Abundant supplies of fresh water are essential to the development of industry.

Enormous quantities are required for the cooling of products and equipment, for process needs, for boiler feed, and for sanitary and potable water supply. THE PLANETARY WATER CYCLE Industry is a small participant in the global water cycle .The finite amount of water on the planet participates in a very complicated recycling scheme that provides for its reuse. This recycling of water is termed the "Hydrologic Cycle" (see Figure 1-1). Evaporation under the influence of sunlight takes water from a liquid to a gaseous phase. The water may condense in clouds as the temperature drops in the upper atmosphere. Wind transports the water over great distances before releasing it in some form of precipitation. As the water condenses and falls to the ground, it absorbs gases from the environment. This is the principal cause of acid rain and acid snow. WATER AS A SOLVENT Pure water (H20) is colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Because water becomes contaminated by the substances with which it comes into contact, it is not available for use in its pure state. To some degree, water can dissolve every naturally occurring substance on the earth. Because of this property, water has been termed a "universal solvent." Although beneficial to mankind, the solvency power of water can pose a major threat to industrial equipment. Corrosion reactions cause the slow dissolution of metals by water. Deposition reactions, which produce scale on heat transfer surfaces, represent a change in the solvency power of water as its temperature is varied. The control of corrosion and scale is a major focus of water treatment technology. WATER IMPURITIES Water impurities include dissolved and suspended solids. Calcium bicarbonate is a soluble salt. A solution of calcium bicarbonate is clear, because the calcium and bicarbonate are present as atomic sized ions which are not large enough to reflect light. Some soluble minerals impart a color to the solution. Soluble iron salts produce pale yellow or green solutions; some copper salts form intensely blue solutions. Although colored, these solutions are clear. Suspended solids are substances that are not completely soluble in water and are present as particles. These particles usually impart a visible turbidity to the water. Dissolved and suspended solids are present in most surface waters. Seawater is very high in soluble sodium chloride; suspended sand and silt make it slightly cloudy. An extensive list of soluble and suspended impurities found in water is given in Table 1-1. Table 1-1. Common impurities found in fresh water. Constituent Difficulties Caused Means of Treatment imparts unsightly appearance to water; deposits in water non-expressed in coagulation, settling, and lines, process equipment, analysis as units filtration etc.; interferes with most process uses calcium and magnesium chief source of scale in heat softening; demineralization; salts, expressed as exchange equipment, boilers, internal boiler water CaCO3 pipe lines, etc.; forms curds treatment; surface active Chemical Formula

Turbidity

Hardness

Alkalinity

with soap, interferes with agents dyeing, etc. foam and carryover of solids lime and lime-soda bicarbonate(HCO3-), with steam; embrittlement of softening; acid treatment; carbonate (CO32-), and boiler steel; bicarbonate and hydrogen zeolite softening; hydroxide(OH-), carbonate produce CO2 in demineralization expressed as CaCO3 steam, a source of corrosion dealkalization by anion in condensate lines exchange H2SO4 , HCI. etc., expressed as CaCO3 CO2 corrosion corrosion in water lines, particularly steam and condensate lines neutralization with alkalies aeration, deaeration, neutralization with alkalies

Free Mineral Acid Carbon Dioxide

PH

Sulfate

Chloride

Nitrate

Fluoride

Sodium

Silica

Iron

hydrogen ion concentration defined as: pH varies according to acidic pH can be increased by or alkaline solids in water; 1 alkalies and decreased by most natural waters have a pH = log acids pH of 6.0-8.0 [H+] adds to solids content of water, but in itself is not demineralization, reverse SO42usually significant, combines osmosis, electrodialysis, with calcium to form calcium evaporation sulfate scale adds to solids content and demineralization, reverse Cl increases corrosive character osmosis, electrodialysis, of water evaporation adds to solids content, but is not usually significant industrially: high demineralization, reverse NO3concentrations cause osmosis, electrodialysis, methemoglobinemia in evaporation infants; useful for control of boiler metal embrittlement cause of mottled enamel in adsorption with magnesium teeth; also used for control of hydroxide, calcium Fdental decay: not usually phosphate, or bone black; significant industrially alum coagulation adds to solids content of water: when combined with demineralization, reverse Na+ OH-, causes corrosion in osmosis, electrodialysis, boilers under certain evaporation conditions hot and warm process removal by magnesium scale in boilers and cooling salts; adsorption by highly water systems; insoluble SiO2 basic anion exchange turbine blade deposits due to resins, in conjunction with silica vaporization demineralization, reverse osmosis, evaporation discolors water on aeration; coagulation and precipitation; source of filtration; lime softening; Fe2+ (ferrous) deposits in water lines, cation exchange; contact Fe3+ (ferric) boilers. etc.; interferes with filtration; surface active dyeing, tanning, papermaking, agents for iron retention etc.

Manganese

Mn2+

Aluminum

AI3+

Oxygen Hydrogen Sulfide Ammonia

O2

H2S

NH3

Dissolved Solids

none

Suspended Solids

none

Total Solids

none

same as iron same as iron usually present as a result of floc carryover from clarifier; improved clarifier and filter can cause deposits in cooling operation systems and contribute to complex boiler scales corrosion of water lines, heat deaeration; sodium sulfite; exchange equipment, boilers, corrosion inhibitors return lines, etc. aeration; chlorination; cause of "rotten egg" odor; highly basic anion corrosion exchange corrosion of copper and zinc cation exchange with alloys by formation of complex hydrogen zeolite; soluble ion chlorination; deaeration refers to total amount of dissolved matter, determined lime softening and cation by evaporation; high exchange by hydrogen concentrations are zeolite; demineralization, objectionable because of reverse osmosis, process interference and as a electrodialysis, evaporation cause of foaming in boilers refers to the measure of undissolved matter, subsidence; filtration, determined gravimetrically; usually preceded by deposits in heat exchange coagulation and settling equipment, boilers, water lines, etc. refers to the sum of dissolved see "Dissolved Solids" and and suspended solids, "Suspended Solids" determined gravimetrically Surface Water

The ultimate course of rain or melting snow depends on the nature of the terrain over which it flows. In areas consisting of hard packed clay, very little water penetrates the ground. In these cases, the water generates "runoff". The runoff collects in streams and rivers. The rivers empty into bays and estuaries, and the water ultimately returns to the sea, completing one major phase of the hydrologic cycle shown in Figure 1-1. As water runs off along the surface, it stirs up and suspends particles of sand and soil, creating silt in the surface water. In addition, the streaming action erodes rocky surfaces, producing more sand. As the surface water cascades over rocks, it is aerated. The combination of oxygen, inorganic nutrients leached from the terrain, and sunlight supports a wide variety of life forms in the water, including algae, fungi, bacteria, small crustaceans, and fish. Often, river beds are lined with trees, and drainage areas feeding the rivers are forested. Leaves and pine needles constitute a large percentage of the biological content of the water. After it dissolves in the water, this material becomes a major cause of fouling of ion exchange resin used in water treatment. The physical and chemical characteristics of surface water contamination vary considerably over time. A sudden storm can cause a dramatic short term change in the composition of a water supply. Over a longer time period, surface water chemistry varies with the seasons. During periods of high rainfall, high runoff occurs. This can have a favorable or unfavorable impact on the characteristics of the water, depending on the geochemistry and biology of the

terrain. Surface water chemistry also varies over multi year or multidecade cycles of drought and rainfall. Extended periods of drought severely affect the availability of water for industrial use. Where rivers discharge into the ocean, the incursion of salt water up the river during periods of drought presents additional problems. Industrial users must take surface water variability into account when designing water treatment plants and programs. Groundwater Water that falls on porous terrains, such as sand or sandy loam, drains or percolates into the ground. In these cases, the water encounters a wide variety of mineral species arranged in complex layers, or strata. The minerals may include granite, gneiss, basalt, and shale. In some cases, there may be a layer of very permeable sand beneath impermeable clay. Water often follows a complex three dimensional path in the ground. The science of groundwater hydrology involves the tracking of these water movements. Table 1-2. A comparison of surface water and groundwater characteristics. Characteristic Turbidity Dissolved minerals Biological content Temporal variability Surface Water high low-moderate high very high Ground Water low high low low

In contrast to surface supplies, groundwaters are relatively free from suspended contaminants, because they are filtered as they move through the strata. The filtration also removes most of the biological contamination. Some groundwaters with a high iron content contain sulfate reducing bacteria. These are a source of fouling and corrosion in industrial water systems. Groundwater chemistry tends to be very stable over time. A groundwater may contain an undesirable level of scale forming solids, but due to its fairly consistent chemistry it may be treated effectively. Mineral Reactions: As groundwater encounters different minerals, it dissolves them according to their solubility characteristics. In some cases chemical reactions occur, enhancing mineral solubility. A good example is the reaction of groundwater with limestone. Water percolating from the surface contains atmospheric gases. One of these gases is carbon dioxide, which forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water. The decomposition of organic matter beneath the surface is another source of carbon dioxide. Limestone is a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonate. The mineral, which is basic, is only slightly soluble in neutral water. The slightly acidic groundwater reacts with basic limestone in a neutralization reaction that forms a salt and a water of neutralization. The salt formed by the reaction is a mixture of calcium and magnesium bicarbonate. Both bicarbonates are quite soluble. This reaction is the source of the most common deposition and corrosion problems faced by industrial users. The calcium and magnesium (hardness) form scale on heat transfer surfaces if the groundwater is not treated before use in industrial cooling and boiler systems. In boiler feedwater applications, the thermal breakdown of the bicarbonate in the boiler leads to high levels of carbon dioxide in condensate return systems. This can cause severe system corrosion. Structurally, limestone is porous. That is, it contains small holes and channels called "interstices". A large formation of limestone can hold vast quantities of groundwater in its structure. Limestone formations that contain these large quantities of water are called aquifers,

a term derived from Latin roots meaning water bearing. If a well is drilled into a limestone aquifer, the water can he withdrawn continuously for decades and used for domestic and industrial applications. Unfortunately, the water is very hard, due to the neutralization/dissolution reactions described above. This necessitates extensive water treatment for most uses. CHEMICAL REACTIONS Numerous chemical tests must be conducted to ensure effective control of a water treatment program. Most of these tests are addressed in detail in Chapters 39-71. Because of their significance in many systems, three tests, pH, alkalinity, and silica, are discussed here as well. pH Control Good pH control is essential for effective control of deposition and corrosion in many water systems. Therefore, it is important to have a good understanding of the meaning of pH and the factors that affect it. Pure H2O exists as an equilibrium between the acid species, H+ (more correctly expressed as a protonated water molecule, the hydronium ion, H30+) and the hydroxyl radical, OH -. In neutral water the acid concentration equals the hydroxyl concentration and at room temperature they both are present at 10-7 gram equivalents (or moles) per liter. The "p" function is used in chemistry to handle very small numbers. It is the negative logarithm of the number being expressed. Water that has 10-7 gram equivalents per liter of hydrogen ions is said to have a pH of 7. Thus, a neutral solution exhibits a pH of 7. Table 1-3 lists the concentration of H+ over 14 orders of magnitude. As it varies, the concentration of OH - must also vary, but in the opposite direction, such that the product of the two remains constant. Table 1-3. pH relationships. H+ Concentration Exponential Notation, gram moles/L 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12 10-13 10-14
-6

pHa 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

H+ Concentration, OH - Concentration, Normality Normality 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001 0.0000001 0.00000001 0.000000001 0.0000000001 0.00000000001 0.000000000001 0.0000000000001 0.00000000000001
a

OH - Concentration, Exponential pOH Notation, gram moles/L 0.00000000000001 10-14 14 0.0000000000001 10--13 13 -12 0.000000000001 1012 0.00000000001 10-11 11 -10 0.0000000001 10 10 0.000000001 0.00000001 0.0000001 0.000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10-9 10 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100
-8

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

pH+pOH=14.

Confusion regarding pH arises from two sources:

the inverse nature of the function the pH meter scale

It is important to remember that as the acid concentration increases, the pH value decreases (see Table 1-4). Table 1-4. Comparative pH levels of common solutions. 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
a

OH - alkalinity 500 ppm as CaCO3 OH - alkalinity 50 ppm as CaCO3 Columbus. OH, drinking water, a OH - alkalinity 5 ppm as CaCO3 strong base anion exchanger effluents phenolphthalein end point neutral point at 25 C Weymouth, NIA, drinking water, a methyl orange end point FMA 4 ppm as CaCO3 FMA 40 ppm as CaCO3 strong acid cation exchanger effluent FMA 400 ppm as CaCO3 Extremes of drinking water pH

The pH meter can be a source of confusion, because the pH scale on the meter is linear, extending from 0 to 14 in even increments. Because pH is a logarithmic function, a change of I pH unit corresponds to a 10 fold change in acid concentration. A decrease of 2 pH units represents a 100 fold change in acid concentration. Alkalinity Alkalinity tests are used to control lime-soda softening processes and boiler blowdown and to predict the potential for calcium scaling in cooling water systems. For most water systems, it is important to recognize the sources of alkalinity and maintain proper alkalinity control. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water as a gas. The dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with solvent water molecules and forms carbonic acid according to the following reaction: CO2 + H2O = H2CO3

Only a trace amount of carbonic acid is formed, but it is acidic enough to lower pH from the neutral point of 7. Carbonic acid is a weak acid, so it does not lower pH below 4.3. However, this level is low enough to cause significant corrosion of system metals. If the initial loading of CO2 is held constant and the pH is raised, a gradual transformation into the bicarbonate ion HCO3- occurs. This is shown in Figure 1-2. The transformation is complete at pH 8.3. Further elevation of the pH forces a second transformation into carbonate, CO32-. The three species carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate can be converted from one to another by means of changing the pH of the water. Variations in pH can be reduced through "buffering" the addition of acid (or caustic). When acid

(or caustic) is added to a water containing carbonate/bicarbonate species, the pH of the system does not change as quickly as it does in pure water. Much of the added acid (or caustic) is consumed as the carbonate/bicarbonate (or bicarbonate/carbonic acid) ratio is shifted. Alkalinity is the ability of a natural water to neutralize acid (i.e., to reduce the pH depression expected from a strong acid by the buffering mechanism mentioned above). Confusion arises in that alkaline pH conditions exist at a pH above 7, whereas alkalinity in a natural water exists at a pH above 4.4. Alkalinity is measured by a double titration; acid is added to a sample to the Phenolphthalein end point (pH 8.3) and the Methyl Orange end point (pH 4.4). Titration to the Phenolphthalein end point (the P-alkalinity) measures OH - and 1/2 CO32-; titration to the Methyl Orange end point (the M-alkalinity) measures OH -, CO32- and HCO3 . Silica When not properly controlled, silica forms highly insulating, difficult to remove deposits in cooling systems, boilers, and turbines. An understanding of some of the possible variations in silica testing is valuable. Most salts, although present as complicated crystalline structures in the solid phase, assume fairly simple ionic forms in solution. Silica exhibits complicated structures even in solution. Silica exists in a wide range of structures, from a simple silicate to a complicated polymeric material. The polymeric structure can persist when the material is dissolved in surface waters. The size of the silica polymer can be substantial, ranging up to the colloidal state. Colloidal silica is rarely present in groundwaters. It is most commonly present in surface waters during periods of high runoff. The polymeric form of silica does not produce color in the standard molybdate based colorimetric test for silica. This form of silica is termed "nonreactive". The polymeric form of silica is not thermally stable and when heated in a boiler reverts to the basic silicate monomer, which is reactive with molybdate. As a result, molybdate testing of a boiler feedwater may reveal little or no silica, while boiler blowdown measurements show a level of silica that is above control limits. High boiler water silica and low feedwater values are often a first sign that colloidal silica is present in the makeup. One method of identifying colloidal silica problems is the use of atomic emission or absorption to measure feedwater silica. This method, unlike the molybdate chemistry, measures total silica irrespective of the degree of polymerization.

Concern for the environment is not a new issue, as evidenced by the notice printed in the January, 1944 issue of The Betz Indicator. (Figure 2-1) In the 1960's it became evident that there could be a dark side to the economic development that resulted from the decades of rapid industrial growth following World War II. During this period the general public became aware of the consequences of improper waste material handling and industrial accidents. Frightening incidents at Love Canal, Seveso, and Bhopal in the 1970's and 1980's had tragic effects on members of the general public beyond the fence line of the facilities. In the past few decades, public awareness has grown concerning many

other important environmental issues: acid rain global warming ("greenhouse effect") stratospheric ozone depletion tropical deforestation the urban trash crisis pesticides in groundwater hazardous waste disposal natural and synthetic carcinogens Focus on environmental considerations has shifted from a single-medium approach (air, water, land) to a holistic approach. Early regulations permitted the removal of a solvent, such as trichloroethane (methyl chloroform), from contaminated groundwater by counter current air stripping. It was soon realized that while the water was no longer contaminated, an air pollutant had been created in the process. Today's regulations address the fact that moving a pollutant from one medium to another does not eliminate the problem. In the example given above, the solvent removed from the water must he condensed or adsorbed by activated carbon and recovered or incinerated. Another change is a recognition that city sewers are an appropriate means of disposal only for those industrial wastes that are removed or degraded to environmentally compatible products in the municipal treatment plant. Industrial wastes that cause a degradation of effluent water quality or render the sewage sludge hazardous must be managed in ways that are environmentally acceptable. The accomplishment of this goal will require the continuing, longterm efforts of all concerned. The cost of manufacturing a product now includes factors for waste disposal and pollution prevention. Often, it is more economical to alter processes to produce less waste or more benign wastes, and to recover usable materials from waste streams, than to make a contaminated waste stream suitable for disposal. THE INDUSTRIAL USE OF WATER It is becoming increasingly apparent that fresh water is a valuable resource that must be protected through proper management, conservation, and use. Although two-thirds of the Earth's surface is covered by water, most of it is seawater, which is not readily usable for most needs. All fresh water comes from rainfall, which percolates into the soil or runs off into rivers and streams. The hydrologic cycle is dynamic, as shown in Chapter 1. In order to ensure an adequate supply of high quality water for industrial use, the following practices must he implemented : purification and conditioning prior to consumer (potable) or industrial use conservation (and reuse where possible) wastewater treatment Cooling systems are being modified in industrial applications to reduce the use of fresh water makeup. The operation of cooling towers at high cycles of concentration and the reuse of waste streams (including municipal plant effluent for cooling tower makeup) can contribute significantly to reduced water consumption.

