The Implication of Civilization the attainment of man’s highest good—happiness,

 Civilization has made man think in a spatio-temporal ethics is the only discipline that deals with the
dimension. Human beings will always look for the attainment of the ultimate goal of a human person.
cause and effect in all their actions.
Chapter 1: Ethics Defined
 Hence, goodness and beauty are always connected
 Ethics – “ethos” – customs, usage, or character
with their daily activities.
customs, habits, character, or attitude of a
 Goodness becomes causal and material.
community or a group, which pertains to the group’s
 When a human person became aware of himself,
standards or norms.
different philosophers came out, each having a
different view as regards what and who is a human • It is a set of rules of human behavior, which
person. has been influenced by the standards set by
 Man is an animal and yet not an animal. society or by himself in relation to his society
 Man is the only creature who is capable of asking  Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the attempt to achieve
about the meaning of his life a systematic understanding of the nature of morality
and what it requires of us—in Socrates’s words, of
Man as a Person of Goodness and Truth “how we ought to live,” and why.
 Immanuel Kant considered the human person as an  Knowing the “how we ought to live” could have been
autonomous self-regulating will who is capable of easier if we have a simple, uncontroversial definition
making moral decisions by and for himself. of what morality is. But this is impossible.
 Viktor Frankl held that a human being is able to live  Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on
and even to die for the sake of his ideals and values. reason, which studies human acts, and provides
norms for their goodness and badness (cf. Buenaflor
• Man is a being who is always in search for
2018, 7ff).
meaning.
 Erich Fromm believed that conscience enables the
2 Kinds of Action
person to know what ought to be done in order to
 Actus Humanus – Human acts
become his own self.
• Actions based on knowledge and full consent
• Conscience became the reason why the
of will
human person is aware of the goals of life, as
 Actus Hominis – acts of man
well as the norms for the attainment of such
goals. • Actions that are done in the absence of
 St. Thomas Aquinas believed that what constitutes either knowledge or will or of both
the human person as a moral subject is his knowledge and will
conscience. The human person discovers the moral
law because of his conscience.  The ideal vision of man provides for him a sense of
value. A value is what individual deems to be useful,
• Man’s conscience is also responsible for
desirable, or significant. It sets in man an idea of good
making the human person aware of the
that is inclined towards that which is objectively the
welfare and dignity of the other persons.
fulfillment of the being of man.
 Before civilization, man’s concept of goodness was
 A good action is that which imposes moral obligation
related so much to the norm of morality. When man
or duty.
began to taste a more pleasurable life brought about
 Man is an imago Dei (an image of God). Hence, he is
by technological advancements, man’s concept of
by nature good. It is the nature of the human person
goodness becomes related to physical pleasure.
to incline himself towards the good.
 With the human person’s inclination to pleasure, he
 Man will find meaning in life if he will be doing good
began looking at things as moral if it provides pleasure
deeds.
for the human person and if it prevents him from
 Because man has been endowed with reason, which
suffering pain.
is sometimes inclined towards his passion, there is
 TODAY
always the possibility that he may choose to turn
FORMULA:
away from goodness.
PLEASUREABLE = GOOD (masarap/madali =
 Man’s inclination towards earthly goods will
maganda/mabuti/tama)
oftentimes lead him to envy and despair. Hence, he
PAINFUL = BAD (masakit/mahirap = masama/hindi
needs to study ethics to be guided so that he may be
maganda/hindi mabuti)
able to fully understand what real happiness is.
 Plato considered Ethics as the Supreme Philosophy,
the science par excellence. Because Ethics deals with
  Through ethics, man will be able to understand that 5. Ethics vs. Education
the goal of human being is not merely the acquisition 6. Ethics vs. Law
of material goods. 7. Ethics vs. Aesthetics
 His real fulfillment is in the development of moral 8. Ethics vs. Politics
quality, which places man above brute creations. 9. Ethics vs. Religion
 Ethics provides the person with an idea of what right
Chapter 3: Development of Moral Character
living is.
