LESSON 2: Forms of Literature, Figurative Languages, and Literary Techniques

Creative and Imaginative expression as exhibited in a literary work can be established and framed
in various forms. Each form differs in terms of features and conventions. Thus, the way language is
utilized to create a certain pattern or style is an indicator of a certain form of literature that one may
consider. Though forms may be different but the attempt to show case a significant human experience is
known to be evident in all forms of literature.

Forms of Literature

1. Prose- mainly ascribed to be composed freely. This form does not have any measurement
scheme for it is known to have a free-flow sentences. Also it has greater irregularity and the
language used in this form is ordinary for it has a close resemblance to man’s pattern of
everyday speech.
2. Poetry- characterized by its highly controlled manner of choosing and arranging language with
the use of regulating devices such for sound and rhythm to aesthetically convey meaning which
may call for a specific emotional response.

Prose

Prose Fiction, as you know, is prose writing about imagined events and characters. Prose writing differs
from poetry in that it does not depend on verses, meters or rhymes for its organization and presentation.
Novels are another example of fictional prose and are much longer than short stories. Some short stories,
however, can be quite long. If a short story is a long one, say fifty to one hundred pages, we call it a
novella. This is mainly characterized by scholars as any literary work that is an imaginative recreation
and reconstruction of life. This covers short stories and novels in which these are said to be
manifestations of the creative and imaginative thinking of a particular writer. Also it recounts the flow and
development of actions and events involving an identified number of characters who deal and react to
certain conflicts and human issues.

Non-Fiction Prose attempts to present, to interpret or to describe facts. With such, judgments, opinions,
and commentaries may be framed and expressed in the forms of essays, feature articles, editorials and the
like.

Forms of Fiction

1. Short Story- It is a work fiction that can be read in one sitting.

2. Novella- shorter version of novel
3. Novel- long prose narrative that deals with a human experience through a relative sequence of
events. It presents a circumstances that may involve a number of characters. It has a series of
episode and is known to be evry complex.

Elements of Short Story

1. Setting
The time and location in which a story takes place is called the setting. For some stories the setting
is very important, while for others it is not.
There are several aspects of a story's setting to consider when examining how setting contributes to
a story.
a) place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking place?
b) time - When is the story taking place? (Historical period, time of day, year, etc)
c) weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?
d) social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local color
(writing that focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?
e) mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and
cheerful or dark and frightening?
2. Plot
The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea; It is the sequence of events in
a story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and end. The
short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting.
There are five essential parts of plot:
a) Introduction - The beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is revealed.
b) Rising Action - This is where the events in the story become complicated and the conflict in the
story is revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
 c) Climax - This is the highest point of interest and the turning point of the story. The reader
wonders what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
d) Falling action - The events and complications begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows
what has happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between climax and denouement).
e) Denouement - This is the final outcome or the untangling of events in the story.

3. Conflict is essential to a plot. Without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of forces which
ties one incident to another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to open
arguments, rather it is any form of opposition that faces the main character. Within a short story
there may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor
ones.
4. Character can be defined as any person, animal, or figure represented in a literary work.
a. Protagonist- principal/ lead character
b. Antagonist- villain character/opposing character
c. Static/flat character-characters that does not change the course of the story. The qualities and
characteristics of a certain character remains as is.
d. Dynamic character- character undergoes significant changes in personality, behavior
perspective etc. as the story develops.
5. Theme
The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the author's
underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The theme may be the author's thoughts
about a topic or view of human nature. The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is
saying and he may use various figures of speech to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, allusion,
simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony
6. Symbols- object which is used to represent ideas aside from its literal meaning.
7. Point of View- refers to the vantage point as to how the story unfolds.
a. First person
b. Second person
c. Third person

Literary Techniques

What are literary techniques/ devices? Literary techniques or devices refer to specific methods writers
employ in their works to convey messages. Readers, on the other hand, look for several literary techniques
when examining or analyzing a text or simply evaluating a text’s artistic value. Writers make use of literary
techniques or devices to convey messages or to simply add an artistic value to a text. Readers look for
these techniques to help them analyze or interpret a specific body of work.