Both groundwater and surface waters can become polluted as a result of the improper management of wastes (Figure 2-3). Because of the increasing demands for fresh water, there is a continuing need to share resources. Regulations will require the increasing treatment of all domestic and industrial wastewaters in order to remove industrial and priority pollutants and restore the effluent water to the quality required by the next user. Facilities that treat domestic waste must also control the more conventional pollutants, such as BOD (biological oxygen demand), ammonia, and nitrates, and restore the pH if it is out of the neutral zone. Concerns about the safety of drinking water supplies are widespread. Although there are many pollutants that degrade water quality (including natural pollutants), those that attract the greatest public attention result from industrial activity and the use of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers. Environmental regulations establish quality criteria for both industrial and domestic waste treatment discharges. Although some countries have more comprehensive laws and permit regulations than others, stringent pollution control standards will probably be adopted globally in the coming years. AIR QUALITY Geographic boundaries are not recognized by the winds. Air quality issues are complicated by the fact that they are usually of multinational concern. Significant issues such as acid rain, stratospheric ozone depletion, and the greenhouse effect require a degree of international cooperation that is difficult to achieve (see Figure 2-4). Technologies available today can have a positive and measurable impact on these issues. Several chapters in this handbook describe technologies that increase boiler and industrial cooling efficiency. In paper mills, generating plants, steel mills, refineries, and other major energy consumers, each incremental increase in energy efficiency represents a reduction in required fuel. As a result of reduced fuel consumption, less carbon dioxide is produced, and where coal or other sulfur containing fuels are used there is also a decrease in sulfur oxide emissions. Fluidized bed boilers are being used increasingly to reduce the presence of acidic gasses (SOx and NOx ) in the boiler flue gas. One of the problems faced by governments is the amount of energy required to accomplish wet scrubbing (to remove acid gases) and electrostatic precipitation of particulates. These processes, combined, consume up to 30% of the energy released by the burning of coal . While these processes reduce the contaminants thought to cause acid rain, they increase the amount of coal burned and thereby increase the production of carbon dioxide, one of the gases thought to cause the "greenhouse effect." Many of the air pollutants of concern could be greatly reduced through the use of alternative energy sources, such as nuclear fission (and at some point, probably nuclear fusion), geothermal, wind, hydroelectric, photovoltaic, biomass, and solar. At this time, many of the alternatives are significantly more expensive than the use of fossil fuels, and each has its own problems. There are no clear and simple solutions; no source of energy has been developed that is both economically attractive and without environmental drawbacks. Over the past several years, most industrialized countries have passed laws addressing air pollution concerns and industrial and power plant emissions. Nations have begun to come together in a cooperative fashion to formulate agreements and protocols to deal with global atmospheric concerns. There has been a multinational agreement to phase out the use of certain chloro- fluorocarbon compounds (used as refrigerant gases and for other purposes) because they have been linked with a reduction of ozone in the stratosphere. There is reason to believe that a reduction in stratospheric ozone will allow a higher level of UV radiation to reach the earth's surface, and this is expected to cause an increase in the incidence of skin cancer along with other undesirable effects.

There are movements to establish multinational agreements that provide incentives to allow economic progress to occur in developing countries without the destruction of their rain forests. The rain forests should be preserved not only for the sake of conservation but also because they remove vast quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and thus have a favorable effect on global warming and the greenhouse effect. Human understanding of atmospheric chemistry is far from complete. As our understanding grows there will undoubtedly be many changes in direction and emphasis regarding atmospheric pollutants. Because a sizeable amount of atmospheric pollution results from industrial activity and power generation, the scope and stringency of industrial air pollution regulations will continue to increase. INDUSTRIAL WASTE REDUCTION AND ENERGY CONSERVATION In the 20th century, industrialized nations evolved from exploiters of bountiful natural resources to conservators of scarce resources. In the early 1900's, the consumption of industrial products was modest and natural resources appeared to he limitless. As the demand for electric power and industrial products grew, the limitations of the Earth's natural resources became an increasing concern. Today, even developing countries are very interested in the controlled development and utilization of their resources. In addition to producing a desired output at a certain cost, industrial producers must now consider the following objectives: to consume a minimum of raw materials and energy to minimize waste through efficient use of resources to recover useful materials from production waste to treat any residual waste so that it can be converted to an environmentally acceptable form before disposal In addition to concerns about the depletion of natural resources, there are widespread concerns about waste disposal practices. The burying of untreated industrial wastes, whether classified as hazardous or nonhazardous, is no longer an acceptable practice. Landfill of stabilized residues from the incineration, thermal treatment, or biological oxidation/degradation of industrial wastes is the approach accepted by most countries today. Certain materials that are the waste products of one process can be recovered for reuse in another application. For example, boiler blowdown may be used as cooling tower makeup in certain instances. Other waste products may contain valuable components that can be extracted. As the cost of waste disposal has escalated, it has become economically feasible to use alternative raw materials and to alter processes so that less waste or less hazardous waste is produced. The treatment of waste and wastewater so that it can be successfully reused is an increasing need . The most efficient driving force for the selection of alternative, waste reducing raw materials and processes is the marketplace. Because of the high cost of waste treatment and disposal, certain processes can offset higher initial costs with reduced operating expenses. For example, membrane systems (reverse osmosis, electro dialysis reversal, etc.) have been used successfully to treat boiler makeup water and reduce the total level of contamination in the waste discharge in comparison with ion exchange systems. Membrane treatment of cooling tower blowdown has also been used to reduce the total quantity of wastewater. The stripping of carbon dioxide and ammonia from process condensate streams has made it feasible to reuse them as boiler feedwater. The reduction of cooling tower blowdown by the use of side stream softeners and/or filters, along with effective deposit control and corrosion inhibition programs, is

also increasing. Although global efforts are being made to ensure that the wastes from industrial processes are properly managed, the cost of remedying the damage from past practices must also be addressed. Injudicious burial of industrial wastes in the past has resulted in significant groundwater contamination (leaching) problems. Because the underground movement of chemicals leaching from dumping areas is extremely difficult to monitor and track, this form of pollution is of major concern to the general public. A large percentage of the world's population relies on groundwater from wells or springs for its potable water supply. Because the turnover of an aquifer can take years, or even decades, any contamination can be serious. Fortunately, certain natural processes, including microbiological digestion, may break down leaching pollutants to nonharmful materials. One remedy that is gaining acceptance is the addition of certain nutrients and inoculum cultures to contaminated soils to accelerate the biological degradation of pollutants. This process is referred to as bioremediation and has many useful variants. Industrial and commercial producers have an obligation to minimize consumption of the Earth's natural resources and to generate a minimum of pollutants and waste. The term "zero risk" is often used to represent the ultimate goal of generating products without any possibility of producing environmental effects. As zero risk is approached (although in most cases it can never be fully attained), the cost to the producer and to society in general becomes increasingly larger for each increment of risk avoided (see Figure 2-7). It has become clear to all nations that the protection of the environment is an immediate and ongoing concern. It will take a great deal of time and effort to redesign industrial processes to minimize wastes produced. Deposit and corrosion control treatments that are effective under demanding conditions and also environmentally acceptable are necessary. Efficient treatment. handling, feeding, and control systems are essential to ensure optimum system performance with minimum impact on the environment. Previous (Chapter 01 Water Sources, Impurities and Chemistry) Table of Contents Next

Typical utility water systems are subject to considerable variation. Makeup water characteristics can change over time. The abruptness and degree of change depend on the source of the water. Water losses from a recirculating system, changes in production rates, and chemical feed rates all introduce variation into the system and thereby influence the ability to maintain proper control of the system. Other variables inherent in utility water systems include: water flow/velocity water temperature process/skin temperature process demands evaporation rates operator skill/training water characteristics (suspended solids, hardness, pH swings) treatment product quality

These variables are considered and introduced during the applications and pilot plant testing of new products for the treatment of various water systems. Pilot plant simulation of actual operational variation is a challenging task. Every industrial water system is unique, not only in the production operations it supports and the sources of water it receives, but also in the degree of inherent variation encountered due to the factors listed above. While a very sensitive treatment program that must operate within a narrow control range may be suitable for one system, another system requiring the same degree of protection may be incapable of maintaining the required control. Consequently, inferior results must be accepted unless the system is improved to support the sensitive program. In operating systems, proper treatment of influent, boiler, cooling, and effluent waters often requires constant adjustment of the chemistry to meet the requirements of rapidly changing system conditions. A well designed program is essential to maintaining proper control. The program should include proper control limits and the ability to troubleshoot problems that interfere with control of water chemistry. Success in troubleshooting depends on the knowledge, logic, and skills of the troubleshooter. In order to improve operations it is necessary to recognize the importance of continuous improvement and to be familiar with some tools and procedures necessary to support this effort. Adequate and reliable data are essential if variation in a system is to he measured and reduced. Specialized computer software can assist efforts to manage, summarize, and use data effectively. Process data can be stored in a database and retrieved and analyzed as needed in a variety of formats. Computers provide nearly instantaneous access to many months or years of process data that would require several filing cabinets if stored on paper log sheets. The computer can he used to graph and analyze the data in a variety of formats, such as statistical process control (SPC), trend analysis, and histograms. The operator is able to troubleshoot the system based on these analyses without spending large amounts of time manually researching and analyzing the data. In his classic hook Managerial Breakthrough (McGraw Hill: New York, 1964, pp 1-14), Dr. J. M. Duran develops the important distinction between quality control and quality improvement, and describes the elements of effective problem solving in each case. These distinctions and relationships are summarized in Figure 3-2. QUALITY CONTROL ZONE Although the performance of a process varies from day to day, the average performance and the range of variation are fairly constant over time. This level of performance is inherent in the process and is provided for in the system design. The Quality Control Zone in Figure 3-2 depicts the accepted average and accepted range of variation in feedwater hardness. This zone is often adopted as the standard of performance. Sometimes, performance falls outside the accepted, or standard, range of variation in the Quality Control Zone. This is depicted in Figure 3-2 by the sporadic spike. The goal of problem solving in the Quality Control Zone is to reestablish performance within the standard. This involves the following steps: detecting the change (sporadic spike) identifying the cause of the change taking corrective action to restore the status quo QUALITY IMPROVEMENT ZONE Problem solving in the Quality Improvement Zone (also depicted in Figure 3-2) can have an even greater impact. The goal of quality improvement is to reject the status quo as the standard and reach a level of performance never before achieved. This level, the New Zone of Quality

Control," represents the achievement of lower costs and/or better performance. In this case, significantly lower feedwater hardness decreases scaling potential and improves boiler reliability. This step extends the scope of problem solving beyond the correction of obvious problems. While it is important to "make the system work," it is often more important to view the entire system to identify areas of potential improvement. Some systems are poorly planned; others have not been updated to keep pace with changing requirements and progressing technology. In either case, it is often the system that causes control and operational problems not the people working within the system. Quality Improvement Tools While a proper mindset must exist for continuous improvement, certain problem solving procedures and tools can add structure and consistency to the effort. The following quality improvement tools provide the means to summarize and present meaningful data in a way that adds significance to the successful resolution of chronic problems. Flow Diagrams. A flow diagram provides a graphic presentation of the steps required to produce a desired result. For example, this tool may be used to clarify the procedures used to regenerate a softener or the steps to be taken in the event of an upset in a cooling tower. Flow diagrams are used in problem solving to give all parties a common understanding of the overall process. Brainstorming. In diagnosing a problem, new and useful ideas can result when all of the people familiar with the process meet to share their experiences and ideas. Possible causes are discussed and possible solutions are presented and evaluated. Cause-Effect Diagrams. An important first step in quality improvement is the identification of the root causes of a problem. A cause-effect diagram provides an effective way to organize and display the various ideas of what those root causes might be. Figure 3-3 graphically presents possible causes for reduced demineralizer throughput. Scatter Diagrams. A scatter diagram is useful in providing a clear, graphic representation of the relationship between two variables. For example, boiler feedwater iron levels might be plotted as a function of feedwater pH to confirm or rule out a cause-effect relationship. Pareto Analysis. Pareto analysis is a ranked comparison of factors related to a quality problem, or a ranking of the cost of various problems. It is an excellent graphic means of identifying and focusing on the vital few factors or problems. Figure 3-4 represents an analysis of the calculated cost of various problems interfering with the successful management of a utility water system. Meaningful Data Collection. Meaningful collection of data and facts is fundamental to every quality improvement effort. Quality improvement is an information intensive activity. In many cases, problems remain unsolved for long periods of time due to a lack of relevant information. A good data collection system must he carefully planned in order to provide the right information with a minimum of effort and with minimal chance of error. In order to plan for data collection, it is necessary to identify potential sources of bias and develop procedures to address them: Exclusion bias. If a part of the process being investigated has been left out, the result will be biased if the data is intended to represent the entire process. For example, if data on attemperating water purity is not included in an evaluation of a steam turbine fouling problem, the cause could be missed.

Interaction bias. The process of collecting the data itself can affect the process being studied. For example, if an operator knows that cooling tower treatment levels are being monitored by the central laboratory, he may be more careful conducting his own tests. Perception bias. The attitudes and beliefs of the data collectors can influence what they perceive and how they record it. If an operator believes that swings in steam header pressure are his responsibility, he may record that operation was normal at the time of boiler water carryover. Operational bias. Failure to follow the established procedures is a common operational bias. For example, failure to cool a boiler water sample to 25 C (77 F) often leads to an erroneous pH measurement. Graphs and Charts. Pictorial representations of quantitative data, such as line charts, pie charts, and bar graphs, can summarize large amounts of data in a small area and communicate complex situations concisely and clearly. Histograms. The pictorial nature of a histogram (a graphic summation of variation in a set of data) reveals patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers. Figure 3-5(a) is a histogram that shows the variation of inhibitor level in a cooling water system. Each bar along the horizontal axis represents a specific range of inhibitor concentration, in parts per million. The scale on the vertical axis represents the number of occurrences within each range of concentration. The shape of this particular histogram indicates a normal and predictable pattern of distribution. There are no incidents of nonconformance outside of the specified tolerance limits of 60-80 ppm, represented by the dotted lines. In contrast, the patterns of variation depicted in Figure 3-5(b) and (c) represent problems, which must be corrected. The pattern of distribution in Figure 3-5(b) is relatively normal, but a few incidents of nonconformance occur outside of the engineering limits, departing significantly from the otherwise normal distribution. The cause of these occurrences must be investigated, and the process corrected to a more predictable pattern. Figure 3-5(c) represents a normal and predictable pattern, but reveals several occurrences that fall outside of the specified 60-80 ppm limits, indicating that there is too much natural variation in the process. Statistical Process Control. Statistical process control (SPC) is the use of statistical methods to study, analyze, and control the variation in any process. It is a vehicle through which one can extract meaningful information about a process so that corrective action, where necessary, can be implemented. While a histogram is a pictorial representation of patterns of variation, SPC is used to quantify this variation and determine mathematically whether the process is stable or unstable, predictable or erratic. Figure 3-6 shows three SPC charts of the individual values of measurement used to construct the histograms in Figure 3-5. In these cases, the data is plotted chronologically and used interactively to determine whether a value falls outside of the statistical (predictability) limits. With statistical process control, the actual historical data is used to calculate the upper and lower statistical limits as a guideline for future operation. Anything falling outside of the statistical limits is considered to be a special cause of variation requiring immediate attention. Of course, if the common causes of variation are excessive for either engineering or economic reasons, as is the case in Figures 3-5(c) and 3-6(c), improvement to the process is necessary until the statistical limits are narrowed to the point of acceptability. Previous (Chapter 02 Environmental Considerations) Table of Contents Next

Met hod s of Aer atio n Applications Limitations Aeration is a unit process in which air and water are brought into intimate contact. Turbulence increases the aeration of flowing streams (Figure 4-1). In industrial processes, water flow is usually directed countercurrent to atmospheric or forced-draft air flow. The contact time and the ratio of air to water must be sufficient for effective removal of the unwanted gas. Aeration as a water treatment practice is used for the following operations: carbon dioxide reduction (decarbonation) oxidation of iron and manganese found in many well waters (oxidation tower) ammonia and hydrogen sulfide reduction (stripping) Aeration is also an effective method of bacteria control. METHODS OF AERATION Two general methods may be used for the aeration of water. The most common in industrial use is the water-fall aerator. Through the use of spray nozzles, the water is broken up into small droplets or a thin film to enhance countercurrent air contact. In the air diffusion method of aeration, air is diffused into a receiving vessel containing countercurrent flowing water, creating very small air bubbles. This ensures good air-water contact for "scrubbing" of undesirable gases from the water. Water-Fall Aerators Many variations of the water-fall principle are used for this type of aeration. The simplest configuration employs a vertical riser that discharges water by free fall into a basin (Figure 4-2). The riser usually operates on the available head of water. The efficiency of aeration is improved as the fall distance is increased. Also, steps or shelves may be added to break up the fall and spread the water into thin sheets or films, which increases contact time and aeration efficiency. Coke tray and wood or plastic slat water-fall aerators are relatively similar in design and have the advantage of small space requirements. Coke tray aerators are widely used in iron and manganese oxidation because a catalytic effect is secured by contact of the iron/manganese-bearing water with fresh precipitates. These units consist of a series of coke-filled trays through which the water percolates, with additional aeration obtained during the free fall from one tray to the next. Wood or plastic slat tray aerators are similar to small atmospheric cooling towers. The tray slats are staggered to break up the free fall of the water and create thin films before the water finally drops into the basin. Forced draft water-fall aerators (see Figure 4-3) are used for many industrial water conditioning purposes. Horizontal wood or plastic slat trays, or towers filled with packing of various shapes

and materials, are designed to maximize disruption of the falling water into small streams for greater air-water contact. Air is forced through the unit by a blower which produces uniform air distribution across the entire cross section, cross current or countercurrent to the fall of the water. Because of these features, forced draft aerators are more efficient for gas removal and require less space for a given capacity. Air Diffusion Aerators Air diffusion systems aerate by pumping air into water through perforated pipes, strainers, porous plates, or tubes. Aeration by diffusion is theoretically superior to water-fall aeration because a fine bubble of air rising through water is continually exposed to fresh liquid surfaces, providing maximum water surface per unit volume of air. Also, the velocity of bubbles ascending through the water is much lower than the velocity of free-falling drops of water, providing a longer contact time. Greatest efficiency is achieved when water flow is countercurrent to the rising air bubbles. APPLICATIONS In industrial water conditioning, one of the major objectives of aeration is to remove carbon dioxide. Aeration is also used to oxidize soluble iron and manganese (found in many well waters) to insoluble precipitates. Aeration is often used to reduce the carbon dioxide liberated by a treatment process. For example, acid may be fed to the effluent of sodium zeolite softeners for boiler alkalinity control. Carbon dioxide is produced as a result of the acid treatment, and aeration is employed to rid the water of this corrosive gas. Similarly, when the effluents of hydrogen and sodium zeolite units are blended, the carbon dioxide formed is removed by aeration. In the case of cold lime softening, carbon dioxide may be removed from the water before the water enters the equipment. When carbon dioxide removal is the only objective, economics usually favor removal of high concentrations of carbon dioxide by aeration rather than by chemical precipitation with lime. Air stripping may be used to reduce concentrations of volatile organics, such as chloroform, as well as dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Air pollution standards must be considered when air stripping is used to reduce volatile organic compounds. Iron and Manganese Removal Iron and manganese in well waters occur as soluble ferrous and manganous bicarbonates. In the aeration process, the water is saturated with oxygen to promote the following reactions: 4Fe(HCO3)2 ferrous bicarbonate + O2 oxygen + 2H2O water = 4Fe(OH)3 ferric hydroxide + 4CO2 carbon dioxide + + 8CO2 carbon dioxide 2H2O water