 Ethics is the very investigation of the meaning of life.  Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine and St. Thomas
 Education can serve as the means in order to teach Aquinas had the conviction that ethics is
the young people about what the good really is. fundamentally related to what kind of persons we
Hence, education should not focus only on teaching are.
technological innovations and advancements.  On the assumption that what kind of person one is
constituted by one’s character.
Ethics in General
 Etymologically, the term “character” comes from the
 Ethics can be divided into two main divisions: (1) Ancient Greek term Charakter, which initially referred
General Ethics: and (2) Applied or Non-normative to the mark impressed upon a coin.
Ethics.  The term character refers more generally to any
 General Ethics refers to all the diverse ethical distinctive feature by which one thing is distinguished
formulations of general and universal concepts from others.
and principles which serves as the foundation of  In philosophy, the term character is typically used to
morality. It is referred to as the Normative refer to the particularly moral dimension of a person.
Ethics. Aristotle often used the term eqh for character, which
 Applied or Non-normative Ethics deals with a is etymologically linked to “ethics” and “morality”
factual investigation of the social patterns of a  A human person who is acting excellently
society as compared to that of the other society. consistently is said to have a great moral character.
This refers to the cultural practices, which a  Excellence is a quality that makes an individual a good
particular society will accept as ethical. member of its kind. Excellence is connected to its
• Applied ethics focuses on particular function.
situations in life where the principles of  We judge the moral character of the person based on
general ethics can be applied. It does not consistency.
only apply the general moral concepts and  Character is tested across time.
principles but also specifies the particular  Moral character is the force behind moral action.
situations in life which they considered as
Stages of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)
valid and legitimate; hence it is also known
as Special Ethics.  Regardless of our culture, we all develop in our moral
• Applied ethics is further subdivided into thinking through a series of set stages.
professional ethics – professional ethics  Moral education should help children develop their
legal ethics – legal profession moral thinking toward more advanced stages.
and bioethics – medical profession  Moral Psychology studies what IS moral
development.
Standards of Morality: Moral Vs. Non-Moral
 Moral Philosophy considers what OUGHT TO BE.
 Immanuel Kant held that there are three moral bases  The IS of psychology and the OUGHT of philosophy
that will help one uphold an ethical principle. must be integrated before one can have a reasoned
basis for moral education.
1. Human Freedom  Central to moral education is the problem of relativity
2. Immortality of the soul of values.
 Are there universal values that children should
3. Existence of God develop?
 Kohlberg’s theory of moral education is both
Ethics and Other Sciences
psychological and philosophical.
1. Ethics vs. Logic  There are three Stages: (Pre-Conventional [Stage 1
2. Ethics vs. Psychology and 2]; Conventional Stage [Stage 3 and 4]; and Post-
3. Ethics vs. Sociology Conventional Stage [Stage 5 and 6]).
4. Ethics vs. Economics
PRE-CONVENTIONAL (Self-Focused) —concerned with is a value. It would be hazardous to digress
concrete consequences to individuals, focusing on pursuing from conformity, from social norms.
concrete interest, while avoiding sanctions.
POST-CONVENTIONAL (Group-Focused)—concerned with
 Stage 1: Punishment: Authority orientation [Obey fulfilling role expectations, maintaining and supporting the
or Pay / Authority—Fear]. social order, and identifying persons or groups involved in this
 What is right is to obey the rules, avoid order.
physical damage to persons and property.
The reason is that one wants to avoid • There is the effort to define the moral values
punishment. Also, there is the deterrence to and principles than have validity and
power and position. In relation to social application apart from the authority of
perspective, what is considered is simply groups or persons and the ability to see
one’s own interest as there is still no sense of beyond laws and norms of society.
another’s point of view. • It is here that one examines, adopts, and
 Stage 2: Pleasure Orientation [Self-satisfaction / applies the different ethical frameworks or
What is in it for me?” principles.
 Hedonistic orientation with an instrumental  Stage 5: Common Good (Standards of Society /
view of human relations. Beginning notions Social Contract)
of reciprocity, but with emphasis on  Social contract orientation, with emphasis on
exchange of favors—”You scratch my back equality and mutual obligation within a
and I will scratch yours.” democratically established order.
