloud Chamber (1998)
v. Write a short note on: Wilson Cloud Chamber (2000)
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vi. Give the construction and working of Geiger counter. (2002)Pre Med
vii. Describe the construction and working of Geiger counter. (2002)Pre Eng
viii. Explain the construction, working and use of Wilson cloud chamber. (2003)Pre Med
ix. Give the construction and working of Wilson cloud chamber. (2003)Pre Eng

x. Explain the working of Geiger counter. (2004)

xi. Explain the construction and working of a Wilson cloud chamber with the diagram.
(2006)
xii. Describe the construction and working of Geiger counter. (2007)

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 xiii. Give the construction and working of Wilson cloud chamber. (2008)
xiv. In how many ways can 𝛾-rays produce ionization of atoms? Explain. (2011)
xv. Explain why the photograph of the path of Alpha particles is thick and made up of
continuous lines whereas that of Beta particles is thin and made up of broken lines in
the Wilson cloud chamber. (2012)
xvi. Give the construction and working of Wilson cloud chamber. (2013)
xvii. Give the construction and working of Geiger counter, also draw the diagram. (2014)
xviii. Give the construction and working of Geiger Muller counter. (2016)
xix. Name a device for making the path of ionizing particles and rays visible and describe its working.
(2017)
xx. Give the construction and working of Geiger counter. (2018)

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xxi. Describe the construction and working of Wilson cloud chamber. (2019)

Assignment # 20.1

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i. Explain the construction and working of Wilson cloud chamber.
ii. Explain the construction and working of Geiger counter.

MCQs From Past Papers: (Complete Chapter)

i.
a) Alpha-rays from Cobalt-60
S
c) Electron from Cobalt-60
(2003)
In treating a localized cancerous tumour a narrow beam of_______ is used.
b) Beta-rays from Cobalt-60
d) Gamma-rays from Cobalt-60
S
ii. If a small quantity of radioactive iodine 53𝐼 131 is taken in food most of it is deposited in:
a) Kidneys b) Brain c) Thyroid glands d) All glands
(2004)
iii. The track formed in Wilson cloud chamber due to gamma rays is a thick and continuous
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line: a) True b) False

(2006)
iv. In treating a localized cancerous tumour a narrow beam of_______ is used.
b) Alpha rays from Cobalt b) Beta rays from Cobalt
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c) Gamma rays from Cobalt d) Laser from Cobalt

(2009)
v. A Geiger Muller counter contains:
a) Argon and alcohol b) Alcohol only c) Ions d) Super cooled water vapours
(2012)
vi. This narrow beam from Cobalt-60 is used to treating localized cancerous tomour:
a) Alpha rays b) Beta rays c) Gamma rays d) All of these
(2013)
vii. The rate of flow of blood in the body can be traced by using this radio isotope:
a) 20𝐶𝑎45 b) 11𝑁𝑎24 c) 1𝐻3 d) 6𝐶12

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 (2015)
viii. A small quantity of radioactive Iodine 53I151 is taken in food, most of it is deposited in
the:
a) Thyroid gland b) Bones c) Brain d) Stomach
ix. The rate of flow of blood in the body can be traced by using this radioisotope:
a) 20Ca45 b) 5C12 c) 1H3 d) 11Na24
(2016)
x. In treating a localized cancerous tumour a narrow beam of_______ is used.
a) 𝛼-rays from Cobalt-60 b) 𝛽-rays from Cobalt-60
c) 𝛾-rays from Cobalt-60 d) laser-rays from Cobalt-60
xi. This device is used to make the path of ionizing particle visible:

I
a) Geiger Muller counter b) Wilson cloud chamber c) Van Dee Graff generator
d) Cyclotron

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(2017)
xii. If radioactive calcium 20 Ca40 is taken by man or animal, this percentage of it deposits in the
bones of young one:
a) 20 b) 60 c) 90 d) 100

S (2018)

xiii. The method of finding the age of specimen by C 14 is called:

a) Radio therapy b) radiology c) radio carbon dating d) radiography

S
xiv. The rate of flow of blood in the human body can be traced by using this radioisotope:
a) 20 Ca45 b) 6 C12 c) 1 H3 d) 11Na24

(2019)

xv. The method of finding the age of specimen by radioactive isotope of carbon 6C14 is called:
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a) Artificial gravity b) radio carbon dating c) half life d) radiography

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.

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D C B C A C B A D C B C
xiii xiv xv
C D B

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