MODULE 19

The Nervous System 1: General Principles

and Sensory Physiology

Group 4 - 3rd Bimonthly Liceo De Cagayan University

 LO 1
Bentic

Reference: Guyton and Hall - 14th Edition

1.1 Central Nervous System Neuron - The Basic Functional Unit
 1.2 Sensory Part of the Nervous System - Sensory Receptors
Nervous system activities are often initiated by
sensory experiences that stimulate receptors, like
visual, auditory, or tactile receptors.

Information from sensory receptors enters the

central nervous system through peripheral nerves
and is directed to multiple sensory areas in:
1. The spinal cord at all levels
2. The reticular substance of the medulla, pons,
and mesencephalon of the brain
3. The cerebellum
4. The thalamus
5. Areas of the cerebral cortex
 1.3 Motor Part of the Nervous System - Effectors
The primary role of the nervous system is to
control bodily activities, achieved by regulating:
1. Contraction of skeletal muscles throughout
the body

2. Contraction of smooth muscles in internal

organs

3. Secretion of active chemical substances by

exocrine and endocrine glands.
1.4 Processing of Information - “Integrative” Function of the Nervous
System
A crucial function of the nervous system is to process incoming information for
appropriate mental and motor responses.

Over 99% of sensory information is discarded by the brain as irrelevant

The brain selectively attends to occasional stimuli, relegating perpetual

background noise to the subconscious.

Important sensory information is promptly channeled into integrative and motor

regions, initiating desired responses.
 1.5 Role of Synapses in Processing Information
The synapse, the junction between neurons, plays a pivotal role in determining the
spread of nervous signals.

Synapses vary in their ease of transmitting signals; some transmit with ease, while
others do so with difficulty.

Facilitatory and inhibitory signals from different parts of the nervous system can
control synaptic transmission, either opening or closing synapses.

Postsynaptic neurons exhibit diverse responses, with some generating numerous

output impulses and others only a few.

Synapses selectively act, blocking weak signals while allowing strong ones to pass
or amplifying specific weak signals and directing them in multiple directions.
 1.6 Storage of Information - Memory
Only a fraction of crucial sensory information prompts immediate motor responses; most is
stored in the cerebral cortex, basal brain areas, and the spinal cord.

Memory, a function of synapses, involves storing sensory information for future motor
control and thinking processes.

Synaptic facilitation increases transmission capability with repeated sensory input.

Facilitated synapses can transmit signals generated within the brain, creating a perception
of reliving original sensations as memories.

Stored memories become part of the brain's thinking processes, guiding the selection of
important information for memory storage or immediate bodily responses.
 LO 2
Bentic

References: Guyton 14th ED

Major Levels of CNS Function

Spinal Cord Level

Subcortical Level (lower brain)
Cortical level (higher brain)
 2.1 Spinal Cord Level
The common perception of the spinal cord as a mere signal
conduit between the body and the brain is inaccurate.

Even when the spinal cord is cut in the high neck region,
organized functions persist.

Neuronal circuits in the cord autonomously generate walking

movements, reflexes withdrawing from painful stimuli, reflexes
stiffening the legs against gravity, and reflexes controlling local
functions like blood vessels, gastrointestinal movements, or
urinary excretion.

The upper nervous system often directs functions by sending

signals to the control centers of the cord, instructing them to
perform specific functions without direct signaling to the body
periphery.
2.2 Lower Brain or Subcortical Level
 2.3 Higher Brain or Cortical Level
Without the cortex, lower
brain center functions are
Despite the numerous
often imprecise; the cortical
functions performed by the
information transforms
cord and lower brain
them into decisive and
levels, the cerebral cortex
precise operations.
remains crucial.

The cerebral cortex is vital

for thought processes,
The cerebral cortex serves
working in tandem with
as an extensive memory
lower brain centers to
storehouse, always working
initiate wakefulness and
in conjunction with lower
unlock the bank of
nervous system centers.
memories for use by the
mind.
 Central Nervous System

Sensory Integration Motor

 Major Levels of CNS
Function

Spinal Cord Level Cortical Level Subcortical Level

 LO 3
Mendiola

References: Guyton 14th ED

Synapses
JUNCTION BETWEEN TWO NEURONS
Functional connection between a neuron
and another neuron or effector cell
Transmission Uni or bidirectional
Axon of first (presynaptic) to second
(postsynaptic) neuron.
Synaptic transmission is through a
chemical gated channel.
Presynaptic terminal (bouton) releases a
neurotransmitter (NT).
Chemical Synapse
Thr 2 neuron dont actually touch but they only use a chemical
messenger known as neurotransmitter. Ex. Acetylcholine,
Norepinephrine
gap is known as Synaptic cleft. (200-300 angstrom)
Exhibit one way signal only.
presynaptic neuron- neuron who releases Neurotranmitter (sender)
Postsynaptic neuron-neuron who receive the neurtotranmsitted
(receiver)
Brain uses more chemical synapse than electrical.

Electrical synapse
Thr 2 neuron actually touch by gap junction channel
gap is known as intercellular gap (20-40 angstrom)
Exhibit two way signal (bidirectional)
Uses electrical signal for transmission
Also seen in heart muscle (SA, purkinje fiber)
Feature Chemical Synapse Electrical Synapse

Transmission Type Chemical signals (neurotransmitters) are Direct flow of electrical current through gap
released. junctions.