 What is right is one’s immediate interest,  This stage includes what is right; individual
and letting others act also in their own interest. rights and standards which have been
Thus, each to his own. What is right is what is critically examined, and agreed upon; one
fair. You do your thing, I do my thing; we have says “these rights have been examined, and
fair, equal exchange. since they are right, they are the ones to be
followed.”
CONVENTIONAL (Group-Focused) —concerned with fulfilling  Good of the many—CONCENSUS RATHER
role expectations, maintaining and supporting the social order, THAN MAJORITY RULES
and identifying persons or groups involved in this order.  Stage 6: Universal Principles (Decision of Conscience
/ Logical Moral Principles)
 Stage 3: Peer and Group Acceptance Orientation
 Principles of conscience that have logical
(Approval—Group Norm/ Loyalty—
comprehensiveness and universality.
Belongingness)
Highest value placed on human life, equality,
 “Good boy” orientation / interpersonal
and dignity.
concordance orientation: seeking to
 Kohlberg was not able to observe this stage
maintain expectations and win approval of
in his group, and thus, he projected it. What
one’s immediate group.
is right is following self-chosen ethical
 What is deemed right is what pleases or
principles based on judgments that are
helps others; what is approved by others;
universalizable, irreversible, and consistent.
what reinforces mutual relationships such as
trust, loyalty, respect, gratitude.
• Stage 1 and 2 are typical of young children and
 Stage 4: Legalistic Orientation (Law and Order /
delinquents and are described as ‘pre-moral’ since
Duty to Society)
decisions are made largely on the basis of self-
 Social Structure Orientation. Orientation to
interest.
authority, law, and duty, to maintaining a
• Stage 3 and 4 are the conventional stage at which
fixed order, whether social or religious,
most of the adult orientation operates.
assumed as a primary value.
• The final “principled” stages are characteristic of 20
 What is right is doing one’s duty; showing
to 25 percent of the adult population, with perhaps 5
respect for laws, authority, and society, and
to 10 percent arriving at Stage 6.
contributing to the maintenance of society
and institutions.
 One’s reason for doing one’s duty and the • At Stage 1, life is valued in terms of power or
like is that, action which breaks the social or possessions of the person involved.
moral agreements impairs the system, which • At Stage 2, life is valued for its usefulness in satisfying
the needs of the individual in question or others.
 • At Stage 3, life is valued in terms of individual’s • Decision must be founded on the right reason (law)
relations with others and their valuation of him. for this we have share in common with the gods.
• At Stage 4, life is valued in terms of social or religious • Reason is the law.
laws.
• Only at Stage 6 is each life seen as inherently FEELINGS AND MORALITY
worthwhile aside from all other considerations.
• Moral decisions would always involve feelings or
• In terms of motivation for moral action, at the lowest
emotions.
stage, the individual acts to avoid punishment or to
• Moral decisions/judgments are formed not by reason
obtain exchange of favors; at the highest level, to
alone but through feelings.
avoid self-condemnation.
• One’s view regarding the goodness and badness of an
Criticisms action is based on passions, motives, volitions, and
thoughts.
HEINZ’s DILEMMA
• Whatever action that would give the spectator a
 Respondents have no knowledge about married life.
pleasing sentiment would be considered as morally
 Male respondents
acceptable, while those that would be unpleasing to
 Hypothetical situation
the spectators would be considered morally
However,
unacceptable. e.g. feeling of sympathy to others
 connection of psychology and philosophy in
• A behaviour is considered to be virtuous if it is useful
establishing moral perspective on human behavior
or agreeable to people who are affected by the action
and character.
being considered.
 human person is capable of making moral decisions
• Interest should not be for one’s own but for
that can benefit not only one’s self but also others.
somebody else, that is, for the interest of those which
 one’s maturity depends on his education and
would be directly or indirectly affected by a particular
environment.
action.
• If an action is useful or agreeable to others and to
Chapter 4: The Act
one’s self, it is then considered to be morally
• TWO FACULTIES OF MAN
acceptable.