2Mn(HCO3)2 manganese bicarbonate

O2 oxygen

2MnO2 manganese dioxide

The oxidation products, ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide, are insoluble. After aeration, they are removed by clarification or filtration. Occasionally, strong chemical oxidants such as chlorine (Cl2) or potassium permanganate (KMnO4) may be used following aeration to ensure complete oxidation. Dissolved Gas Reduction Gases dissolved in water follow the principle that the solubility of a gas in a liquid (water) is

directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid at equilibrium. This is known as Henry's Law and may be expressed as follows: Ctotal = kP where Ctotal P k = total concentration of the gas in solution = partial pressure of the gas above the solution

= a proportionality constant known as Henry's Law Constant

However, the gases frequently encountered in water treatment (with the exception of oxygen) do not behave in accordance with Henry's Law because they ionize when dissolved in water. For example: H2O water + CO2 carbon dioxide H2S hydrogen sulfide H2O water + H+ Hydrogen ion H+ hydrogen ion + HShydrosulfide ion + HCO3bicarbonate ion

NH3 ammonia

NH4+ ammonium ion

OHhydroxide ion

Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia are soluble in water under certain conditions to the extent of 1,700, 3,900, and 531,000 ppm, respectively. Rarely are these concentrations encountered except in certain process condensates. In a normal atmosphere, the partial pressure of each of these gases is practically zero. Consequently, the establishment of a state of equilibrium between water and air by means of aeration results in saturation of the water with nitrogen and oxygen and nearly complete removal of other gases. As the equations above show, ionization of the gases in water is a reversible reaction. The common ion effect may be used to obtain almost complete removal of these gases by aeration. If the concentration of one of the ions on the right side of the equation is increased, the reaction is driven to the left, forming the gas. In the case of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen ion concentration may be increased by the addition of an acid. Bicarbonate and carbonate ions in the water will form carbon dioxide, which can be removed by aeration. In a similar manner, an increase in hydroxyl ion concentration through the addition of caustic soda aids in the removal of ammonia. Figures 4-4, 4-5, and 4-6 show the percentage of gas removal that may be obtained at various pH levels. Gas removal by aeration is achieved as the level of gas in the water approaches equilibrium with the level of the gas in the surrounding atmosphere. The process is improved by an increase in temperature, aeration time, the volume of air in contact with the water, and the surface area of water exposed to the air. As previously indicated, pH is an important consideration. The efficiency of aeration is greater where the concentration of the gas to be removed is high in the water and low in the atmosphere.

LIMITATIONS Temperature significantly affects the efficiency of air stripping processes. Therefore, these processes may not be suitable for use in colder climates. Theoretically, at 68F the carbon dioxide content of the water can be reduced to 0.5 ppm by aeration to equilibrium conditions. This is not always practical from an economic standpoint, and reduction of carbon dioxide to 10 ppm is normally considered satisfactory. Although removal of free carbon dioxide increases the pH of the water and renders it less corrosive from this standpoint, aeration also results in the saturation of water with dissolved oxygen. This does not generally present a problem when original oxygen content is already high. However, in the case of a well water supply that is high in carbon dioxide but devoid of oxygen, aeration simply exchanges one corrosive gas for another. The efficiency of aeration increases as the initial concentration of the gas to be removed increases above its equilibrium value. Therefore, with waters containing only a small amount of carbon dioxide, neutralization by alkali addition is usually more cost-effective. The complete removal of hydrogen sulfide must be combined with pH reduction or chemical oxidation. Nonvolatile organic compounds cannot be removed by air stripping. For example, phenols and creosols are unaffected by the aeration process alone. Previous (Chapter 03 Applying Quality Methods) Table of Contents Next (Chapter 05 Clarification)

Ste ps of clar ifica tion Inorganic coagulants Polyelectrolytes Color Reduction Conventional clarification equipment In-line clarification Suspended matter in raw water supplies is removed by various methods to provide a water suitable for domestic purposes and most industrial requirements. The suspended matter can consist of large solids, settable by gravity alone without any external aids, and nonsettleable material, often colloidal in nature. Removal is generally accomplished by coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. The combination of these three processes is referred to as conventional clarification. Coagulation is the process of destabilization by charge neutralization. Once neutralized, particles no longer repel each other and can be brought together. Coagulation is necessary for the removal of the colloidal-sized suspended matter. Flocculation is the process of bringing together the destabilized, or "coagulated," particles to form

a larger agglomeration, or "floc." Sedimentation refers to the physical removal from suspension, or settling, that occurs once the particles have been coagulated and flocculated. Sedimentation or subsidence alone, without prior coagulation, results in the removal of only relatively coarse suspended solids. Steps of Clarification Finely divided particles suspended in surface water repel each other because most of the surfaces are negatively charged. The following steps in clarification are necessary for particle agglomeration: Coagulation. Coagulation can be accomplished through the addition of inorganic salts of aluminum or iron. These inorganic salts neutralize the charge on the particles causing raw water turbidity, and also hydrolyze to form insoluble precipitates, which entrap particles. Coagulation can also be effected by the addition of water-soluble organic polymers with numerous ionized sites for particle charge neutralization. Flocculation. Flocculation, the agglomeration of destabilized particles into large particles, can be enhanced by the addition of high-molecular-weight, water-soluble organic polymers. These polymers increase floc size by charged site binding and by molecular bridging.

Therefore, coagulation involves neutralizing charged particles to destabilize suspended solids. In most clarification processes, a flocculation step then follows. Flocculation starts when neutralized or entrapped particles begin to collide and fuse to form larger particles. This process can occur naturally or can be enhanced by the addition of polymeric flocculant aids. Inorganic Coagulants Table 5-1 lists a number of common inorganic coagulants. Typical iron and aluminum coagulants are acid salts that lower the pH of the treated water by hydrolysis. Depending on initial raw water alkalinity and pH, an alkali such as lime or caustic must be added to counteract the pH depression of the primary coagulant. Iron and aluminum hydrolysis products play a significant role in the coagulation process, especially in cases where low-turbidity influent waters benefit from the presence of additional collision surface areas. Table 5-1. Common inorganic coagulants Typical Formula Al2(SO4)3 14 to 18 H2O Typical Strength 17% Al2O3 Typical Forms Used in Water Treatment lump, granular, or powder liquid liquid granular solution crystal, solution

Name Aluminum sulfate Alum

Density 60-70 lb/ft3

Typical Uses primary coagulant

8.25% Al2O3 35% AlCl3 68% Fe2(SO4)3 41% Fe2(SO4)3 60% FeCl3, 35-45% FeCl3

11.1 lb/gal 12.5 lb/gal 70-72 lb/ft3 12.3 lb/gal 60-64 lb/ft3 11.2-12.4 lb/gal primary coagulant primary coagulant primary coagulant primary coagulant

Aluminum AlCl3 6H2O chloride Ferric sulfate Ferric-floc Ferric chloride Fe2(SO4)3 9H2O Fe2(SO4)3 9H2O FeCl3

Sodium aluminate

Na2Al2O4

38-46% Na2Al2O4

liquid

12.3-12.9 lb/gal

primary coagulant; cold/hot precipitation softening

Variation in pH affects particle surface charge and floc precipitation during coagulation. Iron and aluminum hydroxide flocs are best precipitated at pH levels that minimize the coagulant solubility. However, the best clarification performance may not always coincide with the optimum pH for hydroxide floc formation. Also, the iron and aluminum hydroxide flocs increase volume requirements for the disposal of settled sludge. With aluminum sulfate, optimum coagulation efficiency and minimum floc solubility normally occur at pH 6.0 to 7.0. Iron coagulants can be used successfully over the much broader pH range of 5.0 to 11.0. If ferrous compounds are used, oxidation to ferric iron is needed for complete precipitation. This may require either chlorine addition or pH adjustment. The chemical reactions between the water's alkalinity (natural or supplemented) and aluminum or iron result in the formation of the hydroxide coagulant as in the following:
Al2(SO4)3 aluminu m sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 ferric sulfate Na2Al2O4 sodium aluminate + 6NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate + 6NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate + = = 2Al(OH)3- + aluminum hydroxide 2Fe(OH)3ferric hydroxide 3Na2SO4 sodium sulfate + 3Na2SO4 + sodium sulfate + + 6CO2 carbon dioxide 6CO2 carbon dioxide

4H2O = 2Al(OH)3water aluminum hydroxide

2NaOH sodium hydroxide

Polyelectrolytes The term polyelectrolytes refers to all water-soluble organic polymers used for clarification, whether they function as coagulants or flocculants. Water-soluble polymers may be classified as follows: anionic-ionize in water solution to form negatively charged sites along the polymer chain cationic-ionize in water solution to form positively charged sites along the polymer chain nonionic-ionize in water solution to form very slight negatively charged sites along the polymer chain

Polymeric primary coagulants are cationic materials with relatively low molecular weights (under 500,000). The cationic charge density (available positively charged sites) is very high. Polymeric flocculants or coagulant aids may be anionic, cationic, or nonionic. Their molecular weights may be as high as 50,000,000. Table 5-2 describes some typical organic polyelectrolytes. For any given particle there is an ideal molecular weight and an ideal charge density for optimum coagulation. There is also an optimum charge density and molecular weight for the most efficient flocculant.

Because suspensions are normally nonuniform, specific testing is necessary to find the coagulants and flocculants with the broadest range of performance. Primary Coagulant Polyelectrolytes The cationic polyelectrolytes commonly used as primary coagulants are polyamines and poly(DADMACS). They exhibit strong cationic ionization and typically have molecular weights of less than 500,000. When used as primary coagulants, they adsorb on particle surfaces, reducing the repelling negative charges. These polymers may also bridge, to some extent, from one particle to another but are not particularly effective flocculants. The use of polyelectrolytes permits water clarification without the precipitation of additional hydroxide solids formed by inorganic coagulants. The pH of the treated water is unaffected. The efficiency of primary coagulant poly-electrolytes depends greatly on the nature of the turbidity particles to be coagulated, the amount of turbidity present, and the mixing or reaction energies available during coagulation. With lower influent turbidities, more turbulence or mixing is required to achieve maximum charge neutralization. Raw waters of less than 10 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) usually cannot be clarified with a cationic polymer alone. Best results are obtained by a combination of an inorganic salt and cationic polymer. In-line clarification should be considered for raw waters with low turbidities. Generally, waters containing 10 to 60 NTU are most effectively treated with an inorganic coagulant and cationic polymer. In most cases, a significant portion of the inorganic coagulant demand can be met with the cationic polyelectrolyte. With turbidity greater than 60 NTU, a polymeric primary coagulant alone is normally sufficient. In low-turbidity waters where it is desirable to avoid using an inorganic coagulant, artificial turbidity can be added to build floc. Bentonite clay is used to increase surface area for adsorption and entrapment of finely divided turbidity. A polymeric coagulant is then added to complete the coagulation process. The use of organic polymers offers several advantages over the use of inorganic coagulants: The amount of sludge produced during clarification can be reduced by 50-90%. The approximate dry weight of solids removed per pound of dry alum and ferric sulfate are approximately 0.25 and 0.5 lb, respectively. The resulting sludge contains less chemically bound water and can be more easily dewatered. Polymeric coagulants do not affect pH. Therefore, the need for supplemental alkalinity, such as lime, caustic, or soda ash, is reduced or eliminated. Polymeric coagulants do not add to the total dissolved solids concentration. For example, 1 ppm of alum adds 0.45 ppm of sulfate ion (expressed as CaCO3). The reduction in sulfate can significantly extend the capacity of anion exchange systems. Soluble iron or aluminum carryover in the clarifier effluent may result from inorganic coagulant use. Therefore, elimination of the inorganic coagulant can minimize the deposition of these metals in filters, ion exchange units, and cooling systems. Coagulant Aids (Flocculants) In certain instances, an excess of primary coagulant (whether inorganic, polymeric, or a combination of both) may be fed to promote large floc size and to increase settling rate. However, in some waters, even high doses of primary coagulant will not produce the desired effluent clarity. A polymeric coagulant aid added after the primary coagulant may, by developing

a larger floc at low treatment levels, reduce the amount of primary coagulant required. Generally, very high-molecular-weight, anionic polyacrylamides are the most effective coagulant aids. Nonionic or cationic types have proven successful in some clarifier systems. Essentially, the polymer bridges the small floc particles and causes them to agglomerate rapidly into larger, more cohesive flocs that settle quickly. The higher-molecular-weight polymers bridge suspended solids most effectively. Coagulant aids have proven quite successful in precipitation softening and clarification to achieve improved settling rates of precipitates and finished water clarity. Color Reduction Frequently, the objective of clarification is the re-duction of color. Swamps and wetlands introduce color into surface waters, particularly after heavy rainfalls. Color-causing materials can cause various problems, such as objectionable taste, increased microbiological content, fouling of anion exchange resins, and interference with coagulation and stabilization of silt, soluble iron, and manganese. Most organic color in surface waters is colloidal and negatively charged. Chemically, colorproducing compounds are classified as humic and fulvic acids. Color can be removed by chlorination and coagulation with aluminum or iron salts or organic polyelectrolytes. Chlorine oxidizes color compounds, while the inorganic coagulants can physically remove many types of organic color by neutralization of surface charges. The use of chlorine to oxidize organic color bodies may be limited due to the production of chlorinated organic by-products, such as trihalomethanes. Additional color removal is achieved by chemical interaction with aluminum or iron hydrolysis products. Highly charged cationic organic polyelectrolytes can also be used to coagulate some types of color particles. Coagulation for color reduction is normally carried out at pH 4.5 to 5.5. Optimum pH for turbidity removal is usually much higher than that for color reduction. The presence of sulfate ions can interfere with coagulation for color reduction, whereas calcium and magnesium ions can improve the process and broaden the pH range in which color may be reduced effectively. Conventional Clarification Equipment The coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation process requires three distinct unit processes: high shear, rapid mix for coagulation low shear, high retention time, moderate mixing for flocculation liquid and solids separation Horizontal Flow Clarifiers Originally, conventional clarification units consisted of large, rectangular, concrete basins divided into two or three sections. Each stage of the clarification process occurred in a single section of the basin. Water movement was horizontal with plug flow through these systems. Because the design is suited to large-capacity basins, horizontal flow units are still used in some large industrial plants and for clarifying municipal water. The retention time is normally long (up to 4-6 hr), and is chiefly devoted to settling. Rapid mix is typically designed for 3-5 min and slow mix for 15-30 min. This design affords great flexibility in establishing proper chemical addition points. Also, such units are relatively insensitive to sudden changes in water throughput. The long retention also allows sufficient reaction time to make necessary adjustments in chemical and polymer feed if raw water conditions suddenly change. However, for all but very

large treated water demands, horizontal units require high construction costs and more land space per unit of water capacity. Upflow Clarifiers Compact and relatively economical, upflow clarifiers provide coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation in a single (usually circular) steel or concrete tank. These clarifiers are termed "upflow" because the water flows up toward the effluent launders as the suspended solids settle. They are characterized by increased solids contact through internal sludge recirculation. This is a key feature in maintaining a high-clarity effluent and a major difference from horizontal clarifiers. Because retention time in an upflow unit is approximately 1-2 hr, upflow basins can be much smaller in size than horizontal basins of equal throughput capacity. A rise rate of 0.70-1.25 gpm/ft of surface area is normal for clarification. Combination softening-clarification units may operate at up to 1.5 gpm/ft of surface area due to particle size and densities of precipitated hardness. In order to achieve high throughput efficiency, upflow units are designed to maximize the linear overflow weir length while minimizing the opportunity for short-circuiting through the settling zone. In addition, the two mixing stages for coagulation and flocculation take place within the same clarification tank. Although upflow units may provide more efficient sedimentation than horizontal designs, many upflow clarifiers compromise on the rapid and slow mix sequences. Some types provide rapid, mechanical mixing and rely on flow turbulence for flocculation; others eliminate the rapid mix stage and provide only moderate turbulence for flocculation. However, in most cases, users can overcome rapid mix deficiencies by adding the primary coagulant further upstream of the clarifier. Figure 5-1 shows the rapid mix, slow mix, and settling zones of a typical upflow, solidscontact clarifier. Sludge Blanket and Solids-Contact Clarification Most upflow designs are called either "sludge blanket" or "solids-contact" clarifiers. After coagulation and/or flocculation in the sludge blanket units, the incoming water passes through the suspended layer of previously formed floc. Figure 5-2 shows an upflow sludge blanket clarifier. Because the centerwell in these units is often shaped like an inverted cone, the rise rate of the water decreases as it rises through the steadily enlarging cross section. When the rise rate decreases enough to equal the settling rate of the suspended floc exactly, a distinct sludge/liquid interface forms. Sludge blanket efficiency depends on the filtering action as the freshly coagulated or flocculated water passes through the suspended floc. Higher sludge levels increase the filtration efficiency. In practice, the top sludge interface is carried at the highest safe level to prevent upsets that might result in large amounts of floc carryover into the overflow. Excessive sludge withdrawal or blowdown should also be avoided. The sludge blanket level is often highly sensitive to changes in throughput, coagulant addition, and changes in raw water chemistry and temperature. "Solids-contact" refers to units in which large volumes of sludge are circulated internally. The term also describes the sludge blanket unit and simply means that prior to and during sedimentation the chemically treated water contacts previously coagulated solids. Solids-contact, slurry pool units do not rely on filtration as in sludge blanket designs. Solids-contact units often combine clarification and precipitation softening. Bringing the incoming raw water into contact with recirculated sludge improves the efficiency of the softening reactions