Transmission Slower transmission (milliseconds to Faster transmission (milliseconds).

Speed seconds).

Directionality Unidirectional. Neurotransmitters travel in Bidirectional. Electrical current can flow in

one direction across the synaptic cleft. both directions through gap junctions.

Synaptic Cleft Presence of a synaptic cleft between No synaptic cleft; neurons are physically
neurons. connected by gap junctions.

Specificity More specific in terms of the type of Less specific; direct flow of ions and
neurotransmitter and its receptors. electrical signals.

Greater plasticity, allowing for modulation Limited plasticity; changes in strength are
Plasticity and changes in strength (synaptic less common.
plasticity).

Examples Common in most neurons in the central Found in specific regions, such as cardiac
nervous system. muscle and some areas of the brain.

Regulation through complex processes, Rapid and direct transmission without the
Regulation including reuptake and enzymatic need for complex regulation.
breakdown of neurotransmitters.

Function Well-suited for modulation and precise Well-suited for rapid and synchronized
control of signal transmission. communication among groups of neurons.
NEURO
PEPTIDES
SYNTHESIS PROCESS
Protein molecules enter
the endoplasmic reticulum
and subsequently the
Golgi apparatus.
Enzymatic splitting of
neuropeptide-forming
protein into smaller
fragments occurs.
Golgi apparatus packages
neuropeptide into minute
transmitter vesicles.
Physiologic Anatomy of Neuron &synapse
key points to remember
dendrites, soma, axon
dendrite can Extend up to 1 mm
10,000-200,000 presynaptic terminal
80 % @ dendrite
20 % @ soma
Presynaptic terminal can be
excitatory
inhibitory
Neuron can be divided
Cell body size
Size & Number of dendrites
Size & Number of axon
number of presynaptic terminal
PRESYNAPTIC STRUCTURES
Two important structure of presynaptic neuron
transmitter vesicle
mitochondria
chemical &electrical synapse are coexist in the brain
Electrical or Chemical impulse may cause depolarization .
BUT Depolarization will always cause changes to the
presynaptic neuron either it will excite or inhibit the other
neuron. #permeability
Voltage gated channel, vesicles =presynaptic neuron
Ligand gated +Voltage gated, receptor = post synaptic
neuron
each acetylcholine vesicle, it contains 2,000-10,0000
molecules #release sites
POSTSYNAPTIC STRUCTURES TYPES
“Second messenger system”
POSTSYNAPTIC STRUCTURES
Important parts of postsynapse
Receptor protein (2 parts)
Ion channels
cation channel (excitatory transmitter)
anion channel (inhibitory transmitter)
Voltage gated channel
Ligand gated channel
REMEMBER: when the neurotransmitter
activates ion channel , it will open within 1.5
ms. only since when the transmitter closes , it
will closes rapidly
some of the function of nervous system
requires prolong opening/changes in neuron
thats why it needs another mechanism to delay
the transmission. #secondmessengersystem
Excitation and inhibition system
Excitation
1. Opening of sodium channel
2. Depressed conduction
a. Chloride
b. potassium
3. Changes in internal metabolism(long term)

Inhibition

1. Opening chloride channel

2. Increase of conduction of K
3. Inhibit cellular metabolic fnxion
4.
 Synapse

Norepinephrine

impulse Receiver impulse Generator Electrical Synapse Chemical synapse

Acetylcholine

Pre Synaptic
Post synaptic Electrical energy Small-Rapid
Neurotransmitter
Mlecle

Receptors
Neuropeptide
Ca gated channrl vesicles

Idiotropic Metabotropic

Ion gated channel

G protein Ion gated chsnnel

 LO 3.3. CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES THAT
FUNCTION AS SYNAPTIC
TRANSMITTERS
Name: Melita Sabellina

References: Guyton 14th ED

GROUP COMPRISES
1. Small - molecule, rapidly acting transmitters
Rapidly acting transmitter
Acute response of the nervous system

2. Neuropeptides
Larger molecular size
Act much more slowly
Prolonged actions
Long-term changes in neuronal receptors; opening or closure channels
Long-term changes in synapses
SMALL RAPIDLY ACTING
TRANSMITTERS

MOLECULE
SYNTHESIS AND RELEASE

Synthesized in the cytosol of

the presynaptic terminal
Absorbed via active transport
SMALL RAPIDLY ACTING
TRANSMITTERS

MOLECULE
RELEASE MECHANISM

Action potentials trigger

release of few vesicles at a
time into synaptic cleft.
Rapid release occurs within
millisecond or less
SMALL RAPIDLY ACTING
TRANSMITTERS

MOLECULE
EFFECT ON POSTSYNAPTIC
NEURON

Small-molecule transmitters
act on membrane receptors of
postsynaptic neuron.
Typically, the effect occurs
within another millisecond or
less.
 NEURO
PEPTIDES
SYNTHESIS AND
CHARACTERISTICS
Synthesized as integral
parts of large-protein
molecules by ribosomes in
the neuronal cell body
Not synthesized in the
cytosol of presynaptic
terminals
NEURO
PEPTIDES
TRANSPORT MECHANISM

• Vesicles transported to
nerve fiber tips by axonal
streaming at a slow rate (few
centimeters per day).
NEURO
PEPTIDES
RELEASE QUANTITY
AND POTENCY