 INTELLECT – gives man the capacity to think.
• Hume’s ethical theory is an empirical approach to
 WILL – gives man the capacity to make
morality.
decision
• Moral decisions are based not on judgments based on
reason but on feelings.
FEELINGS AND MORALITY
• Subjectivity over objectivity
• Western philosophers were reacting to the position
• CRITIQUE: Morality must be absolute and universal.
of the church scholars who asserted that religion is a
If it is based on feelings, then everything will become
necessary foundation for morality.
subjective.
• Moral decisions must be founded on religious laws
• For the religious moralists, Hume did not include the
and doctrines.
role of God in determining the morality of one’s
• David Hume believed that virtue is in conformity to
action; hence, it is weak and groundless.
reason. Like truth, morality is discerned merely by
• However, usefulness and the good effect of one’s
ideas. To distinguish the good and the bad, we have
action can still be the basis in determining whether
to consider reason alone.
such action is considered morally acceptable or not.
• Philosophers during the time of Hume placed greater
(Utilitarianism)
emphasis on reason over feelings.
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
REASON AND MORALITY
• Plato argued that the function of reason is to rule the • Thomas Nagel believed that morality must be rooted
appetites and emotions. not in feelings or emotions because that will make
• Mind or intellect (nous) is the immortal part of the morality subjective. Morality must be objective.
soul gives man the capacity for truth and wisdom. • Morality should be rooted in reason.
• René Descartes held that reason has prominence • Feelings should not be the basis of morality because
over church laws and religious doctrines. one’s feelings may be different from the feelings of
• Stoics upheld that the human person must be able to others.
control his passions with reason in order to live a • Feelings may be irrational. They may be products of
moral life. prejudice, selfishness, or cultural conditioning.
 • One’s moral decision may depend on the effect of 6. Compare the alternatives with the principles
one’s action to the person’s involved • Most of the time, the case will already be
• In terms of moral truth, discovering the truth can only resolved at this point because the principles
be made possible if one is guided by reason. will eliminate all the other alternatives
• Most philosophers would consider this as the essence except the one which will uphold a moral
of morality. value.
• The morally right is to do the action that is supported • In case that there are no clear decisions that
by rational arguments. may come into fore at this point, it is then
• Moral judgments must be backed up by good reason. necessary to get to the next step.
• Remember: not every reason is good but they may 7. Weigh the Consequences
still be valid. • If the moral principles that have a bearing on
• It will now be the job of the person to discern the case do not yet provide a clear decision,
(intellect/reason) which action is good. then it is necessary to consider the
consequences of an action.
8 Steps to Moral Reasoning Process • It is important to take note of both the
1. Gather the Facts positive and the negative consequences.
8. Make a decision
• One should ask not only “What do we know?”
but also “What do we need to know?” in order • In an ethical dilemma, one has to undergo
to make an intelligent ethical decision. the painful process of critical studies and
2. Define the Ethical Issues analyses.
• Issues can be presented as ___ vs. ____. This • Decisions must be on the least number of
will help the person analyze the interests problems or negative consequences, and not
that are contradicting one another. the one that is devoid of problems.
• E.g., the right of the teacher to give a failing Chapter 5: The Epicurean Ethics
grade to students who are not academically
qualified versus the obligation of the teacher • Man searches happiness.
to become charitable to students. • This happiness can be attained only by living an
3. Review relevant ethical guidelines ethical life.
• Determine the different ethical guidelines
and determine which can be best applied to Hedonism Epicureanism
the issue.
• Biblical, constitutional, and natural law Good = physical Good = mental or
principles must be taken into consideration pleasure intellectual pleasure
4. Obtain consultation
• Since no one can be an expert in making Bad = painful Bad = troubles of the
moral decisions, it is important to consult mind
persons who are more competent in terms
of morality.
• One may consult a religious leader, or a well-
revered teacher, or an elder in a society who THE HEDONIST PHILOSOPHY
can have more wisdom than us. • The founder of this philosophy is probably Aristippus
• The view of these people may not be our of Cyrene (c.340-450 BCE).
final ethical decision but they can at least • “Hedone” - pleasure
serve as a guide to our decisions. • Pleasure is good and pain is evil.