and increases the size and density of the floc particles. Figure 5-3 illustrates a typical solidscontact unit. In-Line Clarification In-line clarification is the process of removing raw water turbidity through the addition of coagulant just prior to filtration. In-line clarification is generally limited to raw waters with typical turbidities of less than 20 NTU, although upflow filters may tolerate higher loading. Polyelectrolytes and/or inorganic coagulants are used to improve filtration efficiency and run length. Polymers are favored because they do not create additional suspended solids loading, which can shorten filter run length. Filter design may be downflow or upflow, depending on raw water turbidity and particle size. The downflow dual-media unit generally consists of layers of various grades of anthracite and sand supported on a gravel bed. After backwashing, the larger anthracite particles separate to the top of the bed, while the more dense, smaller sand particles are at the bottom. The purpose is to allow bed penetration of the floc, which reduces the potential for excessive pressure drops due to blinding off the top portion of filter media. Thus, higher filtration rates are realized without a significant loss in effluent quality. Normal filtration rates are 5-6 gpm/ft. Coagulant Selection and Feeding for In-Line Clarification The choice of a polymer coagulant and feed rate depends on equipment design and influent water turbidity. Initially, in-line clarification was used in the treatment of low-turbidity waters, but it is now being used on many types of surface waters. For most waters, the use of a polymeric cationic coagulant alone is satisfactory. However, the addition of a high-molecular-weight, anionic polymer may improve filtration efficiency. Polymer feed rates are usually lower than those used in conventional clarification, given the same raw water characteristics. Complete charge neutralization and bridging are not necessary and should be avoided, because total coagulation or flocculation may promote excessive entrapment of suspended solids in the first portion of the filter media. This can cause blinding of the media, high pressure drops, and short operating runs. Sufficient polymer is applied only to initiate neutralization, which allows attraction and adsorption of particles through the entire bed. Often, polymer feed rates are regulated by trial and error on the actual units to minimize effluent turbidity and maximize service run length. Because optimum flocculation is undesirable, polymers are injected just upstream of the units. Normally, a short mixing period is required to achieve the degree of reaction most suitable for unit operation. Dilution water may be recommended to disperse the polymer properly throughout the incoming water. However, it may be necessary to move the polymer injection point several times to improve turbidity removal. Due to the nature of operation, a change of polymer feed rate will typically show a change in effluent turbidity in a relatively short period of time. Coagulation Testing Raw water analyses alone are not very useful in predicting coagulation conditions. Coagulation chemicals and appropriate feed rates must be selected according to operating experience with a given raw water or by simulation of the clarification step on a laboratory scale. Jar testing is the most effective way to simulate clarification chemistry and operation. A multiplepaddle, beaker arrangement (Figure 5-4) permits the comparison of various chemical combinations, all of which are subjected to identical hydraulic conditions. The effects of rapid and slow mix intensity and duration may also be observed. In addition to determining the optimum chemical program, it is possible to establish the correct

order of addition. The most critical measurements in the jar test are coagulant and/or flocculant dosages, pH, floc size and settling characteristics, floc-forming time, and finished water clarity. To simulate sludge circulation, sludge formed in one series of jar tests (or a sludge sample from an operating clarifier) may be added to the next jar test. Results of jar tests are only relative, and frequent adjustments are necessary in full-scale plant operation. Monitoring and control units, such as a streaming current detector, can be used for on-line feedback control. Zeta potential measurements have been used experimentally to predict coagulant requirements and optimum pH levels. Because the measurement technique requires special apparatus and a skilled technician, zeta potential has never become practical for controlling industrial water clarification plants. Also, because zeta potential measures only one aspect of the entire process, it may not reflect all conditions leading to coagulation efficiency. Chemical Additions The most efficient method for adding coagulation chemicals varies according to the type of water and system used, and must be checked by means of jar testing. However, there is a usual sequence: 1. chlorine 2. bentonite (for low-turbidity waters) 3. primary inorganic and/or polymer coagulant 4. pH-adjusting chemicals 5. coagulant aid Waters with a high organic content exhibit an increased primary coagulant demand. Chlorine may be used to assist coagulation by oxidizing organic contaminants which have dispersing properties. Chlorination prior to primary coagulant feed also reduces the coagulant dosage. When an inorganic coagulant is used, the addition of pH-adjusting chemicals prior to the coagulant establishes the proper pH environment for the primary coagulant. All treatment chemicals, with the exception of coagulant aids, should be added during very turbulent mixing of the influent water. Rapid mixing while the aluminum and iron coagulants are added ensures uniform cation adsorption onto the suspended matter. High shear mixing is especially important when cationic polymers are used as primary coagulants. In general, it is advisable to feed them as far ahead of the clarifier as possible. However, when a coagulant aid is added, high shear mixing must be avoided to prevent interference with the polymer's bridging function. Only moderate turbulence is needed to generate floc growth. Previous (Chapter 04 Aeration) Table of Contents Next (Chapter 06 Filtration)

Typ ical con stru ctio n Types of Media Mixed media filter beds Capping of sand filters Gravity filters Pressure filters Upflow filters Automatic gravity filters Continuous cleaning filters Filter washing-Gravity filters In-line clarification Precoat filtration Filtration is used in addition to regular coagulation and sedimentation for removal of solids from surface water or wastewater. This prepares the water for use as potable, boiler, or cooling makeup. Wastewater filtration helps users meet more stringent effluent discharge permit requirements. Filtration, usually considered a simple mechanical process, actually involves the mechanisms of adsorption (physical and chemical), straining, sedimentation, interception, diffusion, and inertial compaction. Filtration does not remove dissolved solids, but may be used together with a softening process, which does reduce the concentration of dissolved solids. For example, anthracite filtration is used to remove residual precipitated hardness salts remaining after clarification in precipitation softening. In most water clarification or softening processes where coagulation and precipitation occur, at least a portion of the clarified water is filtered. Clarifier effluents of 2-10 NTU may be improved to 0.1-1.0 NTU by conventional sand filtration. Filtration ensures acceptable suspended solids concentrations in the finished water even when upsets occur in the clarification processes. TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION Conventional gravity and pressure rapid filters operate downflow. The filter medium is usually a 15-30 in. deep bed of sand or anthracite. Single or multiple grades of sand or anthracite may be used. A large particle bed supports the filter media to prevent fine sand or anthracite from escaping into the underdrain system. The support bed also serves to distribute backwash water. Typical support beds consist of 1 8-1 in. gravel or anthracite in graded layers to a depth of 12-16 in. TYPES OF MEDIA Quartz sand, silica sand, anthracite coal, garnet, magnetite, and other materials may be used as filtration media. Silica sand and anthracite are the most commonly used types. When silica is not suitable (e.g., in filters following a hot process softener where the treated water is intended for boiler feed), anthracite is usually used. The size and shape of the filter media affect the efficiency of the solids removal. Sharp, angular media form large voids and remove less fine material than rounded media of equivalent size. The media must be coarse enough to allow solids to penetrate the bed for 2-4 in. Although most suspended solids are trapped at the surface or in the first 1-2 in. of bed depth, some penetration is essential to prevent a rapid increase in pressure drop.

Sand and anthracite for filters are rated by effective particle size and uniformity. The effective size is such that approximately 10% of the total grains by weight are smaller and 90% are larger. Therefore, the effective size is the minimum size of most of the particles. Uniformity is measured by comparison of effective size to the size at which 60% of the grains by weight are smaller and 40% are larger. This latter size, divided by the effective size, is called the uniformity coefficientthe smaller the uniformity coefficient, the more uniform the media particle sizes. Finer sands result in shallower zones for the retention of suspended matter. The most desirable media size depends on the suspended solids characteristics as well as the effluent quality requirements and the specific filter design. In general, rapid sand filters use sand with an effective size of 0.35-0.60 mm (0.014-0.024 in.) and a maximum uniformity coefficient of 1.7. Coarse media, often 0.6-1.0 mm (0.024-0.04 in.), are used for closely controlled coagulation and sedimentation. MIXED MEDIA FILTER BEDS The terms "multilayer," "in-depth," and "mixed media" apply to a type of filter bed which is graded by size and density. Coarse, less dense particles are at the top of the filter bed, and fine, more dense particles are at the bottom. Downflow filtration allows deep, uniform penetration by particulate matter and permits high filtration rates and long service runs. Because small particles at the bottom are also more dense (less space between particles), they remain at the bottom. Even after high-rate backwashing, the layers remain in their proper location in the mixed media filter bed. Table 6-1 lists four media that are used in multilayer filtration. Several other mixed media combinations have also been tested and used effectively. The use of too many different media layers can cause severe backwashing difficulties. For example, if all four materials listed in Table 6-1 were used in the same filter, a wash rate high enough to expand the magnetite layer might wash the anthracite from the filter. High wash water requirements would also result. Table 6-1. Media used in multilayer filtration. Media Anthracite Sand Garnet Magnetite Effective size, mm (in.) 0.7-1.7 (0.03-0.07) 0.3-0.7 (0.01-0.03) 0.4-0.6 (0.016-0.024) 0.3-0.5 (0.01-0.02) Specific gravity 1.4 2.6 3.8 4.9

Anthracite/sand filter beds normally provide all of the advantages of single-media filtration but require less backwash water than sand or anthracite alone. Similar claims have been made for anthracite/sand/garnet mixed units. The major advantages of dual-media filtration are higher rates and longer runs. Anthracite/sand/garnet beds have operated at normal rates of approximately 5 gpm/ft and peak rates as high as 8 gpm/ft without loss of effluent quality. CAPPING OF SAND FILTERS Rapid sand filters can be converted for mixed media operation to increase capacity by 100%. The cost of this conversion is much lower than that of installing additional rapid sand filters. Capping involves the replacement of a portion of the sand with anthracite. In this conversion, a 26 in. layer of 0.4-0.6 mm (0.016-0.024 in.) sand is removed from the surface of a bed and replaced with 4-8 in. of 0.9 mm (0.035 in.) anthracite. If an increase in capacity is desired, a larger amount of sand is replaced. Pilot tests should be run to ensure that a reduction in the depth of the finer sand does not reduce the quality of the effluent.

GRAVITY FILTERS Gravity filters (see Figure 6-1) are open vessels that depend on system gravity head for operation. Apart from the filter media, the essential components of a gravity filter include the following: The filter shell, which is either concrete or steel and can be square, rectangular, or circular. Rectangular reinforced concrete units are most widely used. The support bed, which prevents loss of fine sand or anthracite through the underdrain system. The support bed, usually 1-2 ft deep, also distributes backwash water. An underdrain system, which ensures uniform collection of filtered water and uniform distribution of backwash water. The system may consist of a header and laterals, with perforations or strainers spaced suitably. False tank bottoms with appropriately spaced strainers are also used for underdrain systems. Wash water troughs, large enough to collect backwash water without flooding. The troughs are spaced so that the horizontal travel of backwash water does not exceed 3-3 ft. In conventional sand bed units, wash troughs are placed approximately 2 ft above the filter surface. Sufficient freeboard must be provided to prevent loss of a portion of the filter media during operation at maximum backwash rates. Control devices that maximize filter operation efficiency. Flow rate controllers, operated by venturi tubes in the effluent line, automatically maintain uniform delivery of filtered water. Backwash flow rate controllers are also used. Flow rate and head loss gauges are essential for efficient operation. PRESSURE FILTERS Pressure filters are typically used with hot process softeners to permit high-temperature operation and to prevent heat loss. The use of pressure filters eliminates the need for repumping of filtered water. Pressure filters are similar to gravity filters in that they include filter media, supporting bed, underdrain system, and control device; however, the filter shell has no wash water troughs. Pressure filters, designed vertically or horizon-tally, have cylindrical steel shells and dished heads. Vertical pressure filters (see Figure 6-2) range in diameter from 1 to 10 ft with capacities as great as 300 gpm at filtration rates of 3 gpm/ft. Horizontal pressure filters, usually 8 ft in diameter, are 10-25 ft long with capacities from 200 to 600 gpm. These filters are separated into compartments to allow individual backwashing. Backwash water may be returned to the clarifier or softener for recovery. Pressure filters are usually operated at a service flow rate of 3 gpm/ft. Dual or multimedia filters are designed for 6-8 gpm/ft. At ambient temperature, the recommended filter backwash rate is 68 gpm/ft for anthracite and 13-15 gpm/ft for sand. Anthracite filters associated with hot process softeners require a backwash rate of 12-15 gpm/ft because the water is less dense at elevated operating temperatures. Cold water should not be used to backwash a hot process filter. This would cause expansion and contraction of the system metallurgy, which would lead to metal fatigue. Also, the oxygen-laden cold water would accelerate corrosion. UPFLOW FILTERS Upflow units contain a single filter mediumusually graded sand. The finest sand is at the top of the bed with the coarsest sand below. Gravel is retained by grids in a fixed position at the bottom of the unit. The function of the gravel is to ensure proper water distribution during the service cycle. Another grid above the graded sand prevents fluidization of the media. Air injection during cleaning (not considered backwash because the direction of flow is the same as when in-service)

assists in the removal of solids and the reclassification of the filter media. During operation, the larger, coarse solids are removed at the bottom of the bed, while smaller solids particles are allowed to penetrate further into the media. Typical service flow rates are 5-10 gpm/ft. An example of this unit is shown in Figure 6-3. AUTOMATIC GRAVITY FILTERS Several manufacturers have developed gravity filters that are backwashed automatically at a preset head loss. Head loss (water level above the media) actuates a backwash siphon and draws wash water from storage up through the bed and out through the siphon pipe to waste. A low level in the backwash storage section breaks the siphon, and the filter returns to service. Automatic gravity filters are available in diameters of up to 15 ft. When equipped with a high-rate, multilayer media, a single large-diameter unit can filter as much as 1,000 gpm. An example is shown in Figure 6-4. CONTINUOUS CLEANING FILTERS Continuous cleaning filter systems eliminate off-line backwash periods by backwashing sections of the filter or portions of the filter media continuously, on-line. Various designs have been introduced. An example is shown in Figure 6-5. FILTER WASHING-GRAVITY FILTERS Periodic washing of filters is necessary for the removal of accumulated solids. Inadequate cleaning permits the formation of permanent clumps, gradually decreasing filter capacity. If fouling is severe, the media must be cleaned chemically or replaced. For cleaning of rapid downflow filters, clean water is forced back up and through the media. In conventional gravity units, the backwash water lifts solids from the bed into wash troughs and carries them to waste. Either of two backwash techniques can be used, depending on the design of the media support structure and the accessory equipment available: High-rate backwash, which expands the media by at least 10%. Backwash rates of 12-15 gpm/ft or higher are common for sand, and rates for anthracite may range from 8 to 12 gpm/ft. Low-rate backwash, with no visible bed expansion, combined with air scouring.

Where only water is used for backwash, the backwash may be preceded by surface washing. In surface washing, strong jets of high-pressure water from fixed or revolving nozzles assist in breaking the filter surface crust. After the surface wash (when there is provision for surface washing), the unit is backwashed for approximately 5-10 min. Following backwash, a small amount of rinse water is filtered to waste, and the filter is returned to service. High-rate backwash can cause the formation of mud balls inside the filter bed. A high backwash rate and resulting bed expansion can produce random currents in which certain zones of the expanded bed move upward or downward. Encrusted solids from the surface can be carried down to form mud balls. Efficient surface washing helps prevent this condition. Air scouring with low-rate backwashing can break up the surface crust without producing random currents, if the underdrain system is de-signed to distribute air uniformly. Solids removed from the media collect in the layer of water between the media surface and wash channels. After the air is stopped, this dirty water is nor-mally flushed out by increased backwash water flow rate or by surface draining. Wash water consumption is approximately the same whether water-only or air/water backwashing is employed.

IN-LINE CLARIFICATION In-line clarification is the removal of suspended solids through the addition of in-line coagulant followed by rapid filtration. This process is also referred to as in-line filtration, or contact filtration. The process removes suspended solids without the use of sedimentation basins. Coagulation may be achieved in in-line clarification by either of two methods: an inorganic aluminum or iron salt used alone or with a high molecular weight polymeric coagulant a strongly cationic organic polyelectrolyte

Because metal hydroxides form precipitates, only dual-media filters should be used with inorganic coagulant programs. Floc particles must be handled in filters with coarse-to-fine graded media to prevent rapid blinding of the filter and eliminate backwashing difficulties. Where a high molecular weight polymeric coagulant is used, feed rates of less than 0.1 ppm maximize solids removal by increasing floc size and promoting particle absorption within the filter. This filtration technique readily yields effluent turbidities of less than 0.5 NTU. Figure 6-6. The second method of coagulant pretreatment involves the use of a single chemical, a strongly charged cationic polyelectrolyte. This treatment forms no precipitation floc particles, and usually no floc formation is visible in the filter influent. Solids are removed within the bed by adsorption and by flocculation of colloidal matter directly onto the surface of the sand or anthracite media. The process may be visualized as seeding of the filter bed surfaces with positive cationic charges to produce a strong pull on the negatively charged particles. Because gelatinous hydroxide precipitates are not present in this process, single- media or upflow filters are suitable for polyelectrolyte clarification. In-line clarification provides an excellent way to improve the efficiency of solids removal from turbid surface waters. Effluent turbidity levels of less than 1 NTU are common with this method. PRECOAT FILTRATION Precoat filtration is used to remove very small particulate matter, oil particles, and even bacteria from water. This method is practical only for relatively small quantities of water which contain low concentrations of contaminants. Precoat filtration may be used following conventional clarification processes to produce water of very low suspended solids content for specific application requirements. For example, precoat filters are often used to remove oil from contaminated condensate. In precoat filtration, the precoat media, typically diatomaceous earth, acts as the filter media and forms a cake on a permeable base or septum. The base must prevent passage of the precoat media without restricting the flow of filtered water and must be capable of withstanding high pressure differentials. Filter cloths, porous stone tubes, porous paper, wire screens, and wirewound tubes are used as base materials. The supporting base material is first precoated with a slurry of precoat media. Additional slurry (body feed) is usually added during the filter run. When the accumulation of matter removed by filtration generates a high pressure drop across the filter, the filter coating is sloughed off by backwashing. The filter bed is then precoated and returned to service. Chemical coagulants are not usually needed but have been used where an ultrapure effluent is required. Previous (Chapter 05 Clarification) Table of Contents Next (Chapter 07 Precipitation Softening)

Ch emi stry of pre cipit atio n soft eni ng Cold lime softening Warm lime softening Hot process softening Silica reduction Alkalinity reduction Reduction of other contaminants Precipitation process (chemical) control Equipment employed Limitations

Precipitation softening processes are used to reduce raw water hardness, alkalinity, silica, and other constituents. This helps prepare water for direct use as cooling tower makeup or as a firststage treatment followed by ion exchange for boiler makeup or process use. The water is treated with lime or a combination of lime and soda ash (carbonate ion). These chemicals react with the hardness and natural alkalinity in the water to form insoluble compounds. The compounds precipitate and are removed from the water by sedimentation and, usually, filtration. Waters with moderate to high hardness and alkalinity concentrations (150-500 ppm as CaCO3) are often treated in this fashion. Chemistry of Precipitation Softening In almost every raw water supply, hardness is present as calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, often referred to as carbonate hardness or temporary hardness. These compounds result from the action of acidic, carbon dioxide laden rain water on naturally occurring minerals in the earth, such as limestone. For example: CO2 carbon dioxide H2CO3 carbonic acid + + H2O water CaCO3 calcium carbonate = H2CO3 carbonic acid = Ca(HCO3)2 calcium bicarbonate

