SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies

Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management & Engineering

Unit I
Differential Calculus of functions of one variable

Overview:
This unit covers the mean value theorems (Rolle's theorem, Lagrange's mean value theorem
and Cauchy's mean value theorem), Convergence of Sequences and series, Taylor’s and
Maclaurin's Series Expansion, Indeterminate forms and finding limits using L-Hospital's
rule. (09 hours)
Outcome:
After completion of this unit, students would be able to:
1. interpret mean value theorems and implement the concepts comprehensively;
deploy power series for advanced mathematical analysis.
2. operate and analyse functions of single and several variables and relate the results to
real life problems.

Detailed Syllabus:

1.1 Mean value theorems

1.2 Convergence of Sequences and series
1.3 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series Expansion
1.4 Indeterminate forms and L' Hospital's rule
1.1 Mean value theorems

Prerequisites

Basic definitions:

Closed interval: An interval of the form , that includes every point between a and
b and also the end points, is called a closed interval and is denoted by [ a , b ] .

Open Interval: An interval of the form , that includes every point between a and
b but not the end points, is called an open interval and is denoted by ( a , b )

x
Continuity: A real valued function f ( x ) is said to be continuous at a point 0 if

The function f ( x ) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point in

the interval.

Roughly speaking, if we can draw a curve without lifting the pen, then it is a continuous
curve otherwise it is discontinuous, having discontinuities at those points at which the curve

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will have breaks or jumps.

We note that all elementary functions such as algebraic, exponential, trigonometric,

logarithmic, hyperbolic functions are continuous functions. Also the sum, difference,
product of continuous functions is continuous. The quotient of continuous functions is
continuous at all those points at which the denominator does not become zero.

x
Differentiability: A real valued function f ( x ) is said to be differentiable at point 0 if

exists uniquely and it is denoted by f ' ( x 0 ) .

A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable in an interval if it is differentiable at

every in the interval or if exists uniquely. This is denoted by f ' ( x ) .

We say that either f ' ( x ) exists or f(x) is differentiable.

Geometrically, it means that the curve is a smooth curve. In other words a curve is said to
be smooth if there exists a unique tangent to the curve at every point on it. For example a
circle is a smooth curve. Triangle, rectangle, square etc are not smooth, since we can draw
more number of tangents at every corner point.

We note that if a function is differentiable in an interval then it is necessarily continuous in

that interval. The converse of this need not be true. That means a function is continuous
need not imply that it is differentiable.

 Mean Value Theorems

 Rolle’s Theorem (French Mathematician Michelle Rolle 1652-1679) :
If
 f ( x ) is continuous in the closed interval [ a , b ] ,
 f ( x ) is differential in the open interval ( a , b ),
 f ( a )=f ( b )
Then there is at least one value c in the open interval (a ,b) such that
'
f ( c )=0.

Geometrical Meaning of Rolle’s Theorem: Consider a curve f ( x ) that satisfies the

conditions of the Rolle’s Theorem as shown in figure:

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y=f(x)

(a, (b, f(b))

f(a))

x
(a,0) (c,0) (b,0)

As we see the curve f ( x ) is continuous in the closed interval [ a , b ] , the curve is smooth i.e.
there can be a unique tangent to the curve at any point in the open interval ( a , b ) and also
f (a )=f (b ) . Hence by Rolle’s Theorem there exist at least one point c belonging to ( a , b )
such that f ' (c )=0 . In other words there exists at least one point at which the tangent
drawn to the curve will have its slope zero or lies parallel to x-axis.

 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem (Italian-French Mathematician J. L.