Smaller quantities of
neuropeptides released
compared to small-molecule
transmitters.
Neuropeptides are generally
a thousand or more times as
potent.
 NEURO
PEPTIDES
PROLONGED ACTIONS:
Neuropeptides often induce prolonged
actions, including:
Prolonged closure of calcium
channels.
Prolonged changes in cell metabolic
machinery.
Prolonged changes in gene activation
or deactivation in the cell nucleus.
Prolonged alterations in numbers of
excitatory or inhibitory receptors.
 SYNAPTIC TRANSMITTERS

Small molecule, rapidly Neuropeptides,slow

acting transmitters acting transmitters

Rapid acting transmitters Slow acting transmitters

Prolonged responses
Acute responses

Hypothalamic-Releasing
Class 1 Hormones
Class II: Amines Pituitary peptides
Class III: Amino Acids Peptides act on Gut and
Class IV Brain
Peptides from other tissues
 LO 3.4. ELECTRICAL EVENTS
DURING NEURONAL
EXCITATION

References: Guyton 14th ED

RESTING
MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL
OF NEURONAL
SOMA
Large Peripheral Nerve Skeletal Muscle Fibers Neuronal Soma

-70 Millivolts -80 to -90 Millivolts -65 Millivolts

RESTING
MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL
OF NEURONAL SOMA

lower voltage is important

because it allows both
positive and negative control
of the degree of excitability of
the neuron
decreasing the voltage to a
less negative value makes the
membrane of the neuron
more excitable, whereas in-
creasing this voltage to a
more negative value makes
the neuron less excitable.
CONCENTRATION
DIFFERENCES OF
IONS ACROSS
NEURONAL SOMAL
MEMBRANE
EFFECT OF
SYNAPTIC
EXCITATION ON THE
POSTSYNAPTIC
MEMBRANE-
EXCITATORY
POSTSYNAPTIC
POTENTIAL
EFFECT OF SYNAPTIC
EXCITATION ON THE
POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE-
EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC
POTENTIAL

 B: presynaptic terminal has

secreted excitatory transmitter into
the cleft between the
terminal and neuronal somal
membrane
 Increase membranes permeability
to Na+
 -65mV to -45 mV
 EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic
potential)
GENERATION OF ACTION
POTENTIALS IN THE INITIAL
SEGMENT OF THE AXON LEAVING
THE NEURON – THRESHOLD FOR
EXCITATION

 EPSP -> positive direction ->

initiates action potential
 Begins in the initial segment of the
axon where the axon
leaves the neuronal soma
Reason: soma has few voltage-gated
sodium -> difficult for EPSP to open
GENERATION OF ACTION
POTENTIALS IN THE INITIAL
SEGMENT OF THE AXON LEAVING
THE NEURON – THRESHOLD FOR
EXCITATION

Membrane of the initial segment: 7x

as great as
concentration of voltage-gated
sodium channels EPSP
 Elicit AP in the axon initial segment
is between +10 and +20mV,
 In contrast to the +30 or +40mV or
more required in the soma
 LO 3.5: ELECTRICAL EVENTS
DURING NEURONAL
INHIBITION
Name: Sittie Asnaifah T. Maulana

References: Guyton 14th ED

 EFFECT OF INHIBITORY SYNAPSES ON THE POSTSYNAPTIC
MEMBRANE— INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
Inhibitory synapses
Mainly open chloride channels
Allowing easier passage of chloride ions
Nernst Potential for Chloride ions: -70mV
Opening the Chloride channels
Allow negatively charged chloride ions to move the extracellular fluid to the interior
Makes interior membrane more negative to -70 mV
Opening the potassium channel
Allow positively charged potassium ions to move to the exterior
Also make negative interior membrane
= both influx increase the degree of intracellular negativity (HYPERPOLARIZATION).
= neuron is inhibited due to more negative intracellular potential

IPSP (Inhibitory postsynaptic potential)

Increase negativity beyond the normal resting membrane potential
 PRESYNAPTIC INHIBITION
Occurs at the presynaptic terminals before the signal ever reaches the synapse
Caused by release of an inhibitory substance onto the outsides of the presynaptic
nerve fibrils before their own endings terminate on the postsynaptic neuron
Occurs in many sensory pathways in nervous system

GABA
Inhibitory transmitter substance
Opens anion channels, allowing large numbers of chloride ions to diffuse into the
terminal fibril
Negative charges inhibit synaptic transmission
 TIME COURSE OF POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
When excitatory synapse excites:
1 to 2 milliseconds, neuronal membrane becomes highly permeable to Na+ ions
Creates EPSP
15 milliseconds, potential then slowly declines

IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential)

Opposite effect occurs for IPSP

1 to 2 milliseconds, inhibitory synapse increase permeability of the membrane
to K or Cl- or both
15 milliseconds, potential dies away
 “SPATIAL SUMMATION” IN NEURONS – THRESHOLD FOR FIRING