Hardness may also be present as a sulfate or chloride salt, referred to as noncarbonate or permanent hardness. These salts are caused by mineral acids present in rain water or the solution of naturally occurring acidic minerals. The significance of "carbonate" or "temporary" hardness as contrasted to "noncarbonate" or "permanent" hardness is that the former may be reduced in concentration simply by heating. In effect, heating reverses the solution reaction:

Ca(HCO3)2 calcium bicarbonate

Heat = CaCO3 calcium carbonate

H2O + water

CO2 carbon dioxide

Reduction of noncarbonate hardness, by contrast, requires chemical addition. A combination of lime and soda ash, along with coagulant and flocculant chemicals, is added to raw water to promote a precipitation reaction. This allows softening to take place. Cold Lime Softening Precipitation softening accomplished at ambient temperatures is referred to as cold lime softening. When hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2, is added to the water being treated, the following reactions occur: CO2 carbon dioxid e Ca(HCO3)2 + calcium hydroxide calcium carbonate water + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + H2O

Ca(OH)2

2CaCO3

2H2O

calcium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2 magnesium bicarbonate +

calcium hydroxide 2Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide = Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide +

calcium carbonate 2CaCO3 calcium carbonate +

water 2H2O water

If the proper chemical control is maintained on lime feed, the calcium hardness may be reduced to 35-50 ppm. Magnesium reduction is a function of the amount of hydroxyl (OH-) alkalinity excess maintained. Figures 7-1 and 7-2 show these relationships. Noncarbonate or permanent calcium hardness, if present, is not affected by treatment with lime alone. If noncarbonate magnesium hardness is present in an amount greater than 70 ppm and an excess hydroxyl alkalinity of about 5 ppm is maintained, the magnesium will be reduced to about 70 ppm, but the calcium will increase in proportion to the magnesium reduction. For example, in cold lime treatment of a water containing 110 ppm of calcium, 95 ppm of magnesium, and at least 110 ppm of alkalinity (all expressed as calcium carbonate), calcium could theoretically be reduced to 35 ppm and the magnesium to about 70 ppm. However, an additional 25 ppm of calcium would be expected in the treated water due to the following reactions: MgSO4 magnesium sulfate MgCl2 magnesium chloride + + Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 calcium = = Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide + + CaSO4 calciu m sulfate CaCl2 calcium chloride

To improve magnesium reduction, which also improves silica reduction in cold process softening, sodium aluminate may be used. The sodium aluminate provides hydroxyl ion (OH-) needed for improved magnesium reduction, without increasing calcium hardness in the treated water. In addition, the hydrolysis of sodium aluminate results in the formation of aluminum hydroxide, which aids in floc formation, sludge blanket conditioning, and silica reduction. The reactions are as follows: Na2Al2O4 sodium aluminate + 4H2O water = 2Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide + 2NaOH sodium hydroxide

Mg

SO4 Cl2

] +

2NaOH sodium hydroxide

Mg(OH)2 + [ Na2SO4 ] 2NaCl magnesium hydroxide sodium sulfate/ chloride

magnesium

sulfate/ chloride

Soda ash (Na2CO3) may be used to improve hardness reduction. It reacts with noncarbonate calcium hardness according to the following:

CaSO4 calciu m sulfate CaCl2 calcium chloride

Na2CO3 sodium carbonate

CaCO3 calcium carbonate

+ Na2SO4 sodium sulfate + 2NaCl sodium chloride

Na2CO3 sodium carbonate

CaCO3 calcium carbonate

However, noncarbonate magnesium hardness reduction in cold process softening requires added lime. The reactions are as follows: MgSO4 magnesium sulfate MgCl2 magnesium chloride + + Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide + + Na2CO3 sodium carbonate Na2CO3 sodium carbonate = = Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide + + CaCO3 calcium carbonate CaCO3 calcium carbonate + Na2SO4 sodium sulfate + 2NaCl sodium chloride

In these reactions, dissolved solids are not reduced because a solution reaction product (sodium sulfate or sodium chloride) is formed. Warm Lime Softening The warm lime softening process operates in the temperature range of 120-140F (49-60C). The solubilities of calcium, magnesium, and silica are reduced by increased temperature. Therefore, they are more effectively removed by warm lime softening than by cold lime softening. This process is used for the following purposes: To recover waste heat as an energy conservation measure. The water to be treated is heated by a waste stream, such as boiler blowdown or low-pressure exhaust steam, to recover the heat content. To prepare feed to a demineralization system. The lower levels of calcium, magnesium, and especially silica reduce the ionic loading on the demineralizer when warm limesoftened water is used rather than cold lime-softened water. This may reduce both the capital and operating costs of the demineralizer. However, most strong base anion resins have a temperature limitation of 140F (60C); therefore, additional increases in temperature are not acceptable for increasing the effectiveness of contaminant reduction. To lower the blowdown discharge from cooling systems. Cooling tower blowdown may be treated with lime and soda ash or caustic to reduce calcium and magnesium levels so that much of the blowdown may be returned to the cooling system. Silica levels in the recirculating cooling water are also controlled in this manner. In any warm lime or warm lime-soda ash process, temperature control is critical because temperature variations of as little as 4F/hr (2C/hr) can cause gross carryover of the softener pricipitates. Hot Process Softening Hot process softening is usually carried out under pressure at temperatures of 227-240F (108

116C). At the operating temperature, hot process softening reactions go essentially to completion. This treatment method involves the same reactions described above, except that raw water CO2 is vented and does not participate in the lime reaction. The use of lime and soda ash permits hardness reduction down to 0.5 gr/gal, or about 8 ppm, as calcium carbonate. Magnesium is reduced to 2-5 ppm because of the lower solubility of magnesium hydroxide at the elevated temperatures. Silica Reduction Hot process softening can also provide very good silica reduction. The silica reduction is accomplished through adsorption of the silica on the magnesium hydroxide precipitate. If there is insufficient magnesium present in the raw water to reduce silica to the desired level, magnesium compounds (such as magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, magnesium carbonate, or dolomitic lime) may be used. Figure 7-3 is a plot of magnesium oxide vs. raw water silica (in ppm), which may be used to estimate the quantity of magnesium oxide required to reduce silica to the levels indicated . Magnesium oxide is the preferred chemical because it does not increase the dissolved solids concentration of the water. Good sludge contact enhances silica reduction. To ensure optimum contact, sludge is frequently recirculated back to the inlet of the unit. Cold or warm process softening is not as effective as hot process softening for silica reduction. However, added magnesium oxide and good sludge contact will improve results. Predicted analyses of a typical raw water treated by various lime and lime-soda softening processes are presented in Table 7-1. Table 7-1. Typical softener effluent analyses. Removal of Calcium Alkalinity Cold-Lime 145 Lime-soda Softening (Cold) 81 Lime-soda Softening (Hot) 20 Lime Softening (Hot) 120

Raw Water Total Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm Magnesium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm "P" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm "M" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm Silica (as SiO2), ppm pH 250

150

85

35

15

115

100

60

46

27

37

23

18

150 20 7.5

44 19 10.3

55 18 10.6

40 1-2 10.5

28 1-2 10.4

Reduction of Other Contaminants Treatment by lime precipitation reduces alkalinity. However, if the raw water alkalinity exceeds

the total hardness, sodium bicarbonate alkalinity is present. In such cases, it is usually necessary to reduce treated water alkalinity in order to reduce condensate system corrosion or permit increased cycles of concentration. Treatment by lime converts the sodium bicarbonate in the raw water to sodium carbonate as follows: 2NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate + Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide = CaCO3 + calcium carbonate Na2CO3 sodium carbonate + 2H2O water

Calcium sulfate (gypsum) may be added to reduce the carbonate to required levels. The reaction is as follows: Na2CO3 sodium carbonate + CaSO4 calciu m sulfate = CaCO3 calcium carbonate + Na2SO4 sodiumsulfate

This is the same reaction involved in the reduction of noncarbonate calcium hardness previously discussed. Table 7-2 shows the treated water alkalinity relationships to be expected in lime-soda ash softened water. Table 7-2. Alkalinity relationships as determined by titrations. Hydroxide Carobnate P=O P=M 2P = M 2P < M 2P > M O P O O 2P - M O O 2P 2P 2(M - P) Bicarbonate M O O M - 2P M - 2P

Reduction of Other Contaminants Lime softening processes, with the usual filters, will reduce oxidized iron and manganese to about 0.05 and 0.01 ppm, respectively. Raw water organics (color-contributing colloids) are also reduced. Turbidity, present in most surface supplies, is reduced to about 1.0 NTU with filtration following chemical treatment. Raw water turbidity in excess of 100 NTU may be tolerated in these systems; however, it may be necessary to coagulate raw water solids with a cationic polymer before the water enters the softener vessel to assist liquid-solids separation. Oil may also be removed by adsorption on the precipitates formed during treatment. However, oil in concentrations above about 30 ppm should be reduced before lime treatment because higher concentrations of oil may exert a dispersing influence and cause floc carryover. Precipitation Process (Chemical) Control Lime or lime-soda softener control is usually based on treated water alkalinity and hardness. Samples are tested to determine the alkalinity to the P (phenolphthalein, pH 8.3) and M (methyl orange or methyl purple, pH 4.3) end points. The following relationships apply: P (ppm as CaCO3) = OH+ CO32
-

hydroxyl M (ppm CaCO3) = OH

carbonate
-

CO32

HCO3

hydroxyl

carbonate

bicarbonate

In the presence of hydroxyl ion (OH-), bicarbonate concentration is so low that it may be assumed to be zero. In the precipitation process, it is advisable to ensure that all of the bicarbonate has been converted to carbonate (the least soluble form of the calcium); therefore, a slight excess of hydroxyl ion should be maintained in the treated water. When the equations above are combined, it can be shown that when 2P - M is positive, hydroxyl ion is present. The usual control range is: 2P M = 5-15 ppm This corresponds to a pH of approximately 10.2. If soda ash is also used, the control is on the excess carbonate ion. As shown in Figure 7-1 (above), excess carbonate will depress the calcium to the level desired. The usual control range for hot lime-soda units is:

M (alkalinity) - TH (total hardness)

20-40 ppm

For cold lime-soda softening, where effluent magnesium hardness is significantly greater than in hot lime or soda, the control range above may be inappropriate. For cold limesoda units, soda ash can be controlled such that: 2(M - P) - Calcium hardness = 20-40 ppm

Care must be exercised in the specification of soda ash control ranges. If the softened water is to be used as boiler feedwater, hardness removal by the addition of soda ash may not be worth the cost of the resulting increase in steam condensate system corrosion. This corrosion is caused by the higher levels of carbon dioxide in the steam resulting from the higher carbonate alkalinity of the feedwater. Coagulants/Flocculants/Sludge Conditioners Organic polymer flocculants and coagulants are preferred over inorganic salts of aluminum or iron. Polymers add minimal dissolved solids to the water and their use results in reduced sludge quantity compared to the use of inorganic coagulants. Inorganic coagulants must react with raw water alkalinity to form the metallic precipitate that aids in clarification and sludge bed conditioning. For example, alum reacts as follows: 3Ca(HCO3)2 calcium bicarbonate + Al2(SO4)3 aluminum calciumsulfate sulfate hydroxide = 3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3 aluminum + 6CO2 carbon dioxide

The precipitated aluminum hydroxide is incorporated within the sludge produced by the softening reactions. This increases the fluidity of the softener sludge, which allows for increased solids contact, improving softening and effluent clarity. Waters producing high calcium-to-magnesium precipitation ratios usually need sludge bed conditioning chemical feed for proper operation. Specialized organic polymers are available for proper conditioning of the sludge bed without the use of inorganic salts.

Four potentially adverse effects of using inorganic salts may be noted: The inorganic salt reduces the alkalinity. This converts the hardness to noncarbonate hardness, which is not affected by lime. As a result, inorganic salts increase hardness in water that is naturally deficient in bicarbonate alkalinity. When the water is to be treated further by ion exchange, regenerant consumption is increased. This is due to the higher hardness and the added soluble sulfate/chloride load. The carbon dioxide generated by the reaction has a lime demand which is twice that of the bicarbonate. Therefore, increased chemical addition is required. Soluble aluminum in the softener effluent interferes with softened water alkalinity titrations, even when very low levels of soluble aluminum exist. This interference, which necessitates an increase in lime feed, causes falsely low (2P - M) readings and may be partly responsible for the additional removal of magnesium seen when aluminum salts are used. Equipment Employed Cold Process The first cold lime-soda softening was carried out in "batch" fashion. An excess of treating chemicals was mixed with the water in a large basin. After approximately 4 hr, the treated water was decanted from the basin, leaving the settled precipitates in the basin. Today, continuous sludge-contact softeners (see Figures 7-4 and 7-5 ) are used to provide a constant flow with effluent quality superior to that obtained through batch treatment. Treating chemicals are added as a function of flow rate and water quality to the rapid mix zone of the unit. Sludge, recirculated either internally or externally to the unit, may be returned to this rapid mix zone for improved softening, softened water clarity, and silica reduction. The water then flows to the slow mix zone of the unit. Here, the precipitation reactions continue and the precipitates formed become large enough to begin settling. In the sludge-contact unit, the water flows through a bed of sludge for additional contact. The sludge level is maintained by the proper combination of sludge bed conditioning chemicals, mechanical agitation, hydraulic suspension, and sludge blowdown. A discernible line of separation between clarified water and slurry pool should exist in a properly operated unit. Effluent turbidity is usually less than 10 NTU. Flow rate is usually limited to less than 1.5 gpm/ft2 of settling area. A retention time of 1 hr is required to allow the softening reactions to come as close to completion as possible. Because the reactions in cold process softening are not complete, the water contaminant levels leaving the unit are unstable. With additional time and/or increased temperature, further precipitation will occur downstream of the unit. Frequently, acid or carbon dioxide is added to stabilize the water. The pH is reduced from about 10.2 to between 8.0 and 9.0, which converts the carbonate to the more soluble bicarbonate. Ionically, the reaction is: H+ hydrogen carbonateion ion + CO32
-

HCO3

bicarbonate ion

A typical cold lime softener system is shown in Figure 7-6 . Hot Process Two hot process softener designs are illustrated in Figures 7-7 and 7-8 . The former, the simplest

in design and fabrication, is referred to as a "downflow" unit. The latter, which incorporates additional features, is referred to as an "upflow" unit. Many variations in design of both units exist, but the principle of operation is quite similar. In each unit, water is admitted to the top of the vessel designed to operate at 5-15 psig saturated steam pressure (227-240F, 108-116C). An inlet valve is used to control the inlet water flow as a function of the operating level of the vessel. The water is sprayed into the steam space of the unit and is heated to within 2 or 3 degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. Heating reduces the noncondensible gas content of the water. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are released and vented to the atmosphere with a controlled loss of heating steam. Although they are not deaerators, hot process units reduce oxygen to about 0.3 ppm (0.21 cm/L) and carbon dioxide to 0. This residual oxygen level in the high-temperature water is aggressive and will attack downstream equipment such as filters and zeolites. Therefore, users should consider feeding a chemical oxygen scavenger to the effluent of hot process softeners. Treatment chemicals are introduced into the top of the vessel as a function of flow and raw water analysis. Although the reactions go essentially to completion quite rapidly, a minimum of 1 hr of retention is designed into the unit. Also, flow rate through the unit is limited to 1.7-2.0 gpm/ft. Filter backwash water may be withdrawn from the outlet of the unit, from the filtered water header, or from internal or external storage. Internal storage compartments are illustrated in Figure 7-8. Filter backwash water is usually returned to the unit for recovery. In the downflow design, the water leaves the vessel after reversing direction and enters the internal hood. Precipitates separate from the water at the hood and continue downward into the cone for removal by blowdown. Sludge blowdown is proportioned to raw water flow. For improved silica reduction, sludge is recirculated from the cone back to the top of the unit. For optimum silica reduction, a sludge-contact unit (shown in Figure 7-8) is used. Water and chemicals enter the top of the unit and flow to the bottom of the softener through a downcomer. The sludge level is maintained in such a way that the downcomer always discharges into the sludge bed. This ensures good contact with the sludge, which is rich in magnesium hydroxide. Also, the sludge bed acts as a filter, entrapping finer solids before the water exits near the top of the vessel. Sludge recycle may also be used. The upflow design also lends itself to easier incorporation of internal compartments for filter backwash storage and return, and condensate or treated water deaeration. Limitations Given proper consideration of raw water quality and ultimate end use of the treated water, the application of precipitation processes has few limitations. However, operational difficulties may be encountered unless the following factors are controlled: Temperature. Cold and warm units are subject to carryover if the temperature varies more than 4F/hr (2C/hr). Hot process units are less sensitive to slight temperature variations. However, a clogged or improper spray pattern can prevent proper heating of the water, and carryover can result. Hydraulics. In any system, steady-state operation within design limits optimizes the performance of the equipment. Rapid flow variations can cause severe system upsets. Suitable treated water storage capacity should be incorporated into the total system design to minimize load swings on the softener. Chemical Control. This should be as precise as possible to prevent poor water quality. Because of the comparatively constant quality of most well waters, changes in chemical

feed rates are largely a function of flow only. However, surface water quality may vary hourly. Therefore, for proper control, it is imperative that users perform frequent testing of the raw water as well as the treated effluent, and adjust chemical feed accordingly. Previous (Chapter 06 Filtration) Table of Contents Next (Chapter 08 Ion Exchange)

Hist ory Classifications of ion exchange resins Sodium zeolite softening Hot zeolite softening Demineralization Dealkalization Counterflow and mixed bed deionization Other demineralization processes Condensate polishing Common ion exchange system problems Resin fouling and degradation Resin testing and analysis All natural waters contain, in various concentrations, dissolved salts which dissociate in water to form charged ions. Positively charged ions are called cations; negatively charged ions are called anions. Ionic impurities can seriously affect the reliability and operating efficiency of a boiler or process system. Overheating caused by the buildup of scale or deposits formed by these impurities can lead to catastrophic tube failures, costly production losses, and unscheduled downtime. Hardness ions, such as calcium and magnesium, must be removed from the water supply before it can be used as boiler feedwater. For high-pressure boiler feedwater systems and many process systems, nearly complete removal of all ions, including carbon dioxide and silica, is required. Ion exchange systems are used for efficient removal of dissolved ions from water. Ion exchangers exchange one ion for another, hold it temporarily, and then release it to a regenerant solution. In an ion exchange system, undesirable ions in the water supply are replaced with more acceptable ions. For example, in a sodium zeolite softener, scale-forming calcium and magnesium ions are replaced with sodium ions. HISTORY In 1905, Gans, a German chemist, used synthetic aluminosilicate materials known as zeolites in the first ion exchange water softeners. Although aluminosilicate materials are rarely used today, the term "zeolite softener" is commonly used to describe any cation exchange process. The synthetic zeolite exchange material was soon replaced by a naturally occurring material called Greensand. Greensand had a lower exchange capacity than the synthetic material, but its greater physical stability made it more suitable for industrial applications. Capacity is defined as the amount of exchangeable ions a unit quantity of resin will remove from a solution. It is usually expressed in kilograins per cubic foot as calcium carbonate. Figure 8-1. Microscopic view of cellular resin beads (20-50 mesh) of a sulfonated styrenedivinylbenzene strong acid cation exhcanger. (Courtesy of Rohm and Haas Company.)