Lagrange 1736-1813):
If

 f ( x ) is continuous in the closed interval [ a , b ] ,

 f ( x ) is differential in the open interval ( a , b ),

then there is at least one value c in the open interval (a ,b) such that
f ( b )−f ( a ) '
=f ( c ) .
b−a

Geometrical Meaning of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem: Consider a curve f ( x ) that

satisfies the conditions of the LMVT as shown in figure:

y
y=f(x)

( b, f(b) )

( a, f(a) )

x
(a, 0) (c,0) (b,0)

From the figure, we observe that the curve f ( x ) is continuous in the closed interval[ a , b ] ;
the curve is smooth i.e. there can be a unique tangent to the curve at any point in the open
interval( a , b ) . Hence by LMVT there exist at least one point c belonging to ( a , b ) such that

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f (b )−f (a )
f ' (c )=
b−a . In other words there exists at least one point at which the tangent

drawn to the curve lies parallel to the chord joining the points and .

 Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem (French Mathematician A. L. Cauchy 1789-

1857):
If
 f ( x ) and g(x ) are continuous in the closed interval [ a , b ] ,
 f ( x ) and g(x ) are differential in the open interval ( a , b ),
 g' ( x ) ≠ 0 for any x in (a ,b)
'
f ( b )−f ( a ) f ( c )
Then there is at least one value c in the open interval (a ,b) such that = .
g ( b )−g ( a ) g' ( c )

1.2 Convergence of Sequences and series:

Sequence

A sequence is a succession of numbers of terms formed according to some definite rule.

The nth term in a sequence is denoted by .

For example, if .

By giving different values of n in , we get different terms of the sequence.

Thus

A sequence having unlimited number of terms is known as an infinite sequence.

Limit

If a sequence tends to a limit , then we write .

Convergent Sequence

If the limit of a sequence is finite, the sequence is convergent. If the limit of a sequence
does not tend to a finite number, the sequence is said to be divergent.

e.g. is a convergent sequence.

is a divergent sequence.

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Bounded Sequence

is a bounded sequence if for every .

Monotonic Sequence

The sequence is either increasing or decreasing, such sequences are called monotonic.

e.g. is a monotonic sequence.

is also a monotonic sequence.

is not a monotonic sequence.

A sequence which is monotonic and bounded is a convergent sequence.

Series

An expression in which the successive terms are formed by some definite law (pattern) is
called a series. An expression of the form is called a series.

If the number of terms is finite then the series is called Finite series and if the number of
terms is unlimited then it is called an Infinite series.

An infinite series is denoted by or by and the sum

of its first terms is denoted by .

Convergent series: A series is said to be convergent if tends to a definite finite

unique limit as tends to infinity. Thus for a convergent series where is

called the sum of the series.

Divergent series: A series is said to be divergent if tends to either as tends

to infinity. Thus for a divergent series .

General Properties of series:

1. The nature of an infinite series remains unaltered by the addition or removal of a

finite number of terms or by multiplication of each term by a fixed number (not
equal to zero).

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2. If and converge then

a) and b) are also converges.

Geometric series:

The infinite series is

i) Convergent if and its sum is

ii) Divergent if .

Tests for convergence:

I) D’Alembert’s Ratio Test:

Let be a nonnegative series. Assume that for all and that

a. If , then converges.

b. If , then diverges.
c. If then we cannot draw any conclusion from this test alone.

II) Cauchy’s Root Test:

Let be a nonnegative series and assume that

a. If , then converges.

b. If , then diverges.

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c. If then we cannot draw any conclusion from this test alone.

1.3 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series expansion:

Taylor’s Series:-

' ( x−a )2 ' ' ( x−a )3 ' ' '

f ( x )=f ( a ) + ( x−a ) f ( a ) + f (a )+ f ( a ) +⋯ .
2! 3!

Maclaurin’s Series:-

1.4 Indeterminate form:

A mathematical expression can also be said to be indeterminate if it is not definitively or

precisely determined. Certain forms of limits are said to be indeterminate when merely
knowing the limiting behavior of individual parts of the expression is not sufficient to
actually determine the overall limit.

For example, a limit of the form 0/0, i.e., where

, is indeterminate since the value of the overall limit actually depends on the limiting
behavior of the combination of the two functions (e.g., , while
).

There are seven indeterminate forms involving 0, 1, and :

Limits

L’ Hospital Rule : If f(x) and g(x) are two functions which can be expanded by
Taylor’s series in the neighbourhood of x = a and if f (a) = g(a) = 0,

then provided the latter limit exists.