SPATIAL SUMMATION
effect of summing simultaneous postsynaptic potentials by activating multiple
terminals on widely spaced areas of the neuronal membrane
0.5 TO 1 MV
Amount of transmitter released by a single terminal to cause an EPSP rather than
10 to 20 mV normally required to reach threshold for excitation
many presynaptic terminals are stimulated at the same time, even though these
terminals are spread over they can still SUMMATE
-where they can add to one another until excitation occur
MORE POSITIVE BY 0.5 TO 1.0 MV
total intrasomal potential for each excitatory synapse that discharge
simultaneously
NOTE: When EPSP is great enough- the threshold for firing will be reached-
action potential develops in the initial segment of axon
 “TEMPORAL SUMMATION” IN NEURONS – CAUSED BY SUCCESSIVE
DISCHARGES OF A PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL
Temporal Summation
successive discharges from a single presynaptic terminal - if rapid enough - can
add to one another -They can summate
1 or 2 milliseconds
every presynaptic terminal fires - released transmitter substance opens
membrane channels
15 milliseconds
changed postsynaptic potential lasts after the membrane have closed
Therefore, second opening of same channel can increase postsynaptic potential

The more rapid rate of stimulation, the greater postsynaptic potential becomes
 SIMULTANEOUS SUMMATION OF INHIBITORY AND EXCITATORY
POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS

IF, IPSP decrease the membrane to more negative value while EPSP
increase the potential
= can completely or partially nullify each other
Thus, if neuron Is being excited by an EPSP
Inhibitory signal from another source can often reduce the post synaptic
potential to less than threshold
Results to TURNING OFF the activity of neuron
 FACILITATION OF NEURONS

Facilitated Neuron
When the summated postsynaptic potential is excitatory but has not
risen high enough to reach threshold for firing by the postsynaptic
neuron.
Consequently, another excitatory signal entering the neuron from
some other source can then excite the neuron very easily.
Diffuse signals in nervous system can facilitate large group of
neurons to respond quickly to signals arriving from other sources.
 ELECTRICAL EVENTS DURING
NEURONAL EVENTS

INHIBITORY PRESYNAPTIC SPATIAL

POSTSYNAPTIC INHIBITION SUMMATION
POTENTIAL
GABA THRESHOLD
INHIBITORY FIRING
SYNAPSES
TEMPORAL
SUMMATION
OPENING CHLORIDE
CHANNEL

OPENING
POTASSIUM
CHANNEL
 LO 4
Special Characteristics of Synaptic Transmission
Name: Notario, Victor Luis

References: Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 Fatigue of Synaptic Transmission
Firing rate of postsynaptic neuron becomes progressively less in
succeeding milliseconds or seconds.
Exceedingly important characteristic of synaptic function.
Protective mechanism against excess neuronal activity.
Exhaustion or partial exhaustion of the stores of transmitters in the
presynaptic terminals.
Exhausted in only a few seconds to a few minutes of rapid stimulation.
 Fatigue of Synaptic Transmission
Two factors of the fatigue process:
a. Progressive inactivation of many of the postsynaptic
membrane receptors.
b. Slow development of abnormal concentrations of ions inside
the postsynaptic neuronal cell.
 Excitatory Synapse of Postsynaptic Neuron

Repetitively stimulated Firing at rapid rate

First discharge very great

Firing rate progressively lessens

 Effect of Acidosis or Alkalosis on
Synaptic Transmission
Neurons are highly responsive to changes in pH of the surrounding
interstitial fluids.
Alkalosis greatly increases neuronal excitability.
Acidosis greatly depresses neuronal activity.
 Alkalosis Acidosis

Increase neuronal Depresses neuronal

excitability excitability
 Effect of Hypoxia on Synaptic
Transmission
Neuronal excitability is also highly dependent on an adequate
supply of oxygen.
Cessation of oxygen for a few seconds can cause complete
inexcitability of some neurons.
 Neuronal Excitability

Cessation of oxygen

Inexcitability of neurons
 Effect of Drugs on Synaptic
Transmission
Drugs can increase or decrease the excitability of neurons.
Strychnine is one of the best known of all agents that increase
excitability of neurons.
Effects of excitatory transmitters become overwhelming
resulting in severe tonic muscle spasms.
Most anesthetics increase the neuronal membrane threshold for
excitation = decreasing synaptic transmission.
Lipid-soluble
 Drugs

Increase Decrease
excitability excitability

Caffeine Theophylline Theobromine Strychnine Most

anesthetics
 Synaptic Delay
1. Discharge of the transmitter substance by the presynaptic terminal.
2. Diffusion of the transmitter to the postsynaptic terminal.
3. Action of the transmitter on the membrane receptor.
4. Action of the receptor to increase the membrane permeability.
5. Inward diffusion of sodium to raise the EPSP (Excitatory
Postsynaptic Potential) to a high enough level to elicit an action
potential.

Minimal period of time required for all these events to take place is
about 0.5 milliseconds.
 LO 5
Name: Dadam Vyshnav Reddy

References: Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 LO 5.1
Name: Dadam Vyshnav Reddy

References:Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 SENSORY RECEPTOR
1.Mechanoreceptors:
• Location: Skin, muscles, tendons, joints, and various internal organs.
• Stimuli Detected: Mechanical pressure or distortion.
• Function: Sensation of touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception (awareness
of body position).

2.Thermoreceptors:
Location: Mainly in the skin.
Stimuli Detected: Changes in temperature.
Function: Convey information about the temperature of the environment and
the body.
3.Nociceptors:
Location: Distributed throughout the body, especially in the skin and internal organs.
Stimuli Detected: Painful stimuli or tissue damage.
Function: Transmit signals indicating potential harm, leading to the perception of
pain.