5. List the Alternative Courses of Action • Search for pleasure is man’s birthright.
• Making moral decisions require creative • Pleasure is always good regardless of its source.
thinking, which will help one identify various • Life is basically a search for pleasure. Because
alternative courses of action. pleasure is the natural goal of all life, we should try to
• The more alternatives that can be listed, the have as much intense sensual pleasure as we can.
better the chance that the list will include • Happy life is having the most possible pleasure and
some high-quality alternative for a better the least possible pain.
decision.
 • Pleasure is the natural goal of all life, accordingly, • Rather than seek to have the most of anything,
man should try to have as much sensual pleasure as including the longest lifespan, the wise and
we can. sophisticated Epicurean chooses to have the finest.
• Physical pleasure is the best of all as it is more • Epicurus’ view of pleasure is somehow sophisticated
intense than mental or emotional pleasures. because he still recommends a virtuous and
• Physical pleasure is the best of all things because it moderate ascetic life as the best means of securing
makes life more exciting, dynamic, and worth living. pleasure.
• Pleasure is the standard of goodness. • Epicureanism is mistakenly associated with expensive
• Pleasure serves as gauge in determining the tastes, exotic food and drink, elegant clothing, and a
goodness of a human action. life devoted to the pursuit of such kind of happiness.
• Since man always desires pleasure, then finding (Hedonism)
pleasure is good. • The highest pleasures are intellectual and the
• The pleasure of the present is much more desirable greatest good is peace of mind, not intense or
than the pleasure of the future for tomorrow might exquisite physical pleasure.
not even come. • Types of Pleasure
• “Eat, drink, and be merry today for tomorrow you  natural and necessary
may die.”  natural but not necessary,
• Whatever pleases the person most at the moment is  neither natural nor necessary.
the highest good. • Sensual pleasure will not lead to real happiness.
• Man should be happy at all cost. • Real happiness could be achieved by means of those
activities that will free the human being from
EPICUREANISM troubles of the mind.
• Epicurus of Samos (c. 341-271 BCE) held that • What leads to a real pleasant life is the austere
philosophy must be looked up not as a mere reasoning that will aid man to the true realization of
acquisition of knowledge but as a medicine of the the meaning of life and the avoidance of the greatest
soul. disturbance of the spirit brought about by mere
opinions.
• Philosophy frees an individual from ignorance and
superstitions. • There are types of pleasure which cannot be satisfied.
• Ideas are capable of controlling and developing one’s • Man should aspire for the things that will bring
life. happiness but only with a minimum desire.
• Democritus, the atomist influenced Epicurus. • Nature requires man’s body to receive the
satisfaction he needs.
• For Democritus, God was not the creator of anything,
consequently, human behavior should not be based • Aside from consuming only a little of what the
upon obedience to the principle coming from God. human person desires, he or she will, therefore,
need only a little.
• Everyday occurrences are only result of a
purposeless and random event. • Man will easily be satisfied.
• Aim: To banish from people the fear of gods which Self-Centered Moral Philosophy
prevents people from acquiring happiness.
• Man must not fear punishments from gods. • The concern of Epicureanism is individual pleasure
• Epicureanism was often charged as a godless and not communal pleasure.
philosophy. • The height of pleasure is the freedom from all pains
• Epicureans claimed that there are gods, but they are and getting rid of all the discomfort of both the mind
different to the popular conception of gods. and the body.
• Gods function mainly as ethical ideals, whose lives • If such freedom teaches man to rationally manage
we can strive to emulate and, but whose wrath we his desires, then he has reached the height of
need not fear pleasure and the end of all evil.
• God does not have control over nature nor destiny, • Those who are liberated from the troubles of the
He would not, therefore, be able to intrude in the mind are already living a good life.
affairs of the people • The aim of life is the attainment of pleasure –
happiness – final goal of every person.
The Duty of the Human Person • Pleasure can be obtained by mastery and control or
• Epicurean Philosophy is egoistic hedonism. limitation of desire as far as possible to those that
were strictly necessary.