Note : Rule for finding the limits

(i)

(ii)

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(iii)

Formulae : (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v)

Classwork problems

1.1 Problems on Mean value theorems

Session 1 : Rolle’s Theorem

Example 1: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for f ( x )=x 2 in [ −1,1 ]

First we check whether the conditions of Rolle’s theorem hold good for the given function:

(i) f ( x )=x 2 is an elementary algebraic function, hence it is continuous

everywhere and so also in[ −1,1 ] .
(ii) f ' ( x )=2 x exists in the interval (-1, 1) i.e. the function is differentiable in (-1,
1).
2 2
(iii) Also we see that f (−1)=(−1) =1 and f (1)=1 =1 i.e., f (−1 )=f (1)
Hence the three conditions of the Rolle’s Theorem hold good.

∴ By Rolle’s Theorem ∃ c∈ (− 1,1 ) : f ' (c )=0 that means 2c = 0 ⇒ c = 0 ∈ (− 1,1 )

Hence Rolle’s Theorem is verified.

Example 2: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for f ( x)=(x−a )m (x−b)n in [a, b] where a < b and
a, b > 0.

f ( x ) is a product of elementary algebraic functions which are continuous and hence it is

continuous in [a, b]

f ' ( x )=m( x−a)m−1 ( x−b)n +n( x−a)m ( x−b)n−1

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=[ m( x−b)+n( x−a)]( x−a)m−1 ( x−b)n−1

=[ x(m+n)−(mb+na)]( x−a)m−1 (x−b)n−1 exists in ( a , b )

f ( a )=0 and also f ( b )=0 ∴ f ( a)=f (b )

Hence the three conditions of the Rolle’s Theorem hold good.

∴∃ : f ' (c )=0

mb+na
∴ [ c (m+ n)−(mb+na )](c−a )m−1 (c−b) n−1 =0⇒ c= ,a,b
m+n

mb+na
c=
Out of these values of c, since m+n ∈(a , b ) , the Rolle’s Theorem is verified.

1. Is Rolle's Theorem applicable to the following functions?

(i) in (ii) in

(iii) in

Ans. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No

2. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function

Ans: Not Applicable.

3. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function .

Ans. Theorem is verified and .

4. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function .

Ans. Theorem is verified and .

5. Apply Rolle’s Theorem to

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Ans: .

6. Find ‘c’ of Rolle’s Theorem for

Ans: .

7. Verify Rolle’s Theorem for in , where m, n are positive

integers.

Ans. Theorem is verified and .

8. Use Rolle’s Theorem to prove that the equation has a root between
0 and 1.

Session 2 ; Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem

Example 1: Verify LMVT for in

is an algebraic function hence it is

continuous in

exists in i.e., is differentiable in .

i.e., both the conditions of LMVT hold good for in .

Hence

i.e.,

i.e,

Hence the LMVT is verified.

Example 2: Verify LMVT for in

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is an elementary logarithmic function hence continuous in .

exists in or is differentiable in .

i.e., both the conditions of LMVT hold good for in

Hence

. Hence the LMVT is verified.

1. Examine the validity of the conditions and the conclusion of Lagrange’s Mean Value
theorem for the functions:

i) ii) iii) iv)

Ans: i) , ii) Not applicable, iii) , iv) .

2 Find 'c ' of the Lagrange Mean Value theorem, if .

Ans.

3. Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for .

Ans. Theorem is verified and

4. Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for .

Ans. Theorem is verified and

5. Show that the chord joining the points on the curve is parallel to

the tangent to the curve at

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6. Using Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem show that .

7. Prove that

Hence deduce that i)

ii)

Session 3 : Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem

Example 1: Verify the Cauchy’s MVT for and in

and are algebraic polynomials hence continuous in

and exist in

also we see that since

i.e., the conditions of CMVT hold good for and in .

Hence ∃ c :

i.e., . Hence the CMVT is

verified.

Example 2: Verify the Cauchy’s MVT for and in

and are elementary logarithmic and rational algebraic functions that

are continuous in

and exist in

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also we see that

i.e., the conditions of CMVT hold good for and in .