The development of a sulfonated coal cation exchange medium, referred to as carbonaceous zeolite, extended the application of ion exchange to hydrogen cycle operation, allowing for the reduction of alkalinity as well as hardness. Soon, an anion exchange resin (a condensation product of polyamines and formaldehyde) was developed. The new anion resin was used with the hydrogen cycle cation resin in an attempt to demineralize (remove all dissolved salts from) water. However, early anion exchangers were unstable and could not remove such weakly ionized acids as silicic and carbonic acid. In the middle 1940's, ion exchange resins were developed based on the copolymerization of styrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene. These resins were very stable and had much greater exchange capacities than their predecessors. The polystyrene-divinylbenzene-based anion exchan-ger could remove all anions, including silicic and carbonic acids. This innovation made the complete demineralization of water possible. Polystyrene-divinylbenzene resins are still used in the majority of ion exchange applications. Although the basic resin components are the same, the resins have been modified in many ways to meet the requirements of specific applications and provide a longer resin life. One of the most significant changes has been the development of the macroreticular, or macroporous, resin structure. Standard gelular resins, such as those shown in Figure 8-1, have a permeable membrane structure. This structure meets the chemical and physical requirements of most applications. However, in some applications the physical strength and chemical resistance required of the resin structure is beyond the capabilities of the typical gel structure. Macroreticular resins feature discrete pores within a highly cross-linked polystyrene-divinylbenzene matrix. These resins possess a higher physical strength than gels, as well as a greater resistance to thermal degradation and oxidizing agents. Macroreticular anion resins (Figure 8-2) are also more resistant to organic fouling due to their more porous structure. In addition to polystyrenedivinylbenzene resins (Figure 8-3), there are newer resins with an acrylic structure, which increases their resistance to organic fouling. In addition to a plastic matrix, ion exchange resin contains ionizable functional groups. These functional groups consist of both positively charged cation elements and negatively charged anion elements. However, only one of the ionic species is mobile. The other ionic group is attached to the bead structure. Figure 8-4 is a schematic illustration of a strong acid cation exchange resin bead, which has ionic sites consisting of immobile anionic (SO3) radicals and mobile sodium cations (Na+). Ion exchange occurs when raw water ions diffuse into the bead structure and exchange for the mobile portion of the functional group. Ions displaced from the bead diffuse back into the water solution. CLASSIFICATIONS OF ION EXCHANGE RESINS Ionizable groups attached to the resin bead determine the functional capability of the resin. Industrial water treatment resins are classified into four basic categories: Strong Acid Cation (SAC) Weak Acid Cation (WAC) Strong Base Anion (SBA) Weak Base Anion (WBA)

SAC resins can neutralize strong bases and convert neutral salts into their corresponding acids. SBA resins can neutralize strong acids and convert neutral salts into their corresponding bases.

These resins are utilized in most softening and full demineralization applications. WAC and WBA resins are able to neutralize strong bases and acids, respectively. These resins are used for dealkalization, partial demineralization, or (in combination with strong resins) full demineralization. SAC resins derive their functionality from sulfonic acid groups (HSO3). When used in demineralization, SAC resins remove nearly all raw water cations, replacing them with hydrogen ions, as shown below:

The exchange reaction is reversible. When its capacity is exhausted, the resin can be regenerated with an excess of mineral acid. Strong acid cation exchangers function well at all pH ranges. These resins have found a wide range of applications. For example, they are used in the sodium cycle (sodium as the mobile ion) for softening and in the hydrogen cycle for decationization. Weak acid cation exchange resins derive their exchange activity from a carboxylic group (COOH). When operated in the hydrogen form, WAC resins remove cations that are associated with alkalinity, producing carbonic acid as shown:

These reactions are also reversible and permit the return of the exhausted WAC resin to the regenerated form. WAC resins are not able to remove all of the cations in most water supplies. Their primary asset is their high regeneration efficiency in comparison with SAC resins. This high efficiency reduces the amount of acid required to regenerate the resin, thereby reducing the waste acid and minimizing disposal problems. Weak acid cation resins are used primarily for softening and dealkalization of high-hardness, high-alkalinity waters, frequently in conjunction with SAC sodium cycle polishing systems. In full demineralization systems, the use of WAC and SAC resins in combination provides the economy of the more efficient WAC resin along with the full exchange capabilities of the SAC resin. SBA resins derive their functionality from quaternary ammonium functional groups. Two types of quaternary ammonium groups, referred to as Type I and Type II, are used. Type I sites have three methyl groups:

In a Type II resin one of the methyl groups is replaced with an ethanol group. The Type I resin has a greater stability than the Type II resin and is able to remove more of the weakly ionized acids. Type II resins provide a greater regeneration efficiency and a greater capacity for the same amount of regenerant chemical used. When in the hydroxide form, SBA resins remove all commonly encountered anions as shown

below:

As with the cation resins, these reactions are reversible, allowing for the regeneration of the resin with a strong alkali, such as caustic soda, to return the resin to the hydroxide form. Weak base resin functionality originates in primary (R-NH2), secondary (R-NHR'), or tertiary (RNR'2) amine groups. WBA resins readily re-move sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, as represented by the following reaction:

SODIUM ZEOLITE SOFTENING Sodium zeolite softening is the most widely applied use of ion exchange. In zeolite softening, water containing scale-forming ions, such as calcium and magnesium, passes through a resin bed containing SAC resin in the sodium form. In the resin, the hardness ions are exchanged with the sodium, and the sodium diffuses into the bulk water solution. The hardness-free water, termed soft water, can then be used for low to medium pressure boiler feedwater, reverse osmosis system makeup, some chemical processes, and commercial applications, such as laundries. Principles of Zeolite Softening The removal of hardness from water by a zeolite softening process is described by the following reaction:

Water from a properly operated zeolite softener is nearly free from detectable hardness. However, some small amounts of hardness, known as leakage, are present in the treated water. The level of hardness leakage is dependent on the hardness and sodium level in the influent water and the amount of salt used for regeneration. Figure 8-5 is a typical profile of effluent hardness from a zeolite softener during a service cycle. After final rinse, the softener produces a low, nearly constant level of hardness until the ion exchange resin nears exhaustion. At exhaustion, the effluent hardness increases sharply, and regeneration is required. As illustrated by the softening reactions, SAC resin readily accepts calcium and magnesium ions in exchange for sodium ions. When exhausted resin is regenerated, a high concentration of sodium ions is applied to the resin to replace calcium and magnesium. The resin is treated with a 10% sodium chloride solution, and regeneration proceeds according to the following equation:

During regeneration, a large excess of regenerant (approximately 3 times the amount of calcium and magnesium in the resin) is used. The eluted hardness is removed from the softening unit in the waste brine and by rinsing. After regeneration, small residual amounts of hardness remain in the resin. If resin is allowed to sit in a stagnant vessel of water, some hardness will diffuse into the bulk water. Therefore, at the initiation of flow, the water effluent from a zeolite softener can contain hardness even if it has been regenerated recently. After a few minutes of flow, the hardness is rinsed from the softener, and the treated water is soft. The duration of a service cycle depends on the rate of softener flow, the hardness level in the water, and the amount of salt used for regeneration. Table 8-1 shows the effect of regenerant level on the softening capacity of a gelular strong cation resin. Note that the capacity of the resin increases as the regenerant dosage increases, but the increase is not proportional. The regeneration is less efficient at the higher regenerant levels. Therefore, softener operating costs increase as the regenerant level increases. As shown by the data in Table 8-1, a 150% increase in regenerant salt provides only a 67% increase in operating capacity. Table 8-1. Effect of regenerant salt level on strong acid cation resin softening capacity. Table 8-1. Effect of regenerant salt level on strong acid cation resin softening capacity. Salt (lb/ft3) 6 8 10 15 Equipment The equipment used for sodium zeolite softening consists of a softener exchange vessel, control valves and piping, and a system for brining, or regenerating, the resin. Usually, the softener tank is a vertical steel pressure vessel with dished heads as shown in Figure 8-6. Major features of the softening vessel include an inlet distribution system, free-board space, a regenerant distribution system, ion exchange resin, and a resin-retaining underdrain collection system. The inlet distribution system is usually located at the top of the tank. The inlet system provides even distribution of influent water. This prevents the water from hollowing out flow channels in the resin bed, which would reduce system capacity and effluent quality. The inlet system also acts as a collector for backwash water. The inlet distributor consists of a central header/hub with distributing laterals/radials or simple baffle plates, which direct the flow of water evenly over the resin bed. If water is not prevented from flowing directly onto the bed or tank walls, channeling will result. The volume between the inlet distributor and the top of the resin bed is called the free-board space. The free-board allows for the expansion of the resin during the backwash portion of the regeneration without loss of resin. It should be a minimum of 50% of the resin volume (80% preferred). The regenerant distributor is usually a header-lateral system that evenly distributes the regenerant brine during regeneration. The location of the distributor, 6 in. above the top of the resin bed, prevents the dilution of regenerant by water in the free-board space. It also reduces water and time requirements for displacement and fast rinse. The regenerant distributor should be secured to the tank structure to prevent breakage and subsequent channeling of the Capacity (gr/ft3) 18,000 20,000 24,000 30,000

regenerant. Water is softened by the bed of strong acid cation exchange resin in the sodium form. The quantity of resin required depends on the water flow, total hardness, and time desired between regeneration cycles. A minimum bed depth of 24 in. is recommended for all systems. The underdrain system, located at the bottom of the vessel, retains ion exchange resin in the tank, evenly collects the service flow, and evenly distributes the backwash flow. Uneven collection of water in service or uneven distribution of the backwash water can result in channeling, resin fouling, or resin loss. Although several underdrain designs are used, there are two primary typessubfill and resinretaining. A subfill system consists of multiple layers of support media (such as graded gravel or anthracite) which support the resin, and a collection system incorporating drilled pipes or subfill strainers. As long as the support layers remain intact, the resin will remain in place. If the supporting media becomes disturbed, usually due to improper backwash, the resin can move through the disrupted layers and exit the vessel. A resin-retaining collector, such as a screened lateral or profile wire strainer, is more expensive than a subfill system but protects against resin loss. The main valve and piping system directs the flow of water and regenerant to the proper locations. The valve system consists of a valve nest or a single multiport valve. A valve nest includes six main valves: service inlet and outlet, backwash inlet and outlet, regenerant inlet, and regenerant/rinse drain. The valves may be operated manually, or automatically controlled by air, electrical impulse, or water pressure. In some systems, a single multiport valve is used in place of the valve nest. As the valve rotates through a series of fixed positions, ports in the valve direct flow in the same manner as a valve nest. Multiport valves can eliminate operational errors caused by opening of the incorrect valve but must be properly maintained to avoid leaks through the port seals. The brining system consists of salt dissolving/brine measuring equipment, and dilution control equipment to provide the desired regenerant strength. The dissolving/measuring equipment is designed to provide the correct amount of concentrated brine (approximately 26% NaCl) for each regeneration, without allowing any undissolved salt into the resin. Most systems use a floatoperated valve to control the fill and draw-down of the supply tank, thereby controlling the amount of salt used in the regeneration. Usually, the concentrated brine is removed from the tank by means of an eductor system, which also dilutes the brine to the optimum regenerant strength (8-10% NaCl). The brine can also be pumped from the concentrated salt tank and mixed with dilution water to provide the desired regenerant strength. Softener Operation A sodium zeolite softener operates through two basic cycles: the service cycle, which produces soft water for use, and the regeneration cycle, which restores resin capacity at exhaustion. In the service cycle, water enters the softener through the inlet distribution system and flows through the bed. The hardness ions diffuse into the resin and exchange with sodium ions, which return to the bulk water. Soft water is collected in the underdrain system and discharged. Service water flow to the softener should be as constant as possible to prevent sudden surges and frequent on-off operation. Due to resin requirements and vessel designs, the softening operation is most efficient when a service flow rate between 6 and 12 gpm per square foot of resin surface area is maintained. Most equipment is designed to operate in this range, but some special designs utilize a deep resin bed to permit operation at 15-20 gpm/ft. Continuous operation above the manufacturer's suggested

limits can lead to bed compaction, channeling, premature hardness breakthrough, and hardness leakage. Operating well below the manufacturer's recommended flow rates can also negatively affect softener performance. At low flow rates, the water is not sufficiently distributed, and the optimum resin-water contact cannot take place. When a softener is exhausted, the resin must be regenerated. Monitoring of the effluent hardness reveals resin exhaustion. When hardness increases, the unit is exhausted. Automatic monitors pro-vide a more constant indication of the condition of the softener than periodic operator sampling and testing, but require frequent maintenance to ensure accuracy. Many facilities regenerate softeners before exhaustion, based on a predetermined time period or number of gallons processed. Most softening systems consist of more than one softener. They are often operated so that one softener is in regeneration or standby while the other units are in service. This ensures an uninterrupted flow of soft water. Prior to placing a standby softener into service, the unit should be rinsed to remove any hardness that has entered the water during the standing time. Softener Regeneration The regeneration cycle of a sodium zeolite softener consists of four steps: backwash, regeneration (brining), displacement (slow rinse), and fast rinse. Backwash. During the service cycle, the downward flow of water causes suspended material to accumulate on the resin bed. Resin is an excellent filter and can trap particulate matter that has passed through upstream filtration equipment. The backwash step removes accumulated material and reclassifies the resin bed. In the backwash step, water flows from the underdrain distributor up through the resin bed and out the service distributor to waste. The upward flow lifts and expands the resin, allowing for removal of particulate material and resin fines and the classification of the resin. Resin classification brings the smaller beads to the top of the unit while the larger beads settle to the bottom. This enhances the distribution of the regenerant chemical and service water. Backwashing should continue for a minimum of 10 min or until effluent from the backwash outlet is clear. The backwash flow should be sufficient to expand the resin bed volume by 50% or more, depending on the available free-board. Insufficient backwash can lead to bed fouling and channeling. Excessive backwash flow rates result in the loss of resin. Backwash flow rates usually vary between 4-8 (ambient temperature) and 12-15 (hot service) gpm per square foot of bed area, but each manufacturer's recommendation should be followed. The ability of water to expand the resin is greatly affected by temperature. Less flow is required to expand the bed with cold water than with warm water. Resin bed expansion should be checked regularly and the flow rate adjusted as needed to maintain proper bed expansion. Usually, the backwash water is filtered raw water. Water leaving the backwash outlet is unchanged in chemistry but can contain suspended solids. In order to conserve water, the backwash effluent can be returned to the clarifier or filter influent for treatment. Regeneration (Brining). After backwash, regenerant brine is applied. The brine stream enters the unit through the regenerant distributor and flows down through the resin bed at a slow rate (usually between 0.5 and 1 gpm per square foot of resin). Brine flow is collected through the underdrain and sent to waste. The slow flow rate increases contact between the brine and resin. To achieve optimum efficiency from the brine, the solution strength should be 10% during brine introduction. Displacement (Slow Rinse). Following the introduction of regenerant brine, a slow flow of water continues through the regenerant distribution system. This water flow displaces the regenerant

through the bed at the desired flow rate. The displacement step completes the regeneration of the resin by ensuring proper contact of the regenerant with the bottom of the resin bed. The flow rate for the displacement water is usually the same rate used for the dilution of the concentrated brine. The duration of the displacement step should be sufficient to allow for approximately one resin bed volume of water to pass through the unit. This provides a "plug" of displacement water which gradually moves the brine completely through the bed. Fast Rinse. After completion of the displacement rinse, water is introduced through the inlet distributor at a high flow rate. This rinse water removes the remaining brine as well as any residual hardness from the resin bed. The fast rinse flow rate is normally between 1.5 and 2 gpm per square foot of resin. Sometimes it is deter-mined by the service rate for the softener. Initially, the rinse effluent contains large amounts of hardness and sodium chloride. Usually, hardness is rinsed from the softener before excess sodium chloride. In many operations, the softener can be returned to service as soon as the hardness reaches a predetermined level, but some uses require rinsing until the effluent chlorides or conductivity are near influent levels. An effective fast rinse is important to ensure high effluent quality during the service run. If the softener has been in standby following a regeneration, a second fast rinse, known as a service rinse, can be used to remove any hardness that has entered the water during standby. HOT ZEOLITE SOFTENING Zeolite softeners can be used to remove residual hardness in the effluent from a hot process lime or lime-soda softener. The hot process effluent flows through filters and then through a bed of strong acid cation resin in the sodium form (Figure 8-7). The equipment and operation of a hot zeolite softener is identical to that of an ambient temperature softener, except that the valves, piping, controllers, and instrumentation must be suitable for the high temperature (220-250F). Standard strong cation resin can be used at temperatures of up to 270F, but for a longer service life a premium gel or macroreticular resin is recommended. When operating a zeolite system following a hot process softener, it is important to design the system to eliminate flow surges in the hot lime unit. Common designs include the use of backwash water storage tanks in the hot lime unit and extended slow rinses for the zeolite in lieu of a standard fast rinse. Applications and Advantages Scale and deposit buildup in boilers and the formation of insoluble soap curds in washing operations have created a large demand for softened water. Because sodium zeolite softeners are able to satisfy this demand economically, they are widely used in the preparation of water for low and medium pressure boilers, laundries, and chemical processes. Sodium zeolite softening also offers the following advantages over other softening methods: treated water has a very low scaling tendency because zeolite softening reduces the hardness level of most water supplies to less than 2 ppm operation is simple and reliable; automatic and semiautomatic regeneration controls are available at a reasonable cost salt is inexpensive and easy to handle no waste sludge is produced; usually, waste disposal is not a problem within certain limits, variations in water flow rate have little effect on treated water quality because efficient operation can be obtained in units of almost any size, sodium zeolite softeners are suitable for both large and small installations Limitations Although sodium zeolite softeners efficiently re-duce the amount of dissolved hardness in a water

supply, the total solids content, alkalinity, and silica in the water remain unaffected. A sodium zeolite softener is not a direct replacement for a hot lime-soda softener. Plants that have replaced their hot process softeners with only zeolite softeners have experienced problems with silica and alkalinity levels in their boilers. Because the resin is such an efficient filter, sodium zeolite softeners do not function efficiently on turbid waters. Continued operation with an influent turbidity in excess of 1.0 JTU causes bed fouling, short service runs, and poor effluent quality. Most city and well waters are suitable, but many surface supplies must be clarified and filtered before use. The resin can be fouled by heavy metal contaminants, such as iron and aluminum, which are not removed during the course of a normal regeneration. If excess iron or manganese is present in the water supply, the resin must be cleaned periodically. Whenever aluminum coagulants are used ahead of zeolite softeners, proper equipment operation and close control of clarifier pH are essential to good softener performance. Strong oxidizing agents in the raw water attack and degrade the resin. Chlorine, present in most municipal supplies, is a strong oxidant and should be removed prior to zeolite softening by activated carbon filtration or reaction with sodium sulfite. DEMINERALIZATION Softening alone is insufficient for most high-pressure boiler feedwaters and for many process streams, especially those used in the manufacture of electronics equipment. In addition to the removal of hardness, these processes require removal of all dissolved solids, such as sodium, silica, alkalinity, and the mineral anions (Cl, SO4, NO3). Demineralization of water is the removal of essentially all inorganic salts by ion exchange. In this process, strong acid cation resin in the hydrogen form converts dissolved salts into their corresponding acids, and strong base anion resin in the hydroxide form removes these acids. Demineralization produces water similar in quality to distillation at a lower cost for most fresh waters. Principles of Demineralization A demineralizer system consists of one or more ion exchange resin columns, which include a strong acid cation unit and a strong base anion unit. The cation resin exchanges hydrogen for the raw water cations as shown by the following reactions:

A measure of the total concentration of the strong acids in the cation effluent is the free mineral acidity (FMA). In a typical service run, the FMA content is stable most of the time, as shown in Figure 8-8. If cation exchange were 100% efficient, the FMA from the exchanger would be equal to the theoretical mineral acidity (TMA) of the water. The FMA is usually slightly lower than the TMA because a small amount of sodium leaks through the cation exchanger. The amount of sodium leakage depends on the regenerant level, the flow rate, and the proportion of sodium to the other cations in the raw water. In general, sodium leakage increases as the ratio of sodium to total cations increases. As a cation exchange unit nears exhaustion, FMA in the effluent drops sharply, indicating that the exchanger should be removed from service. At this time the resin should be regenerated with an acid solution, which returns the exchange sites to the hydrogen form. Sulfuric acid is normally

used due to its affordable cost and its availability. However, improper use of sulfuric acid can cause irreversible fouling of the resin with calcium sulfate. To prevent this occurrence, the sulfuric acid is usually applied at a high flow rate (1 gpm per square foot of resin) and an initial concentration of 2% or less. The acid concentration is gradually increased to 6-8% to complete regeneration. Some installations use hydrochloric acid for regeneration. This necessitates the use of special materials of construction in the regenerant system. As with a sodium zeolite unit, an excess of regenerant (sulfuric or hydrochloric acid) is required up to three times the theoretical dose. To complete the demineralization process, water from the cation unit is passed through a strong base anion exchange resin in the hydroxide form. The resin exchanges hydrogen ions for both highly ionized mineral ions and the more weakly ionized carbonic and silicic acids, as shown below:

The above reactions indicate that demineralization completely removes the cations and anions from the water. In reality, because ion exchange reactions are equilibrium reactions, some leakage occurs. Most leakage from cation units is sodium. This sodium leakage is converted to sodium hydroxide in the anion units. There-fore, the effluent pH of a two bed cation-anion demineralizer system is slightly alkaline. The caustic produced in the anions causes a small amount of silica leakage. The extent of leakage from the anions depends on the chemistry of the water being processed and the regenerant dosage being used. Demineralization using strong anion resins removes silica as well as other dissolved solids. Effluent silica and conductivity are important parameters to monitor during a demineralizer service run. Both silica and conductivity are low at the end of the fast rinse, as shown in Figure 89. When silica breakthrough occurs at the end of a service run, the treated water silica level increases sharply. Often, the conductivity of the water decreases momentarily, then rises rapidly. This temporary drop in conductivity is easily explained. During the normal service run, most of the effluent conductivity is attributed to the small level of sodium hydroxide produced in the anion exchanger. When silica breakthrough occurs, the hydroxide is no longer available, and the sodium from the cation exchanger is converted to sodium silicate, which is much less conductive than sodium hydroxide. As anion resin exhaustion progresses, the more conductive mineral ions break through, causing a subsequent increase in conductivity. When the end of a demineralizer run is detected, the unit must be removed from service immediately. If the demineralizer is allowed to remain in service past the breakpoint, the level of silica in the treated water can rise above that of the influent water, due to the concentrating of silica that takes place in the anion resin during the service run. Strong base anion exchangers are regenerated with a 4% sodium hydroxide solution. As with cation regeneration, the relatively high concentration of hydroxide drives the regeneration reaction. To improve the removal of silica from the resin bed, the regenerant caustic is usually heated to 120F or to the temperature specified by the resin manufacturer. Silica removal is also enhanced by a resin bed preheat step before the introduction of warm caustic.

Equipment and Operation The equipment used for cation-anion demineralization is similar to that used in zeolite softening. The primary difference is that the vessels, valves, and piping must be made of (or lined with) corrosion-resistant materials. Rubber and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are commonly used for ion exchange vessel linings. The controls and regenerant systems for demineralizers are more complex, to allow for such enhancements as stepwise acid and warm caustic regenerations. Demineralizers are similar in operation to zeolite softeners. The service flow rate guidelines for a demineralizer range from 6 to 10 gpm per square foot of resin. Flow rates of over 10 gpm per square foot of resin cause increased sodium and silica leakage with certain waters. Anion resin is much lighter than cation resin. Therefore, the backwash flow rates for anion exchange resins are much lower than those for cation resins, and anion resin expansion is affected by the temperature of the water more than cation resin expansion. The water used for each step of anion resin regeneration should be free from hardness, to prevent precipitation of hardness salts in the alkaline anion resin bed. Continuous conductivity instruments and silica analyzers are commonly used to monitor anion effluent water quality and detect the need for regeneration. In some instances, conductivity probes are placed in the resin bed above the underdrain collectors to detect resin exhaustion before silica breakthrough into the treated water occurs. Advantages and Limitations Demineralizers can produce high-purity water for nearly every use. Demineralized water is widely used for high pressure boiler feedwater and for many process waters. The quality of water produced is comparable to distilled water, usually at a fraction of the cost. Demineralizers come in a wide variety of sizes. Systems range from laboratory columns that produce only a few gallons per hour to systems that produce thousands of gallons per minute. Like other ion exchange systems, demineralizers require filtered water in order to function efficiently. Resin foulants and degrading agents, such as iron and chlorine, should be avoided or removed prior to demineralization. Anion resins are very susceptible to fouling and attack from the organic materials present in many surface water supplies. Some forms of silica, known as colloidal, or non-reactive, are not removed by a demineralizer. Hot, alkaline boiler water dissolves the colloidal material, forming simple silicates that are similar to those that enter the boiler in a soluble form. As such, they can form deposits on tube surfaces and volatilize into the steam. DEALKALIZATION Often, boiler or process operating conditions require the removal of hardness and the reduction of alkalinity but not the removal of the other solids. Zeolite softening does not reduce alkalinity, and demineralization is too costly. For these situations, a dealkalization process is used. Sodium zeolite/hydrogen zeolite (split stream) dealkalization, chloride-anion dealkalization, and weak acid cation dealkalization are the most frequently used processes. Sodium Zeolite/Hydrogen Zeolite (Split Stream) Dealkalization In a split stream dealkalizer, a portion of the raw water flows through a sodium zeolite softener. The remainder flows through a hydrogen-form strong acid cation unit (hydrogen zeolite). The effluent from the sodium zeolite is combined with the hydrogen zeolite effluent. The effluent from the hydrogen zeolite unit contains carbonic acid, produced from the raw water alkalinity, and free mineral acids. When the two streams are combined, free mineral acidity in the hydrogen zeolite effluent converts sodium carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity in the sodium zeolite effluent to carbonic acid as shown below:

Carbonic acid is unstable in water. It forms carbon dioxide gas and water. The blended effluents are sent to a decarbonator or degasser, where the carbon dioxide is stripped from the water by a countercurrent stream of air. Figure 8-10 shows a typical split stream dealkalization system. The desired level of blended water alkalinity can be maintained through control of the percentage of sodium zeolite and hydrogen zeolite water in the mixture. A higher percentage of sodium zeolite water results in higher alkalinity, and an increased percentage of hydrogen zeolite water reduces alkalinity. In addition to reducing alkalinity, a split stream dealkalizer reduces the total dissolved solids of the water. This is important in high alkalinity waters, because the conductivity of these waters affects the process and can limit boiler cycles of concentration. Sodium Zeolite/Chloride Anion Dealkalization Strong base anion resin in the chloride form can be used to reduce the alkalinity of a water. Water flows through a zeolite softener and then an anion unit, which replaces the carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and nitrate ions with chloride ions as shown in these reactions:

The chloride anion dealkalizer reduces alkalinity by approximately 90% but does not reduce total solids. When the resin nears exhaustion, treated water alkalinity increases rapidly, signaling the need for regeneration. The zeolite softener is regenerated as previously described. In addition, the anion resin is also regenerated with a sodium chloride brine that returns the resin to the chloride form. Frequently, a small amount of caustic soda is added to the regenerant brine to enhance alkalinity removal. Weak Acid Cation Dealkalization Another method of dealkalization uses weak acid cation resins. Weak acid resins are similar in operation to strong acid cation resins, but only exchange for cations that are associated with alkalinity, as shown by these reactions:

where Z represents the resin. The carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed is removed by a decarbonator or degasser as in a split stream system. The ideal influent for a weak acid cation system has a hardness level equal to the alkalinity (both expressed in ppm as CaCO3). In waters that are higher in alkalinity than hardness, the alkalinity is not removed to its lowest level. In waters containing more hardness than alkalinity, some hardness remains after treatment. Usually, these waters must be polished by a sodium zeolite softener to remove hardness. During the initial portion of a weak acid cation service run (the first 40-60%) some cations associated with mineral anions exchange, producing small amounts of

mineral acids in the effluent. As the service cycle progresses, alkalinity appears in the effluent. When the alkalinity in the effluent exceeds 10% of the influent alkalinity, the unit is removed from service and regenerated with a 0.5% sulfuric acid solution. The concentration of regenerant acid should be kept below 0.5-0.7%, to prevent calcium sulfate precipitation in the resin. Weak acid cation resin exchange is very efficient. Therefore, the amount of acid required is virtually equal (chemically) to the amount of cations removed during the service cycle. If the materials of construction for the down-stream equipment or overall process cannot tolerate the mineral acidity present during the initial portions of the service cycle, a brine solution is passed through the regenerated weak acid resin prior to the final rinse. This solution removes the mineral acidity without a significant impact on the quality or length of the subsequent run. Equipment used for a weak acid cation dealkalizer is similar to that used for a strong acid cation exchanger, with the exception of the resin. One variation of the standard design uses a layer of weak acid resin on top of strong acid cation resin. Because it is lighter, the weak acid resin remains on top. The layered resin system is regenerated with sulfuric acid and then with sodium chloride brine. The brine solution converts the strong acid resin to the sodium form. This resin then acts as a polishing softener. Direct Acid Injection In the process of direct acid injection and decarbonation, acid is used to convert alkalinity to carbonic acid. The carbonic acid dissociates to form carbon dioxide and water and the carbon dioxide is removed in a decarbonator. The use of an acid injection system should be approached with caution, because an acid overfeed or a breakdown in the pH control system can produce acidic feedwater, which corrodes the iron surfaces of feedwater systems and boilers. Proper pH monitoring and controlled caustic feed after decarbonation are required. Advantages and Limitations of Dealkalization Systems Ion exchange dealkalization systems produce hardness-free, low-alkalinity water at a reasonable cost, and with a high degree of reliability. They are well suited for processing feedwater for medium-pressure boilers, and for process water for the beverage industry. Split stream and weak acid cation systems also reduce the total dissolved solids. In addition to these advantages, the following disadvantages must be considered: dealkalizers do not remove all of the alkalinity and do not affect the silica content of a water dealkalizers require the same influent purity as other ion exchange processes; filtered water that is low in potential foulants must be used the water produced by a dealkalization system using a forced draft decarbonator becomes saturated with oxygen, so it is potentially corrosive COUNTERFLOW AND MIXED BED DEIONIZATION Due to increasing boiler operating pressures and the manufacture of products requiring contaminant-free water, there is a growing need for higher water quality than cation-anion demineralizers can produce. Therefore, it has become necessary to modify the standard demineralization process to increase the purity of the treated water. The most significant improvements in demineralized water purity have been produced by counterflow cation exchangers and mixed bed exchangers. Counterflow Cation Exchangers In a conventional demineralizer system, regenerant flow is in the same direction as the service

flow, down through the resin bed. This scheme is known as co-current operation and is the basis for most ion exchange system designs. During the regeneration of a co-current unit, the contaminants are displaced through the resin bed during the regeneration. At the end of the regeneration, some ions, predominately sodium ions, remain in the bottom of the resin bed. Because the upper portion of the bed has been exposed to fresh regenerant, it is highly regenerated. As the water flows through the resin during service, cations are exchanged in the upper portion of the bed first, and then move down through the resin as the bed becomes exhausted. Sodium ions that remained in the bed during regeneration diffuse into the decationized water before it leaves the vessel. This sodium leakage enters the anion unit where anion exchange produces caustic, raising the pH and conductivity of the demineralized water. In a counterflow regenerated cation exchanger, the regenerant flows in the opposite direction of the service flow. For example, if the service flow is downward through the bed, the regenerant acid flow is up through the bed. As a result, the most highly regenerated resin is located where the service water leaves the vessel. The highly regenerated resin removes the low level of contaminants that have escaped removal in the top of the bed. This results in higher water purity than co-current designs can produce. To maximize contact between the acid and resin and to keep the most highly regenerated resin from mixing with the rest of the bed, the resin bed must stay compressed during the regenerant introduction. This compression is usually achieved in one of two ways: a blocking flow of water or air is used the acid flow is split, and acid is introduced at both the top and the bottom of the resin bed (Figure 8-11) Mixed Bed Exchangers A mixed bed exchanger has both cation and anion resin mixed together in a single vessel. As water flows through the resin bed, the ion exchange process is repeated many times, "polishing" the water to a very high purity. During regeneration, the resin is separated into distinct cation and anion fractions as shown in Figure 8-12. The resin is separated by backwashing, with the lighter anion resin settling on top of the cation resin. Regenerant acid is introduced through the bottom distributor, and caustic is introduced through distributors above the resin bed. The regenerant streams meet at the boundary between the cation and anion resin and discharge through a collector located at the resin interface. Following regenerant introduction and displacement rinse, air and water are used to mix the resins. Then the resins are rinsed, and the unit is ready for service. Counterflow and mixed bed systems produce a purer water than conventional cation-anion demineralizers, but require more sophisticated equipment and have a higher initial cost. The more complicated regeneration sequences require closer operator attention than standard systems. This is especially true for a mixed bed unit. OTHER DEMINERALIZATION PROCESSES The standard cation-anion process has been modified in many systems to reduce the use of costly regenerants and the production of waste. Modifications include the use of decarbonators and degassers, weak acid and weak base resins, strong base anion caustic waste (to regenerate weak base anion exchangers), and reclamation of a portion of spent caustic for subsequent regeneration cycles. Several different approaches to demineralization using these processes are shown in Figure 8-13. Decarbonators and Degassers

Decarbonators and degassers are economically beneficial to many demineralization systems, because they reduce the amount of caustic required for regeneration. Water from a cation exchanger is broken into small droplets by sprays and trays or packing in a decarbonator. The water then flows through a stream of air flowing in the opposite direction. Carbonic acid present in the cation effluent dissociates into carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide is stripped from the water by the air, reducing the load to the anion exchangers. Typical forced draft decarbonators are capable of removing carbon dioxide down to 10-15 ppm. However, water effluent from a decarbonator is saturated with oxygen. In a vacuum degasser, water droplets are introduced into a packed column that is operated under a vacuum. Carbon dioxide is removed from the water due to its decreased partial pressure in a vacuum. A vacuum degasser usually reduces carbon dioxide to less than 2 ppm and also removes most of the oxygen from the water. However, vacuum degassers are more expensive to purchase and operate than forced draft decarbonators. Weak Acid and Weak Base Resins Weak functionality resins have a much higher regeneration efficiency than their strong functionality counterparts. Weak acid cation resins, as described in the dealkalization section, exchange with cations associated with alkalinity. Weak base resins exchange with the mineral acid anions (SO4, Cl, NO3) in a strong acid solution. The regeneration efficiency of weak resins is virtually stoichiometric, the removal of 1 kgr of ions (as CaCO3) requires only slightly more than 1 kgr of the regenerant ion (as CaCO3). Strong resins require three to four times the regenerant for the same contaminant removal. Weak base resins are so efficient that it is common practice to regenerate a weak base exchanger with a portion of the "spent" caustic from regeneration of the strong base anion resin. The first fraction of the caustic from the strong base unit is sent to waste to prevent silica fouling of the weak base resin. The remaining caustic is used to regenerate the weak base resin. An additional feature of weak base resins is their ability to hold natural organic materials that foul strong base resins and release them during the regeneration cycle. Due to this ability, weak base resins are commonly used to protect strong base resins from harmful organic fouling. Regenerant Reuse Due to the high cost of caustic soda and the increasing problems of waste disposal, many demineralization systems are now equipped with a caustic reclaim feature. The reclaim system uses a portion of the spent caustic from the previous regeneration at the beginning of the next regeneration cycle. The reused caustic is followed by fresh caustic to complete the regeneration. The new caustic is then reclaimed for use in the next regeneration. Typically, sulfuric acid is not reclaimed, because it is lower in cost and calcium sulfate precipitation is a potential problem. CONDENSATE POLISHING Ion exchange uses are not limited to process and boiler water makeup. Ion exchange can be used to purify, or polish, returned condensate, removing corrosion products that could cause harmful deposits in boilers. Typically, the contaminants in the condensate system are particulate iron and copper. Low levels of other contaminants may enter the system through condenser and pump seal leaks or carryover of boiler water into the steam. Condensate polishers filter out the particulates and remove soluble contaminants by ion exchange. Most paper mill condensate polishers operate at temperatures approaching 200F, precluding the use of anion resin. Cation resin, which is stable up to temperatures of over 270F, is used for deep bed condensate polishing in these applications. The resin is regenerated with sodium