4.. Electromagnetic Receptor (or) Photoreceptors:

Location: Retina of the eye
Stimuli Detected: Light.
Function: Convert light stimuli into electrical signals for vision.
5.Chemoreceptors:
Location: Present in various tissues, including the nose and taste buds.
Stimuli Detected: Changes in chemical concentrations.
Function: Detect chemical stimuli such as odors and tastes, as well as alterations in blood
chemistry.

6.Osmoreceptors:
Location: Typically in the hypothalamus.
Stimuli Detected: Changes in osmotic pressure or concentration of body fluids.
Function: Regulate water balance and osmolarity by influencing thirst and the release of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
 SENSORY RECEPTOR

Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors
Nociceptors

• Location: Skin, Thermoreceptors Electromagnetic Receptor

Location: Present
muscles,
in various tissues,
tendons, joints,
including the nose
and various Location: and taste buds.
Location: Distributed
internal organs. Mainly in the throughout the body, Location: Retina
skin. especially in the skin of the eye
and internal organs.
Stimuli Detected:
Mechanical pressure or Stimuli Detected:
Stimuli Detected:
distortion. Changes in
Changes in Stimuli Detected:
Light. chemical
temperature
Stimuli Detected: concentrations
Painful stimuli or
tissue damage.
 LO 5.1.1
Differential Sensitivity of
Receptors
Name: Dadam Vyshnav Reddy

References:Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 Differential Sensitivity of Receptors

Each type of receptor is highly sensitive to one type of stimulus for which
it is designed and yet is almost unresponsive to other types of sensory
stimuli

Example:
rods and cones of the eyes are highly responsive to light but are almost
completely unresponsive to normal ranges of heat, cold, pressure on the
eyeballs
 LO 5.1.2
The “Labeled Line” Principle
Name: Dadam Vyshnav Reddy

References:Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 The “Labeled Line” Principle

The Labeled Line Principle is a concept in sensory physiology where each nerve
fiber in a sensory pathway is dedicated to transmitting information about a
specific type of stimulus.

Modality of sensation: pain, touch, sight, sound and etc

Example - Vision:

Photoreceptors: Different types of photoreceptors (rods and cones) respond to specific

wavelengths of light.
Nerve Fibers: Each type of photoreceptor is connected to a specific nerve fiber.
 LO 5.2
Mechanisms of Receptor Potentials
Name: Dadam Vyshnav Reddy

References:Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 5.2.1 Local Electrical Currents at Nerve Endings

Receptor potentials are graded potentials produced at the peripheral endings of

sensory neurons in response to a stimulus, such as touch, pressure, or temperature

Stimulus → sensory receptor → ion channels open → current flows inward

(depolarization) → membrane electric potential of receptor changes
Different receptors can be excited in one of several ways to cause receptor
potentials:
by mechanical deformation of the receptor
by application of a chemical to the membrane
by change of the temperature of the membrane
by the effects of electromagnetic radiation, such as light on a retinal visual
receptor
The greater the receptor potential becomes, the
more APs is fired, or the greater the AP frequency
that we see because the receptor potential has
become more positive.
 Receptor potential

Stimulus

Activation of sensory
receptor

Inward current flow

Depolarization

Chemical, mechanical, or
thermal stimulus

Opening or closing of Change in cell

ion channels membrane potential
 LO 5.2.2
Adaptiation of Receptors
Name: Amer Hussien Madani

References:Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 ADAPTATION OF RECEPTORS
Another characteristic of sensory receptors is that they adapt either partially or
completely to any constant stimulus after a period of time.

Mechanisms by which receptors adapt

The mechanism of receptor adaptation is different for each type of receptor in

much the same way that development of a receptor potential is an individual
property. For example, in the eye, the rods and cones adapt by changing the con-
centrations of their light-sensitive chemicals.
 ADAPTATION OF RECEPTORS
Slowly adapting receptors detect continuous stimulus strength - the tonic
receptors

Slowly adapting receptors continue to transmit impulses to the brain as long as

the stimulus is present. Therefore, they keep the brain constantly apprised of the
status of the body and its relation to its surroundings.

Other slowly adapting receptors include the following: (1) receptors of the
macula in the vestibular apparatus; (2) pain receptors; (3) baroreceptors of the
arterial tree; and (4) chemoreceptors of the carotid and aortic bodies.

Because the slowly adapting receptors can continue to transmit information for
many hours, or even days, they are called tonic receptors.
 ADAPTATION OF RECEPTORS
Rapidly Adapting Receptors Detect Change in Stimulus Strength—the “Rate
Receptors,” “Movement Receptors,” or “Phasic Receptors.”

Receptors that adapt rapidly cannot be used to transmit a continuous signal

because they are stimulated only when the stimulus strength changes. Yet, they
react strongly while a change is actually taking place.