1. Anaphora is sometimes called epanaphora, refers to the repetition of a word or phrase at the
beginning of a sentence to create an artistic or heightened effect. It adds rhythm to a particular line
or paragraph, making it easier to memorize or remember. Anaphora is also used for emphasis or to
stir emotions among the audience.
Examples: 1.“Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better” . “My life is my
purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration”. https://sentence.yourdictionary.com
2. Antihero is a fictional character who does not possess the traits, such as pride and valor, expected
of a hero. Often, antiheroes are portrayed as foolish and usually find themselves in mischief.
Example: I Am Robot If I Am Detective Pika Chu I Musts Also Beez Bumble Beez And together
become Robot Nick Evangeline Ruth Hope June 2019 https://sentence.yourdictionary.com
3. Cliff-hanger is a literary technique used by the author to arouse curiosity among readers by
ending a chapter or story abruptly. Most of the time, the characters are confronted with a difficult
or an unsettling situation. Instead of providing a resolution, the author would end it. Furthermore,
this technique is often found in serialized works. Writers utilize cliff-hangers in their works to keep
the readers focused and interested as to what will happen next.
Example: “It was a first truly successful primetime, use of a cliffhanger to keep fans talking all
summer…”https://sentence.yourdictionary.com
4. Juxtaposition is a technique author’s use in their works to compare two different things, or two
contrasting ideas to be able to emphasize their differences, such as good and evil, life and death,
truth and lies, among others. This technique is also used to develop a character, resolve a conflict,
or clarify various concepts. Example: “All’s fair in love and war”.
https://sentence.yourdictionary.com
5. Foreshadowing refers to lines or dialogues in a story which give the reader an idea of what is
about to happen without spoiling or explicitly stating the plot’s entirety. When writers use this
 technique, especially in mystery or thriller novels, they provide “red herrings” (misleading or false
clues) to divert the readers’ expectations. 19 Example: In Western movie, the good guy enters a bar,
has a drink, and leaves. The bad guy scowls and spits on the floor and you know there is definitely
more to come between them. https://sentence.yourdictionary.com
6. Catharsis is derived from the Greek word katharsis, which means “purification” or “purgation.” It
refers to the emotional release or cleansing of the characters, or audience or readers, from strong
emotions usually brought by learning of the truth or when confronted with difficult situations. This
technique is commonly found in tragedies, such as Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and
Sophocles’ Oedipus the King. Example: Playing the piano is a catharsis for a tired, busy mother
after a long day of work. www.softschools.com
7. Stream of Consciousness is sometimes referred to as interior monologue, is a literary technique
that is usually associated with Modern writers. The plot is developed based on the characters’
reminiscence or recollection of events and thought fragments. Instead of using dialogues to show
the characters’ reaction or emotion, writers make use of stream of consciousness to show each
character’s complex nature. More so, readers are taken into the depths of the characters’ mind and
witness how these characters process their thoughts when faced with a particular situation or
emotion. Example: Excerpt from James Joyce Novel Ulysses “He is young Leopold, as in a
retrospective arrangement, a mirror within a mirror (hey, presto!), he beholdeth himself. That
young figure of then is seen, precious manly, walking on a nipping morning from the old house in
Clambrassil to the high school, his book satchel on him bandolier wise, and in it a goodly hunk of
wheaten loaf, a mother’s thought.” https://literarydevices.net
8. Hamartia or tragic flaw, is a technique commonly found in Greek tragedies. It refers to the tragic
hero’s error in judgment, which leads to his or her downfall. Most of the time, this error is
committed unknowingly, such in the case of Oedipus when he killed his father Laius and married
his mother Jocasta. Hamartia is used to have the audience identify themselves with the protagonist
(that he or she has weaknesses too) and to provoke pity because of the miserable turn of events he
or she went through. Additionally, it is used to impart a moral objective among readers or audience
to improve or change for the better so as to avoid the tragedy that has befallen the protagonist.
Example: One of the countless politicians to be involved in an extra- marital affair and in
subsequent scandal, Bill Clinton’s impeachment was one of the most public scandals to date.
Again, relation of power and the abuse of power is perhaps unsurprising, though tragic. The
notable aspect of Bill Clinton’s story is that he has been able to move beyond the scandal; it was
not, ultimately, his downfall. https://literarydevices.net

Essay

An essay is a piece of writing, usually from an author’s personal point of view. Essays are non-
fictional but often subjective; while expository, they can also include narrative. Essays can be literary
criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections
of the author. The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, ‘to try’ or ‘to attempt’. The first
author to describe his works as essays was the Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533- 1592).
Academic essay has three parts: An introduction that gives the reader an idea of what they are
about to learn and presents an argument in the form of a thesis statement. A body, or middle section, that
provides evidence used to prove and persuade the reader to accept the writer's particular point of view. A
conclusion that summarizes the content and findings of the essay.

Types of Essay

a. Formal Essay- include highbrow or entirely intellectual topics; there is seriousness in tone and
language is formal. The style is authoritative and scholarly. The writer exhibits great mastery of the
topic. It is straightforward, object and clear.
b. Informal Essay- this is also known as familiar essay. This deals with common place and light
topic. Language is somewhat familiar and conversational but still insightful. This greatly
establishes emotional appeal rather than intellectual.