 • Epicurus added that pleasure also implies limitation • (JUSTICE) When the aspects of the soul (rational,
of social relationships (family, religious, and political). spirited, and appetitive) are balanced, good life is
• Good life could not be found from one’s service to granted to such individual, accordingly, HAPPINESS.
fellow human person. • A well-ordered soul – doing good deeds.
• Good life can be found only in a pleasant company of • For Plato, good life means knowing and fulfilling
intellectually fascinating friends. one’s own function.
• Civil society is needed only for punishing individuals • Failure to recognize and fulfil one’s function would
who inflict pain upon others. lead to CONFLICT. (INJUSTICE)
• Basic Guide to Epicurean Living: • In the Republic, when the 1) peasant, 2) military, 3)
1. Do not fear God philosopher-king play their particular roles, an
2. Do not worry about death organized community/society is assured.
3. Do not fear pain • An ethical action happens when the human person
4. Live a simple life performs his function in the society.
5. Pursue pleasure wisely • The ethical principles of Socrates and developed by
6. Make friends and be a good friend Plato influenced the ethical beliefs of Aristotle, who
7. Be honest in your business and private life was then considered to be the most intelligent
8. Avoid fame and political ambition. student of Plato.
• He earned the reputation of being the mind and the
Criticisms
reader of the school (Plato’s Academy).
• First, epicureanism upholds that life should be lived
• For Plato, his Academy is consisted of two parts: the
simply.
body which is the students, and the brain which is
• This contradicts the claim that happiness may be
Aristotle.
obtained by way of pleasure.
• He built an altar in honor of Plato.
• Man should only have minimum desires and
• Aristotle, who was supposedly be replacing Plato as
accordingly these desires must be controlled.
the head of the Academy, the trustees of the school
• It is easily said than done.
picked a native Athenian instead.
• Second, pleasure cannot be just limited to the
• Another reason: he opposed some of the doctrines of
avoidance of physical pain and troubles of the mind
Plato.
because they can still be considered as morally
• Aristotle trained the Alexander the great, son of King
acceptable if the experience of such pains may lead
Philip of Macedon.
the person to the greater glory and for the greater
• Founded his own school ‘Lyceum’ which he named
good.
after the god Apollo Lyceus.
• Third, there are individual who find pleasure in
• Methods of teaching is ‘paripatetics’(Hakim).
helping others.
• The Academy and Lyceum for a short period of time
Chapter 7: The virtue ethics of Aristotle were bitter rivals, however, later on, because of their
particular interests, their rivalry subsided.
ARISTOTLE: The Virtue Ethics
• Academy was focused on mathematics and pure
• Sophists focused their studies on man as a person and understanding.
as a thinking being. • Lyceum was focused on anthropological studies of
• They question whether man is capable of attaining barbarian cultures, chronologies, of various wars and
knowledge, accordingly, one’s social responsibility is games, the organs and living habits of animals, the
determined and at the same time, the goodness of an nature and location of plants.
action is specified. The Philosophy of Aristotle
• Good is relative to specific culture. – Herodutus
• Aristotle turned to the phenomena of changing and
• “Man is the measure of all things.” – Protagoras the changeless.
• Is there really a universal moral principle that will • Thing changes because of its nature permits it.
serve as the basis for doing good deeds? • Things have principle of actuality (act) and principle
• Although Socrates was a relativists, he believed in of potentiality (potency).
standard/objective ethical standard. • Matter(potency) and form(act) – hylomorphic
• Good and evil and not pleasure or pain. doctrine
• A good deed is obtained when one is doing justice to (Because of this, he is sometimes called the father of science.)
others.
The Human Person for Aristotle 2 Types of End
• A human being is composed of body and soul.
a) Instrumental end – means for other ends
• Body and Soul are not separate entities, rather they
b) Intrinsic end – done for its own sake.
are correlative constituents of one being.
• Man being composed of body and soul is neither a
• Aristotle tied the word GOOD to the special function
body nor a soul.