Therefore, these receptors are called rate receptors, movement receptors, or phasic
receptors. Thus, in the case of the Pacinian corpuscle, sudden pressure applied to
the tissue excites this receptor for a few mil- liseconds, and then its excitation is
over, even though the pressure continues
 ADAPTATION OF RECEPTORS
Receptor Potential of the Pacinian Corpuscle - an Example of Receptor Function

Pacinian corpuscle has a central nerve fiber extending through its core.
Surround- ing this central nerve fiber are multiple concentric capsule layers;
thus, compression anywhere on the outside of the corpuscle will elongate,
indent, or otherwise deform the central fiber.
 ADAPTATION OF RECEPTORS
Receptor Potential of the Pacinian Corpuscle - an Example of Receptor Function

Observe the small area of the terminal fiber that has been deformed by
compression of the corpuscle, and note that ion channels have opened in the
membrane, allowing positively charged sodium ions to diffuse to the interior of
the fiber. This action creates increased positivity inside the fiber, called the
“receptor potential.”
ADAPTATION OF RECEPTORS
Relation Between Stimulus Intensity
and the Receptor Potential

This hows the changing amplitude of

the receptor potential caused by
progressively stronger mechanical
compression (increasing “stimulus
strength”) applied experimentally to
the central cre of a Pacinian corpuscle.
Note that the amplitude increases
rapidly at first but then progressively
less rapidly at high stimulus strength.
 LO 5.2.2
General Classification of Nerve Fibers
Name: Amer Hussien Madani

References:Guyton and Hall 14th Edition

 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVE FIBERS
Alternative Classification Used by Sensory Physiologists.

Certain recording techniques have made it possible to separate the type Aα fibers
into two subgroups, yet these Same recording techniques cannot distinguish easily
between Aβ and Aγ fibers. Therefore, the following classification is frequently used
by sensory physiologists.

Group Ia. Fibers from the annulospiral endings of mus- cle spindles (≈17 microns in
diameter on average; these fibers are α-type A fibers in the general classification).
Group Ib. Fibers from the Golgi tendon organs (≈16 micrometers in diameter on
average; these fibers also are α-type A fibers).
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVE FIBERS
Alternative Classification Used by Sensory Physiologists.

Group II. Fibers from most discrete cutaneous tac- tile receptors and from the
flower-spray endings of the muscle spindles (≈8 micrometers in diameter on aver-
age; these fibers are β- and γ-type A fibers in the general classification).

Group III. Fibers carrying temperature, crude touch, and pricking pain sensations (≈3
micrometers in diameter on average; they are δ-type A fibers in the general classifi-
cation).

Group IV. Unmyelinated fibers carrying pain, itch, temperature, and crude touch
sensations (0.5–2 microm- eters in diameter; they are type C fibers in the general
classification).
 Classification of Nerve Fibers
Adaptation of Receptor

Slowly Rapidly Group 1 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Adapting Adapting Type Ia Fibers carrying Group 4
Type Ib Fibers from
Receptor Receptor Fibers from temperature, crude Unmyelinated
Fibers from golgi cutaneous tactle
(Tonic (Phasic annulospiral touch, and pricking fibers
tendon organ (β- and γ-type A
Receptor) Receptor) endings pain sensations (type C fibers )
( α-type A fibers ) fibers )
(α-type A fibers ) (δ-type A fiber ) 0.5-2microns
16 microns 8 microns
17microns 3 microns

Pacinian
Corpuscle
 SOMATIC SENSATION: I
GENERAL ORGANIZATION, TACTILE AND POSITION SENSES

Luzon, Chris Bryan B.

References:
 Classification of somatic senses

1. Mechanoreceptive somatic senses

a. Tactile sensation
b. Position sensation
2. Thermoreceptive senses
a. Heat & Cold
3. Pain senses
Other Classification of somatic sensation

1. Exteroreceptive sensation
2. Proprioceptive sensation
3. Visceral sensation
4. Deep sensation
 Detection and transmission of tactile sensation

Interrelation among the tactile sensations of touch, pressure and

Vibration

1. Touch sensation generally results from stimulation of tactile receptors in

the skin or in tissues immediately beneath the skin.
2. Pressure sensation generally results from deformation of deeper tissues.
3. Vibrations sensation results from rapidly repetitive sensory signals.
 Tactile receptors

There are six different types of tactile receptors

1. Free nerve endings

2. Meissner’s corpuscle
3. Merkel’s discs
4. Hair end-organ
5. Ruffini’s endings
6. Pacinian corpuscles
Transmission of tactile signals ins peripheral nerve
fibers
5 types transmits type A beta (30 to
70m/sec)
Free nerve endings transmits alpha gamma
(5 to 30m/sec). Some FNE is via type C
unmyelinated. FNE also send signals into
spinal cord and lower brainstem
 Detection of vibration

All tactile receptors are involved

Picnician corpuscles - 30 to 800 cycles/sec (Type
alpha beta can transmit 1000 impulses/sec)
Meissner’s corpuscles is stimulated in low-
frequency vibrations (2 up to 80 cycles/sec)
Detection of tickle and itch by mechanoreceptive
free nerve endings.

FNE can be found almost in superficial layers

of the skin which the tickle and itch sensation
usually can be elicited.
Transmitted by TYPE C unmyelinated fibers
Sensory pathways for transmitting somatic signals
into the CNS

Almost all sensory information from the somatic

enters the spinal cord through the DORSAL ROOTS
of the SPINAL NERVES
2 pathways
Dorsal column-medial lemniscal system
anterolateral system
 TACTILE RECEPTORS

Free nerve Meissner’s Pacinian Hair end- Ruffini’s

Merkel’s discs
endings corpuscle corpuscles organ endings
 LO 7.4-7.4.2.5
Name: Wamilda, Gared Jayce B.