Classification of Essays

a. Reflective essay-This considers a subject which is heavily philosophical in nature.

b. Critical essay-This includes reviews of books movies, works of art and other forms of compositions.
This classification of essay highlights the positive and the negative aspects of a certain work being
judged.
c. Editorial essay-It highlights the writers’ opinions about an important issue of the day.
 d. Nature essay- The intention for the writing of this essay is to depict images found in nature such
as trees, flowers, mountains, and animals. Mainly, this showcases the beauty of nature and
outdoor of life.
e. Scientific essay- It is entirely expository, logical, clear and highly objective.
f. Narrative essay- This is written in the forms of a story as it utilizes events or incidents to give
shape to a certain theme.
g. Speculative essay- highlights contemplations which are difficult to prove by means of posing
inquiries about an interesting topic.
h. Biographical essay- depicts the life of an individual considered as the subject from infancy,
maturity, to one’s death, shows a description of a particular aspect of the life a certain person.
i. Didactic essay- described as serious and formal teaches a moral lesson.
j. Descriptive essay- provides information as to how something looks like, highlights qualities of
something which provides information, clarity, and reality to a narrative essay.

Drama

It is mainly the art of depicting or portraying potential or imagined events and experiences. Mainly
drama is best celebrated in theatres as scenes and situations are presented and actors deliver lines on
stage before an audience. As one reads the story it is necessary to imagine the scene and the characters as
they speak their lines which can help the reader to have a view of the entire scenario and events related to
the flow of story.

Genres of Drama

a. Tragedy- depicts a very serious dramatic atmosphere. The lead character encounters
misfortunes because of fate, moral weakness, or social opposition that may lead to a disastrous
or catastrophic end involving physical or spiritual death or breakdown.
b. Comedy- intended to amuse the viewing crowd. It mainly presents human actions and
behaviors lightly. The characters encounter difficulties but later on, find happiness.
c. Tragic Comedy- It combines the conventions of tragic and comic elements and despite tragic
circumstances; the story still ends happily.
d. Closet Drama- written work or a play which is intended to be read not performed on stage. It
sometimes refers to works which are unsuccessful in theater and are perceived to be more
enjoyable to read.
e. Farce- a comic drama in form and is primarily amusing and entertaining. Characters and
scenes are mainly exaggerated.
f. Melodrama- This is usually accompanied with music and with a song set a different pace. It
now is seen as a romantic play without serious, comic, or tragic significance. Actions are often
too violent but still virtue dominated and succeeds
g. Morality/ Mystery Play- a medieval play which is mainly allegorical; represents good and evil
forces highlights the conflicts of the human soul.
h. Miracle Plays- usually about stories taken from the bible or the lives of the saints.

Poetry

Poetry and poets have been described in various ways: Thomas Hardy, for instance, says that
poetry is emotion put into measure. The emotion must come by nature, but the measure can be acquired
by art. T.S. Eliot believes that immature poets imitate; mature poets steal; Thomas Babington Macaulay,
on the other hand, said “Perhaps no person can be a poet, or can even enjoy poetry, without a certain
unsoundness of mind”; William Wordsworth expressed that poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful
words collected in moments of tranquility.

Amidst the many beliefs and opinions about poetry, it is important to have a common definition of
it. Thus, let’s consider the idea that poetry is an imaginative response to an experience reflecting a keen
awareness of language. Speaking of language in poetry, it uses two kinds of language: literal and
figurative. The literal means that the words were taken exactly as it is and figurative, when the language is
used figuratively to create a special effect.

Elements of poetry
 1. the speaker
2. theme
3. diction
4. imagery
5. rhyme and rhythm
6. meter
7. verse
8. stanza
9. line breaks.

Kinds of poetry

1. Lyric poem-the lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker
presents a state of mind or an emotional state. Lyric poetry retains some of the elements of song
which is said to be its origin. For Greek writers, the lyric was a song accompanied by the lyre.
a. Odes- extended lyric poems ascribed to be more serious and complex in form than a simple
lyric
b. Sonnets- 14 lines
c. Elegy-laments death of a person or group of individuals
d. Songs-emotional verses
e. Simple lyric- pastorals that describe scenes and objects of nature
2. Dramatic poetry – it is a lyric work that exhibits dialogue and characterization which are known
to be elements of drama.
a. Monologue- speech delivered by an individual in a dramatic performance
b. Soliloquy- used to develop a character of a speaker by providing information about the
revelation of the character’s personal thoughts, emotions and feelings both belong to this type.
3. Narrative poetry -the narrative poetry gives a verbal representation, in verse, of a sequence of
connected events, it propels characters through a plot. It is always told by a narrator. Narrative
poems might tell of a love story, the story of a father and a son, or the deeds of a hero or heroine.
a. Epic
b. Metrical tales
c. Romances
d. ballads

In the 21st century world that is fast-moving and where the “faster, the better” almost always
applies. Many reading materials are stripped-down so they can be read and digested swiftly. But poetry is
a different kind of writing that demands a different kind of reading, a more personal kind of reading. In
poetry, sometimes a single sentence is as rich and complex as an entire paragraph of prose and readers
must pay great attention to sound. For all these reasons, a reader must not apply the kind of reading that
he does for prose to poetry.