(purpose) of a thing.
• Soul “entelechy” – definite form of the body.
• Human person is good only when he is functioning
as a human person.
• For Plato, man is composed of two separate entities,
• Everyone must be able to discover first the distinctive
the body and the soul.
function of everyone in order to obtain goodness.
• In this case, Plato was talking of pre-existence and
immortality of the soul. (Learning is a process of What is now man’s function/role?
recollection) • The function of man is an activity of the human soul
• In contrary, for Aristotle, death could cause the that implies a rational principle.
discontinuance in existence of both body and soul. • An action is considered to be good(activity of the
(Human mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate) soul), if is it done in accordance with the rational
• The soul is that which animates the principle/rational part of the soul (VIRTUOUS ACT).
body(subordinate). • Within communal life of the Polis (fullest extent of
• Soul has two parts namely 1) rational and 2) irrational man’s activity according to reason) Act of
• The irrational part is divided into: Contemplation.
1. vegetative part (nutrition, growth, and • Man naturally seeks happiness (eudaimonia – a
reproduction) person is really alive rather than just merely existing).
2. desiring part • The nature and purpose of human action tend
• Desiring part is further divided into three progressive towards happiness.
levels • A human person is fully aware, vital, and alert.
1. epithumia (unruly and irrational sense • Full of life.
desires and covetousness,
2. thumos (spontaneous impulses) and The Virtue Ethics
3. boulesis (wishes and desires). • Happiness is not connected with pleasure.
• Rational soul(independent of the body) is divided • Pleasure is connected with irrational part of the soul.
into: • Pleasure is not the goal/end of life, same thing as the
1. Phronesis (practical intellect which is acquisition of wealth.
ordained towards action and determines • Aristotle rejected fame and public success, for he
the appropriate means to attain an end, believed that these will not give him
moreover, it aims to control the irrational Eudamonia(happiness)
part) and • Every person aims for pleasure, wealth, and honor.
2. Speculative Intellect (pure thought or But none of these ends, though they have value, can
intellection, level of contemplation). occupy the place of the ultimate good for which every
• Man has REASON (rational part of the soul) – it people should aim.
makes man different from all other creatures. • The self-sufficient we are, the happier we will be; and
• Man’s reason makes him resemble to the Supreme the famous are less-sufficient.
Reason-God (rules and guides the destinies of • An ordinary man has a greater peace of mind,
individual and nations, and lead all things to their security, and satisfaction in knowing that he can
proper ends) provide for his own needs than there is in depending
• Speculative intellect is that which is closely on others.
connected with reason. • The highest and fullest happiness comes from a life of
• Through contemplation(speculative intellect), man reason and contemplation—not a life of inactivity or
will realize that all things are leading to their proper imbalance but a rationally ordered life in which
ends (Teleological – purpose/end). intellectual, physical, and social needs are all met
• Every action of the human person is aiming towards under the governance of reason and moderation
an end (Soccio, 186). According to Aristotle, a reasonable
person does not avoid life, rather, he engages in it
fully.
 • Man can only live a full life if he would be living with • Phronesis is the practical intellect that properly
the polis or the society. A rich and full life is a social decides to act. It takes the appropriate means in the
life. situation in view of the intended goal and takes
• A human being is a political creature designed by command of one's desire and passion.
nature to live with the others. Hence, all the actions • Phronesis (Practical wisdom) is the proper activity
of the human person can be adjudged as good or bad and virtue of the practical intellect by which the
depending on the goodness or badness of its effect on human person, as the source of action, is the union of
others. desire and thought.
• In applying the phronesis, Aristotle, like Plato, viewed
What is that particular action that will lead the human person
the communal life of the polis as the proper place for
to this ultimate happiness?
the exercise of the moral virtue. In fact, it is the very
• FUNCTION
life of moral virtues and thus, the polis constitutes
• From the objective point of view, a morally virtuous one of the ends of the human person.
act consists of a measured activity, following the rule
• Life is a blessing because it is an opportunity to be
of the (mesotes) or just middle, i.e., "neither
with the community where happiness really abounds.
deficient nor excessive”
• As the human person has a function to fulfill, his life
• Any action(function) that is done or indulged
constitutes being one with the community.
excessively or insufficiently would go out of bounds
• Happiness is the product of our action based on our
and would become unreasonable and improper to
distinctive nature (rational part of the soul).
the nature of human being.