References:
DORSAL COLUMN-MEDIAL LEMNISCAL PATHWAY

carries the sensory modaliities of fine touch or tactile sensation, vibration and
proprioception.
Its name arises from the two major structures that comprise the DCML.
In the spinal cord, information travels via the dorsal or posterior columns.
ANATOMY OF THE DORSAL COLUMN

The dorsal column which runs from the spinal cord to

the medulla, and the medullla lemiscus which runs as
a continuation of the dorsal column from the medulla
to the cortex.
In the cortex the DCML pathway projects onto the
primary somatosensory cortex of the postcentral
gyrus.
SPATIAL ORIENTATION OF THE NERVE FIBERS IN THE DORSAL COLUMN-
MEDIAL LEMNISCAL SYSTEM

In the dorsal columns of the spinal cord,

the fibers from the lower parts of the
body lie toward the center of the cord
whereas those that enter the cord at
progressively higher segmental levels
form succesive layers laterally.
SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
is the part of the brain within the
cerebral cortex that receives all sensory
information from various parts of the
body

Somatosensory area I has high degree of

localization of the different parts of the body
by contrast localization is poor in
somatosensory area I
SPATIAL ORIENTATION OF SIGNALS FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY IN
SOMATOSENSORY AREA I
Somatosensory area I lies immediately behind the central fissure, located in
the postcentral gyrus of the human cerebral cortex

shows a cross section through the brain at the

level of the postcentral gyrus demonstrating
representations of the different parts of the body
in seperate regions of somatosensory area I
Some areas of the body are represented by large
areas in the somatic cortex which is the lips is the
greatest of all followed by the face and thumb
whereas the trunk and lowert part of the body are
represented by relatively small areas.
LAYERS OF THE SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX AND THEIR FUNCTION

1. The incoming sensory signal excites neuronal layer IV first

then the signal then spreads toward the surface of the cortex
and also toward deeper layers.
2. Layers I and II receive diffuse, nonspecific input signals from
lower brain centers that facilitate specific regions of the
cortex.
3. The Neurons in layers II and III send axons to related portions
of the cerebral cortex on the opposite side of the brain
through the corpus callosum
4. The Neurons in layers V and VI send axons to the deeper
parts of the nervous system
FUNCTIONS OF SOMATOSENSORY AREA I

Its primary function is to detect sensory

information from the body regarding
temperature
CONCEPT MAP
SOMATOSENSORY
CORTEX

DORSAL COLUMN
MEDIAL LEMNISCAL SOMATOSENSORY AREA I
PATHWAY
LO 7.4.3 Somatosensory association areas

Brodmann’s areas 5 and 7 of the

cerebral cortex

located in the parietal cortex

behind somatosensory area I
play important roles in deciphering
deeper meanings of the sensory
information in the somatosensory
areas

Balt, Hazra Jannah M.

electrical stimulation of this area cause an awake person to
experience a complex body sensation, sometimes even the “feeling”
of an object such as a knife or a ball.
combines information arriving from multiple points in the primary
somatosensory area to decipher its meaning.
This occurrence also fits with the anatomical arrangement of the
neuronal tracts that enter the somatosensory association area
because it receives signals from the following:
somatosensory area I
the ventrobasal nuclei of the thalamus
other areas of the thalamus
the visual cortex
the auditory cortex.
7.4.4 Characteristics of dorsal column-medial lemniscal signal transmission and
analysis
7.4.4.1 Basic neuronal circuit in the dorsal
column-medial lemniscal system
The upper curves of the figure show that the
cortical neurons that discharge to the greatest
extent are those in a central part of the cortical
“field” for each respective receptor.
a weak stimulus causes only the most
central neurons to fire.
a stronger stimulus causes still more
neurons to fire, but those in the center
discharge at a considerably more rapid rate
than do those farther away from the center.
7.4.4.2 Two-point discrimination
A method frequently used to test tactile discrimination is to determine a person’s
so-called “two-point” discriminatory ability

On the tips of the fingers, a person

can normally distinguish two
separate points, even when the
needles are as close together as 1 to 2
millimeters
On someone’s back, the needles
usually must be as far apart as 30 to
70 millimeters before two separate
points can be detected
The blue curve shows the spatial pattern of
cortical excitation when both skin points are
stimulated simultaneously.
The resultant zone of excitation has two separate
peaks.
These two peaks, separated by a valley, allow
the sensory cortex to detect the presence of
two stimulatory points, rather than a single
point.
The capability of the sensorium to distinguish
this presence of two points of stimulation is
strongly influenced by another mechanism,
lateral inhibition
 7.4.4.3 effect of lateral inhibition to increase the degree of contrast in the
perceived spatial pattern

Lateral inhibitory signals

these inhibitory signals spread to the sides of the excitatory signal and inhibit
adjacent neurons.
Lateral inhibition or surround inhibition
blocks lateral spread of the excitatory signals and, therefore, increases the degree
of contrast in the sensory pattern perceived in the cerebral cortex.
In the case of the dorsal column system, lateral inhibitory signals occur at each
synaptic level—for example, in the following:
the dorsal column nuclei of the medulla
the ventrobasal nuclei of the thalamus
the cortex itself.
As a result, the peaks of excitation stand out, and much of the surrounding diffuse
stimulation is blocked.
 This is demonstrated by the two red
curves, showing complete separation of
the peaks when the intensity of lateral
inhibition is great.
7.4.4.4 Transmission of rapidly changing and repetitive sensations
The dorsal column system is also of particular importance in apprising the
sensorium of rapidly changing peripheral conditions
Based on recorded action potentials, this system can recognize changing
stimuli that occur in as little as 1⁄400 of a second.