chloride brine, as in a zeolite softener. In situations where sodium leakage from the polisher adversely affects the boiler water internal chemical program or steam attemperating water purity, the resin can be regenerated with an ionized amine solution to prevent these problems. The service flow rate for a deep bed polisher (20-50 gpm per square foot of resin surface area) is very high compared to that of a conventional softener. High flow rates are permissible because the level of soluble ions in the condensate can be usually very low. Particulate iron and copper are removed by filtration, while dissolved contaminants are reduced by exchange for the sodium or amine in the resin. The deep bed cation resin condensate polisher is regenerated with 15 lb of sodium chloride per cubic foot of resin, in a manner similar to that used for conventional sodium zeolite regeneration. A solubilizing or reducing agent is often used to assist in the removal of iron. Sometimes, a supplemental backwash header is located just below the surface of the resin bed. This subsurface distributor, used prior to backwashing, introduces water to break up the crust that forms on the resin surface between regenerations. An important consideration is the selection of a resin for condensate polishing. Because high pressure drops are generated by the high service flow rates and particulate loadings, and because many systems operate at high temperatures, considerable stress is imposed on the structure of the resin. A premium-grade gelular or macroreticular resin should be used in deep bed condensate polishing applications. In systems requiring total dissolved solids and particulate removal, a mixed bed condensate polisher may be used. The temperature of the condensate should be below 140F, which is the maximum continuous operating temperature for the anion resin. Additionally, the flow through the unit is generally reduced to approximately 20 gpm/ft. Ion exchange resins are also used as part of a precoat filtration system, as shown in Figure 8-14, for polishing condensate. The resin is crushed and mixed into a slurry, which is used to coat individual septums in a filter vessel. The powdered resin is a very fine filtering medium that traps particulate matter and removes some soluble contaminants by ion exchange. When the filter media becomes clogged, the precoat material is disposed of, and the septums are coated with a fresh slurry of powdered resin. COMMON ION EXCHANGE SYSTEM PROBLEMS As in any dynamic operating system incorporating electrical and mechanical equipment and chemical operations, problems do occur in ion exchange systems. The problems usually result in poor effluent quality, decreased service run lengths, or increased consumption of regenerant. To keep the ion exchange system operating efficiently and reliably, changes in water quality, run lengths, or regenerant consumption should be considered whenever problems are detected. The cause-effect diagrams for short runs (Figure 8-15) and poor-quality effluent (Figure 816) show that there are many possible causes for reduced performance of a demineralization system. Some of the more common problems are discussed below. Operational Problems Changes in raw water quality have a significant impact on both the run length and the effluent quality produced by an ion exchange unit. Although most well waters have a consistent quality, most surface water compositions vary widely over time. A 10% increase in the hardness of the water to a sodium zeolite softener causes a 10% decrease in the service run length. An increase in the ratio of sodium to total cations causes increased sodium leakage from a demineralizer system. Regular chemical analysis of the influent water to ion exchangers should be performed to reveal such variations.

Other causes of ion exchange operational problems include: Improper regenerations, caused by incorrect regenerant flows, times, or concentrations. Manufacturer's recommendations should be followed when regenerating ion exchange resins. Channeling, resulting from either high or low flow rates, increased suspended solids loading or poor backwashing. This causes premature exhaustion even when much of the bed is in a regenerated state. Resin fouling or degradation, caused by poor-quality regenerant. Failure to remove silica from the resin, which can result from low regenerant caustic temperature. This can lead to increased silica leakage and short service runs. Excess contaminants in the resin, due to previous operation past exhaustion loads. Because the resin becomes loaded with more contaminants than a normal regeneration is designed to remove, a double regeneration is required following an extended service run. Mechanical Problems Typical mechanical problems associated with ion exchange systems include: Leaking valves, which cause poor quality effluent and prolonged rinses. Broken or clogged distributor, which leads to channeling. Resin loss, due to excessive backwashing or failure in the underdrain screening or support media. Cation resin in the anion unit, causing extended rinse times and sodium leakage into the demineralized water. Instrumentation problems, such as faulty totalizers or conductivity meters, which may indicate a problem when none exists, or may introduce poor quality water to service. Instrumentation in the demineralizer area should be checked regularly. RESIN FOULING AND DEGRADATION Resin can become fouled with contaminants that hinder the exchange process.Figure 8-17 shows a resin fouled with iron. The resin can also be attacked by chemicals that cause irreversible destruction. Some materials, such as natural organics (Figure 8-18), foul resins at first and then degrade the resin as time passes. This is the most common cause of fouling and degradation in ion exchange systems, and is discussed under "Organic Fouling," later in this chapter. Causes of Resin Fouling Iron and Manganese. Iron may exist in water as a ferrous or ferric inorganic salt or as a sequestered organic complex. Ferrous iron exchanges in resin, but ferric iron is insoluble and does not. Ferric iron coats cation resin, preventing exchange. An acid or a strong reducing agent must be used to remove this iron. Organically bound iron passes through a cation unit and fouls the anion resin. It must be removed along with the organic material. Manganese, present in some well waters, fouls a resin in the same manner as iron. Aluminum. Aluminum is usually present as aluminum hydroxide, resulting from alum or sodium aluminate use in clarification or precipitation softening. Aluminum floc, if carried through filters, coats the resin in a sodium zeolite softener. It is removed by cleaning with either acid or caustic. Usually, aluminum is not a foulant in a demineralizer system, because it is removed from the resin during a normal regeneration. Hardness Precipitates. Hardness precipitates carry through a filter from a precipitation softener

or form after filtration by post-precipitation. These precipitates foul resins used for sodium zeolite softening. They are removed with acid. Sulfate Precipitation. Calcium sulfate precipitation can occur in a strong acid cation unit operated in the hydrogen cycle. At the end of a service cycle, the top of the resin bed is rich in calcium. If sulfuric acid is used as the regenerant, and it is introduced at too high a concentration or too low a flow rate, precipitation of calcium sulfate occurs, fouling the resin. After calcium sulfate has formed, it is very difficult to redissolve; therefore, resin fouled by calcium sulfate is usually discarded. Mild cases of calcium sulfate fouling may be reversed with a prolonged soak in hydrochloric acid. Barium sulfate is even less soluble than calcium sulfate. If a water source contains measurable amounts of barium, hydrochloric acid regeneration should be considered. Oil Fouling. Oil coats resin, blocking the passage of ions to and from exchange sites. A surfactant can be used to remove oil. Care must be exercised to select a surfactant that does not foul resin. Oil-fouled anion resins should be cleaned with nonionic surfactants only. Microbiological Fouling. Microbiological fouling can occur in resin beds, especially beds that are allowed to sit without service flow. Microbiological fouling can lead to severe plugging of the resin bed, and even mechanical damage due to an excessive pressure drop across the fouled resin. If microbiological fouling in standby units is a problem, a constant flow of recirculating water should be used to minimize the problem. Severe conditions may require the application of suitable sterilization agents and surfactants. Silica Fouling. Silica fouling can occur in strong base anion resins if the regenerant temperature is too low, or in weak base resins if the effluent caustic from the SBA unit used to regenerate the weak base unit contains too much silica. At low pH levels, polymerization of the silica can occur in a weak base resin. It can also be a problem in an exhausted strong base anion resin. Silica fouling is removed by a prolonged soak in warm (120F) caustic soda. Causes of Irreversible Resin Degradation Oxidation. Oxidizing agents, such as chlorine, degrade both cation and anion resins. Oxidants attack the divinylbenzene cross-links in a cation resin, reducing the overall strength of the resin bead. As the attack continues, the cation resin begins to lose its spherical shape and rigidity, causing it to compact during service. This compaction increases the pressure drop across the resin bed and leads to channeling, which reduces the effective capacity of the unit. In the case of raw water chlorine, the anion resin is not directly affected, because the chlorine is consumed by the cation resin. However, downstream strong base anion resins are fouled by certain degradation products from oxidized cation resin. If chlorine is present in raw water, it should be removed prior to ion exchange with activated carbon filtration or sodium sulfite. Approximately 1.8 ppm of sodium sulfite is required to consume 1 ppm of chlorine. Oxygen-saturated water, such as that found following forced draft decarbonation, accelerates the destruction of strong base exchange sites that occurs naturally over time. It also accelerates degradation due to organic fouling. Thermal Degradation. Thermal degradation occurs if the anion resin becomes overheated during the service or regeneration cycle. This is especially true for acrylic resins, which have temperature limitations as low as 100F, and Type II strong base anion resins, which have a temperature limit of 105F when in the hydroxide form.

Organic Fouling Organic fouling is the most common and expensive form of resin fouling and degradation. Usually, only low levels of organic materials are found in well waters. However, surface waters can contain hundreds of parts per million of natural and man-made organic matter. Natural organics are derived from decaying vegetation. They are aromatic and acidic in nature, and can complex heavy metals, such as iron. These contaminants include tannins, tannic acid, humic acid, and fulvic acid. Initially, organics block the strong base sites on a resin. This blockage causes long final rinses and reduces salt splitting capacity. As the foulant continues to remain on the resin, it begins to degrade the strong base sites, reducing the salt splitting capacity of the resin. The functionality of the site changes from strong base to weak base, and finally to a nonactive site. Thus, a resin in the early stages of degradation exhibits high total capacity, but reduced salt splitting capacity. At this stage, cleaning of the resin can still return some, but not all, of the lost operating capacity. A loss in salt splitting capacity reduces the ability of the resin to remove silica and carbonic acid. Organic fouling of anion resin is evidenced by the color of the effluent from the anion unit dur-ing regeneration, which ranges from tea-colored to dark brown. During operation, the treated water has higher conductivity and a lower pH. Prevention. The following methods are used, either alone or in combination, to reduce organic fouling: Prechlorination and clarification. Water is prechlorinated at the source, and then clarified with an organic removal aid. Filtration through activated carbon. It should be noted that a carbon filter has a finite capacity for removal of organic material and that the removal performance of the carbon should be monitored frequently. Macroporous and weak base resin ahead of strong base resin. The weak base or macroporous resin absorbs the organic material and is eluted during regeneration. Specialty resins. Acrylic and other specialty resins that are less susceptible to organic fouling have been developed.

Inspection and Cleaning. In addition to these preventive procedures, a program of regular inspection and cleaning of the ion exchange system helps to preserve the life of anion resin. Most cleaning procedures use one of the following: Warm (120F) brine and caustic. Mild oxidants or solubilizing agents can be added to improve the cleaning. Hydrochloric acid. When resins are also fouled with significant amounts of iron, hydrochloric acids are used. Solutions of 0.25-0.5% sodium hypochlorite. This procedure destroys the organic material but also significantly degrades the resin. Hypochlorite cleaning is considered a last resort.

It is important to clean an organically fouled resin before excessive permanent degradation of the strong base sites occurs. Cleaning after permanent degradation has occurred removes significant amounts of organic material but does not improve unit performance. The condition of the resin should be closely monitored to identify the optimum schedule for cleaning. RESIN TESTING AND ANALYSIS To track the condition of ion exchange resin and determine the best time for cleaning it, the resin should be periodically sampled and analyzed for physical stability, foulant levels, and the ability

to perform the required ion exchange. Samples should be representative of the entire resin bed. Therefore, samples should be collected at different levels within the bed, or a grain thief or hollow pipe should be used to obtain a "core" sample. During sampling, the inlet and regenerant distributor should be examined, and the condition of the top of the resin bed should be noted. Excessive hills or valleys in the resin bed are an indication of flow distribution problems. The resin sample should be examined microscopically for signs of fouling and cracked or broken beads.It should also be tested for physical properties, such as density and moisture content (Figure 8-19). The level of organic and inorganic foulants in the resin should be determined and compared to known standards and the previous condition of the resin. Finally, the salt splitting and total capacity should be measured on anion resin samples to evaluate the rate of degradation or organic fouling. Previous (Chapter 07 Precipitation Softening) Table of Contents Next (Chapter 09 Membrane Systems)

Me mbr ane pro ces ses Pretreatment Solids removal Scale control Microbiological fouling Since the 1940's, ion exchange resins have been used to remove dissolved salts from water. These resins exchange ions in the water for ions on the resin exchange sites and hold them until released by a regeneration solution (see Chapter 8 for a more detailed discussion). Many ion exchange processes exist for a variety of industrial water and wastewater applications. The ion exchange process consumes large quantities of regeneration chemicals, such as brine, acid, and caustic materials that can present significant handling and disposal problems. In recent years, membrane processes have been used increasingly for the production of "pure" waters from fresh water and seawater. Membrane processes are also being applied in process and wastewater systems. Although typically thought to be expensive and relatively experimental, membrane technology is advancing quickly becoming less expensive, improving performance, and extending life expectancy. MEMBRANE PROCESSES Common membrane processes include ultrafiltration (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), electrodialysis (ED), and electrodialysis reversal (EDR). These processes (with the exception of UF) reduce

most ions; RO and UF systems also provide efficient reduction of nonionized organics and particulates. Because UF membrane porosity is too large for ion rejection, the UF process is used to reduce contaminants, such as oil and grease, and suspended solids. Reverse Osmosis Osmosis is the flow of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution. This flow results from the driving force created by the difference in pressure between the two solutions. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be added to the concentrated solution side in order to stop the solvent flow through the membrane. Reverse osmosis is the process of reversing the flow, forcing water through a membrane from a concentrated solution to a dilute solution to produce filtered water. Figure 9-1 illustrates the processes of osmosis and reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is created when sufficient pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to overcome the osmotic pressure. This pressure is provided by feedwater pumps. Concentrated contaminants (brine) are reduced from the high-pressure side of the RO membrane, and filtered water (permeate) is reduced from the low-pressure side. Figure 9-2 is a simplified schematic of an RO process. Membrane modules may be staged in various design configurations, producing the highest-quality permeate with the least amount of waste. An example of a multistage RO configuration is shown in Figure 9-3. Typically, 95% of dissolved salts are reduced from the brine. All particulates are removed. However, due to their molecular porosity, RO membranes do not remove dissolved gases, such as Cl2, CO2, and O2. RO Membranes. The two most common RO membranes used in industrial water treatment are cellulose acetate (CA) and polyamide (PA) composite. Currently, most membranes are spiral wound; however, hollow fiber configurations are available. In the spiral wound configuration, a flat sheet membrane and spacers are wound around the permeate collection tube to produce flow channels for permeate and feedwater. This design maximizes flow while minimizing the membrane module size. Hollow fiber systems are bundles of tiny, hair-like membrane tubes. Ions are rejected when the feedwater permeates the walls of these tubes, and permeate is collected through the hollow center of the fibers. Concentrated brine is produced on the outside of the fibers contained by the module housing. Figure 9-4 shows the construction and flow patterns in a spiral wound membrane configuration.Figure 9-5 shows the construction and flow patterns in a hollow fiber membrane system. Electrodialysis Electrodialysis (ED) processes transfer ions of dissolved salts across membranes, leaving purified water behind. Ion movement is induced by direct current electrical fields. A negative electrode (cathode) attracts cations, and a positive electrode (anode) attracts anions. Systems are compartmentalized in stacks by alternating cation and anion transfer membranes. Alternating compartments carry concentrated brine and filtered permeate. Typically, 40-60% of dissolved ions are removed or rejected. Further improvement in water quality is obtained by staging (operation of stacks in series). ED processes do not remove particulate contaminants or weakly ionized contaminants, such as silica. Figure 9-6 is a simplified schematic of an ED process. Electrodialysis Reversal Electrodialysis reversal (EDR) processes operate on the same principles as ED; however, EDR

operation reverses system polarity (typically 3-4 times per hour). This reversal stops the buildup of concentrated solutions on the membrane and thereby reduces the accumulation of inorganic and organic deposition on the membrane surface. EDR systems are similar to ED systems, designed with adequate chamber area to collect both product water and brine. EDR produces water of the same quality as ED. Ultrafiltration In many process and wastewater applications, reduction of dissolved ions is not required but efficient reduction of colloidal inorganic or organic molecules is. Ultrafiltration (UF) membrane configurations and system designs are similar to those used in the single-stage RO process. Because the large molecules removed by UF exhibit negligible osmotic pressure, operating pressures are usually much lower than in RO systems. Figure 9-7 illustrates the performance of ultrafiltration membranes. Typical applications include reduction of oil and grease and recovery of valuable contaminants in process waste streams. PRETREATMENT Processes that rely on microporous membranes must be protected from fouling. Membrane fouling causes a loss of water production (flux), reduced permeate quality, and increased transmembrane pressure drop. Membrane fouling is typically caused by precipitation of inorganic salts, particulates of metal oxides, colloidal silt, and the accumulation or growth of microbiological organisms on the membrane surface. These fouling problems can lead to serious damage and necessitate more frequent replacement of membranes. SOLIDS REDUCTION Membrane feedwater should be relatively free from colloidal particulates. The most common particulates encountered in industrial membrane systems are silt, iron oxides, and manganese oxides. Silt Density Index (SDI) testing should be used to confirm sufficient water quality for the specific membrane system employed. SDI evaluates the potential of feedwater to foul a 0.45 m filter. Unacceptable SDI measurements can be produced even when water quality is relatively high by most industrial water treatment standards. Where pretreatment is inadequate or ineffective, chemical dispersants may be used to permit operation at higher-than-recommended SDI values. RO systems are highly susceptible to particulate fouling, ED and EDR systems are more forgiving, and UF systems are designed to handle dirty waters. SCALE CONTROL Membrane processes produce a concentration gradient of dissolved salts approaching the membrane surfaces. The concentration at the membrane may exceed the solubility limits of certain species. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO4) are typical precipitates formed. Silica, barium, and strontium salts are also frequently identified in membrane deposits. Because of their low solubility, very low levels of feedwater barium or strontium can cause membrane fouling. Various saturation indexes, such as the Stiff-Davis and Langelier, should be maintained below precipitating values in the brine (through pH control or deposit control agents) to prevent calcium carbonate fouling. Other precipitates may be controlled by the proper application of deposit control agents. MICROBIOLOGICAL FOULING

Cellulose acetate membranes can be degraded by microbiological activity. Proper maintenance of chlorine residuals can prevent microbiological attack of these membranes. Polyacrylamide membranes are resistant to microbiological degradation; however, they are susceptible to chemical oxidation. Therefore, chlorination is not an acceptable treatment. If inoculation occurs, microbiological fouling can become a problem. Nonoxidizing antimicrobials and biodispersants should be used if serious microbiological fouling potential exists. Previous (Chapter 08 Ion Exchange) Table of Contents Next (Chapter 10 Boiler Feedwater Deaeration )