Hence :

i.e., . Hence the CMVT is verified.

1. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for the following functions:

Ans. Theorem is verified and

2. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for and and show that ‘c’
of Cauchy’s mean value theorem is the average of a and b.

Ans. Theorem is verified and

3. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem by considering the functions for

the

Interval .

Theorem is verified and

Ans.

4. Considering the functions and , prove that ‘c’ of Cauchy’s mean value theorem

is .

5. Prove that Also deduce that .

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1.2 Convergence of sequence and series:

Session 4

1. Determine the general term of each of the following sequence. Prove that the
following

sequences are convergent.

i. Ans.

ii. Ans.
iii. Ans.

2. Test the convergence of .

3. Test the convergence of .

4. Show that the series converges and find its sum.

Session 5

Using Ratio test,

1. Test the convergence of .

2. Test the convergence of .

3. Test the convergence of .

Using Root test,

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4. Show that diverges.

5. Show that converges.

1.3 Taylor’s Series:

( x−a )2 ' ' ( x−a )3 ' ' '

Session 6 f ( x )=f ( a ) + ( x−a ) f ' ( a ) + f (a )+ f ( a ) +⋯ .
2! 3!

1. Expand in powers of .

Ans.

2. Expand in powers of .

Ans.

3. Expand x −x + x −x + x−1 in powers of ( x−1 ) .

5 4 3 2

Ans:
4. Expand in powers of .

Ans:

Session 7

Maclaurin’s Series of Standard functions:

Prove that

a)

b)

c)

d)

1.4 Problems on Indeterminate forms and L'Hospital's rule

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Session 8
0
Indeterminate type of the form 0
log ( 1−x2 )
lim
1. Evaluate x →0 logcos x
{Ans:2 }
e x + e−x−x 2 −2
lim 2 2
2. x →0 sin x− x {Ans:

}
3 x−2 x
lim
3. x →0 x {Ans:

}
tan x−sin x
lim 3
4. x →0 sin x {Ans:

}
∞
Indeterminate type of the form ∞
log ( 1−x )
lim
5. Evaluate x →1 cot πx {Ans:0
}

6. Evaluate .

Solution : Changing the base to e, we have

= (by L'Hospital Rule)

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= = =1 Hence the value.

Indeterminate type of the form0×∞

lim tan x log x
7. Evaluate x →0 {Ans:0 }

8. Evaluate .
Solution :
(Form 0  )

= =0 Hence the value.

Indeterminate type of the form∞−∞

lim ( √ x− √ x +1 ) log x
9. . Evaluate x →∞ {Ans:0
}
lim ( sec x− tan x )
π
10. Evaluate x→
2 {Ans:0
}

11. Evaluate x →0
(
lim cot x−
1
x ) {Ans:0 }

12. Evaluate .

Solution: (Form 

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 )

= (by L’Hospital Rule)

= = Hence the limit.

Session 9
∞
Indeterminate type of the form1
tan2 x
lim ( cos ecx )
{Ans:√ e }
π
x→
13. Evaluate 2

1 1
x2

{Ans: √ e }
lim ( cos x )
14. Evaluate x →0

15. Evaluate .

Let L=

 log L = (Form   0)

= by L’Hospital Rule

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= by L’Hospital Rule

 L= .
0
Indeterminate type of the form0
1
log ( 1−x )
lim ( 1− x2 )
16. Evaluate x →1 {Ans:e }
lim ( x−1 )( x−1 )
17. Evaluate x →1 {Ans:e
}
0
Indeterminate type of the form∞

()
x
1
lim
18. Evaluate x →0 x {Ans:1
}

()
2 sin x
1
lim
19. Evaluate x →0 x {Ans:1
}

Evaluating constants

ae x −be−x −cx
lim =4
20. Evaluate x →0 x−sin x {Ans:a=2 , b=2 ,
c=4 }

x(1+ a cos x )−b sin x

lim =1
21. If x →0 x3 , find a and b. {Ans: , }

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