7.4.4.5 Vibratory sensation

Vibratory signals are rapidly repetitive and can be detected as vibration up to 700
cycles/ sec.
Higher frequency vibratory signals: originate from the Pacinian corpuscles in the
skin and deeper tissue.
Lower frequency vibratory signals: originate from Meissner’s corpuscle
 Characteristics of dorsal column-medial
SOMATOSENSORY ASSOCIATION AREAS lemniscal signal transmission and
analysis

Basic neuronal circuit in the dorsal

Brodmann’s area 5 of the
column-medial lemniscal system
cerebral cortex

Lateral inhibition or
Brodmann’s area 7A of the Two-point discrimination
surround inhibition
cerebral cortex

Transmission of rapidly
changing and repetitive
sensations

vibration up to
Vibratory sensation
700 cycles/ sec.
LO 7.4.5- 7.6.3

JESHREL G. BENTING
Position Senses
Frequently called “ PROPRIOCEPTIVE SENSES”

Two Subtypes:
Static Position Senses
conscious perception of the orientation of the different parts of the body with
respect to one another.

Rate of Movement Senses

aka; KINESTHESIA/ DYNAMIC PROPRIOCEPTION
Position Sensory Receptors
Knowledge in position, both STATIC and DYNAMIC, depends on knowing the degrees
of angulation of all joints in all planes and their rates of change.

JOINT ANGULATION Receptors

FINGERS Skin Receptors

LARGER JOINTS OF THE BODY Deep Receptors

MiDRANGES OF MOTION Muscle Spindles

Pinician Corpuscles, Ruffini’s ending, and receptor similar to

STRETCH THE LIGAMENT AND DEEP TISSUES AROUND JOINTS
Golgi tendon receptors

NOTE: Pacinian corpuscles and muscle spindle are the receptors most
responsible for detecting rate of movement.
Processing of Position Sense Information in the Dorsal Column-
Medial Lemniscal Pathway
Transmission of Sensory Signals in the Anterolateral
Pathway

The anterolateral pathway for transmitting sensory signals

up the spinal cord and into the brain, in contrast to the

dorsal column pathway, transmits sensory signals that do

not require highly discrete localization of the signal source

and do not require discrimination of fine gradations of

intensity. These types of signals include pain, heat, cold,

crude tactile, tickle, itch, and sexual sensations.

Anatomy of Anterolateral Pathway

The Spinal Cord Anterolateral Fibers originate mainly in

dorsal horn laminae I, IV, V, and VI.

These laminae are where many of the dorsal root sensory

nerve fibers terminate after entering the cord.
Anatomy of Anterolateral Pathway
The Anterolateral Fibers cross immediately in the anterior commissure of the
cord to the opposite anterior and lateral white columns, where they turn
upward toward the brain via the anterior spinothalmic and lateral
spinothalmic tracts.

The Upper Terminus of the two spinothalmic tract is mainly twofold:

Reticular nuclei of the brain stem

Ventrobasal complex and the intralaminar nuclei
Characteristic of Transmission in the
Anterolateral Pathway
In general, the same principles apply to transmission in the anterolateral pathway as in the dorsal
column–medial lemniscal system, except for the following differences:

1.) The velocities of transmission are only a third to half those in the dorsal column–medial lemniscal
system, ranging from 8 to 40 m/sec;

2.) The degree of spatial localization of signals is poor;

3.) The gradations of intensities are also far less accurate, with most of the sensations being recognized
in 10 to 20 gradations of strength, rather than as many as 100 gradations for the dorsal column
system; and

4.) The ability to transmit rapidly changing or rapidly repetitive signals is poor.
Some special aspects of Somatosensory: Function of
the Thalamus in somatic sensation

The thalamus has a slight ability to discriminate tactile sensation, even

though the thalamus normally functions mainly to relay this type of
information to the cortex.
Cortical Control of Sensory Sensitivity
“Corticofugal” Signals

Corticofugal signals are transmitted in the backward direction from the cerebral cortex to the
lower sensory relay stations of the thalamus, medulla, and spinal cord. They control the intensity
of sensitivity of the sensory input.

Corticofugal signals are almost entirely inhibitory, so when sensory input intensity becomes too
great, the corticofugal signals automatically decrease transmission in the relay nuclei.
Segmental Fields of Sensation-dermatomes

One can use a dermatomal map is to determine the level in the spinal
cord at which a cord of injury has occured when the peripheral
sensations are disturbed by the injury.
 Concept Map Transmission of Sensory Signals in the
Anterolateral Pathway

Dorsal Root and Spinal

Ganglion
Position Sense

Lower Medulla
Oblongata

Static Position Rate Position

Sense Sense
Medulla Oblongata

Position Sensory
Receptors
Pons

Mesencephalon

Cortex
 Concept Map Aspect Somatosensory

Anatomy of Function of
Dermatomes
Anterolateral Pathway Thalmus
Cortifugal Signals

Spinal Cord
Anterolateral Fibers
Anterolateral Fibers

Anterior commisure
Originate in Dorsal horn
laminae
I, IV, V, VI
Anterior and lateral
columns

Anterior and lateral

Spinothalmic