(https://www.scribd.com/document/412634387/21st-Century-Literature-of-the-Philippines-and-of-the-
World-1

One of the most popular poetic forms is the fourteen line, iambic pentameter poem with a
traditional rhyme scheme: the sonnet. There are two kinds of sonnet: the Italian/Petrarchan and the
English/Shakespearean. Although both consist of 14 lines, the Italian sonnet is divided into two parts:
the octave “eight” and the sestet “six”. The octave which raises the idea or argument of the sonnet has
rhyme scheme abbaabba while the sestet which extends the idea usually has the rhyme scheme cdecde.

The English sonnet on the other hand is divided into three quatrains, four-line stanzas, and a
couplet. The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. The quatrains of the English sonnet opens and develops
the idea and the couplet concludes it.

Figures of Speech

Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or phrases that express
meanings in a nonliteral way. These expressions are often used for comparison and for conveying emotion.
Literary writers use figures of speech to enhance the artistic quality of their works. Figures of speech bring
vividness and liveliness to the work, and they also emphasize the message that the writer wants to convey.
The use of these expressions also allows readers to feel a connection with the literary work by sparking
their imagination and arousing their emotions. Figures of speech can be classified into different categories

Figures of Relationship
1. A simile compares two unlike things with a common quality. The comparison is done using words such
as like or as. Example: My love is like a red rose. (love is being compared to a rose)

2. A metaphor is a comparison that is done by stating that one thing is another in order to suggest their
similarity or shared qualities. Example: The clouds are soft cottons in the sky. (Clouds are compared to
soft cottons)

3. Personification gives human qualities to objects and things. Example: The rain gently kissed my cheeks.
(Can rain kiss? only persons can kiss)

4. Metonymy refers to using a thing or idea that is not referred to by its own name but by a different one, a
name of something with which it is closely associated. Example: “White House declared….” (Rather than
“the president declared”)

5. Synecdoche uses a part of something to represent the whole or the whole to represent a part. Example:
Ask for a hand. (Refers to asking for a woman to marry)

6. Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary
or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a
passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and
grasp its importance in a text. The use allusions are not confined to literature alone. Their occurrence is
fairly common in our daily speech. Examples of Allusions in everyday life are: a. “Don’t act like a Romeo in
front of her.” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and
Juliet”. b. “This place is like a Garden of Eden.” – This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in the
Book of Genesis.

Figures of Emphasis

1. Hyperbole uses intentional exaggeration to achieve emphasis or produce a comic effect. Example: He’s
running faster than the wind.

2. An oxymoron is a word or a combination of words with contradictory meanings, as in bittersweet and

open secret. Example: Durian is disgustingly delicious.

3. Paradox is a statement that appears to hold contradictory ideas but may actually be true. Example:
John is normally abnormal.

Figures of Sound

1. Alliteration refers to the use of closely spaced words that have the same initial sounds. Example: Black
bug bit a big black bear. https://examples.yourdictionary.com

2. Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sound of what they are referring to. Example:
Machine noises-honk, beep, vroom, clang, zap, bang www.literarydevices.com

EXPLORE
List down your top 3 favorite movies or books and decide on what genre they belong.
1. _______________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________

FIRM-UP
Directions: Identify the figure of speech used by the following lines by matching column A with column B.
_____1. Her skin is softer than silk. a. metaphor
_____2. She is as beautiful as an angel. b. oxymoron
_____3. He is like an angry lion. c. metonymy
_____4. The winds softly whisper in my ears. d. paradox
_____5. She sells seashells on the seashores e. synecdoche
_____6. Boots on the ground. f. alliteration
_____7. My heart bleeds with his words. g. Onomatopoeia
_____8. Her eyes are like diamonds. h. Hyperbole
_____9. Hark..hark…Bow..wow.. i. simile
_____10 Crook..crook..

DEEPEN

Directions: Interview an elder in your community and ask how literature way back before plays an
important role in their everyday lives. Be guided with the following questions below.

1. What forms of literature were you exposed before?

2. How do you use it? Describe your experiences.
3. If you were to choose literature before and now, which do you prefer and why?

TRANSFER

Directions: Imagine that you are coming up with a story to tell. Make your own story cover of it and have
a brief description.

Rubric:
Content: 10
Creativity: 5
Language : 5