• It is the fruit of a virtuous living, the constant and
• Any action that is coming from the just middle is
proper exercise of reason in all of man's actions and
ruled by reason, which orders the desires and
endeavors.
passion into a harmonious whole.
• In this case, it is proper to assume that a virtuous act
What is a virtuous act? is acting according to our highest nature, that is,
• A virtuous act is following the mandates of the based on a contemplative activity.
rational part of the soul. • An action based on contemplation is the best action
• A virtuous act is that which proceeds from a habitual because not only is the reason the best thing for us,
state or disposition acquired through constant but the objects of reason are also the best knowable
practice, where the doing of the virtuous act has objects.
become a kind of second nature on the part of the • Contemplation is the highest and most perfect type
human person. Such action has been done firmly and of reflection, the way it is in GOD.
surely, without fail or without any doubt or • According to Aristotle, the main problem of morality
hesitation. is seen to be how to discipline the lower desires and
• a virtuous act is that which proceeds from the right passions and how to educate and cultivate the
intention. intellectual part of the soul in order to attain man’s
• A moral virtue is a rationally measured activity fulfillment.
following the rule of the just middle, motivated by • For Plato, good signifies a transcendent,
right intention and proceeding from a permanent otherworldly end of man.
disposition acquired through habitual action. • For Aristotle, the moral end is seen as something
immanent in human activity and achievable in this
An Action that Proceeds from Contemplation life.
• In order for the human person to be sure that his • Goodness can be obtained when one performs his
action is done in permanent disposition, such action function in the community.
should be done in the act of contemplation. • Such action must be rooted from contemplation and
Performing such activity is said to be related to the must proceed from the habitual action.
moral virtues. • An action of the human person is good if it originates
• Whenever an action is performed based on from contemplation.
contemplation, such action is said to be coming from • A person who is performing his action according to
(phronesis) or the practical wisdom/intellect, which his function (ergon) in the most excellent way (arête)
provides the insight to the truth about the intrinsic and in a habitual fashion is a acting as a human
worth and excellence and beauty or goodness or the person. (moral character).
(kalon) of the action done. • If one does an action habitually, such habit will
eventually make up his character and such character
will determine his destiny. (Second nature)
 • It is important to establish one’s character based on
his good deeds inasmuch as such character will
establish the value of the human person as a human
person.

SUMMARY:

• Man searches for happiness (Eudamonia).

• How one can achieve Eudamonia? Knowing and
fulfilling one’s function (Ergon)
• How one can know his function? The rational parts of
the soul, namely: Phronesis and Speculative intellect
will disclose to man his functions.
• How one should do his function? Just Middle
(mesotes) also in Most Excellent way (Arete)*, and
Habitual Fashion with right intention.
• Where can one fulfill/perform his function? Polis
(community/society)

Critique on the Aristotelian Ethics

• Aristotle held that every human person is aiming

towards the attainment of eudaimonia, which is
considered by Aristotle as the highest happiness.
• Aristotle also upheld the value of mesotes, the
principle of the Just Middle, which states that the
basis of morality is the avoidance of the two
extremes.
• Consequently, aiming for eudaimonia may be
contrary to the idea of the just middle because
eudaimonia aims for the highest happiness which is
an extreme.
• If the basis of morality is the middle position, then
aiming for the best would be considered an extreme
and therefore not good.
• A virtuous act is that which is done voluntarily.
• If doing good deeds already becomes a habit that it
becomes already a secondary nature of the person,
then some of his charitable deeds maybe done
already involuntarily and, therefore, not to be
considered a moral action anymore.
• Aristotle’s concept of good actions is based on what
is considered during his time as the supposed action
of the elite people in the society. In this regard, his
concept of goodness may already be incoherent in
our modern day context.