CHAPTER 1

CURRICULUM ESSENTIALS

OVERVIEW

This chapter is divided into two modules, each of which addresses a different lesson
related to the curriculum. The first module concentrates on the teacher's interest in the
curriculum as a curricularist, as well as the history of the curriculum and the different forms
of curriculum. For the Second Module Definitions, design, scope and the techniques used in
the curriculum will be the subject of Module. It also includes Curriculum Creation Processes
and Models, as well as the Curriculum Foundation, since a well-designed curriculum can be
used as a guide to ensure that both students and teachers are on track. Its elements are
designed to assist students in advancing from general concepts to more advanced topics or
skills.

In learning the program, these are the main topics. This chapter also standardizes the
learning goals for the entire chapter and provides a straightforward route for students to grasp
the curriculum.
 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, the students can:

 Analyze the changing concepts of curriculum including various types of

curricula and how these are reflected in Philippine education;
 Describe the important roles of the teacher as curricularist who engages in the
different facets of curriculum development in any educational level

 Identify the meaning and Scope of Curriculum

 Describe the different approaches to school curriculum

 Differentiate curriculum processes and models.
 Recognize the role of the teacher in the implementation of the curriculum.
MODULE 1
The School Curriculum and the Teacher

OVERVIEW

The basic concepts and principles of curriculum creation are included in this
introductory course as a framework for involving prospective teachers as curricularist. The
teacher's more involved role in the planning, execution and assessment of the school curriculum,
as well as in the management of the school curriculum, is evolving in relation to different
teaching-learning contexts and curriculum changes.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the module, the students can:

 Discussed the cultural origins of education;

 analyze the changing concepts of curriculum including various types of
curricula and how these are reflected in Philippine education;
 describe the important roles of the teacher as curricularist who engages in the
different facets of curriculum development in any educational level
Lesson 1: Curriculum in Schools

In our current Philippine educational system, different schools are established in different
educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula. The educational levels are:

TESDA take care of the technical-vocational education training

1. Basic Education
This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for secondary,
Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and
12 and for the Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended
curriculum. The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced
Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.

2. Technical Vocational Education

This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training. For the TechVoc
track in SHS of Deped and TESDA work in close coordination.

3. Higher Education
This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees
(Masterate and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED)

Types of Curricula In Schools

In whatever levels of schooling and in various types of learning environment, several

curricula exist. Let us find out how Allan Glatthorn (2000) as mentioned in Bilbao, et (2008)
classified these:

1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all of the curricula found in our schools are
recommended. For Basic Education, these are recommended by the Department of
Education (DepED), for Higher Education by the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) and Vocational Technical Education by Technical Education, Skills
Development Authority (TESDA), these three government agencies oversee and regulate
Philippine education. The recommendations come in the form of memoranda or policy,
standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations or international bodies like
UNESCO also recommends curricula in schools.

2. Written Curriculum. This includes document based on the recommended curriculum.

They come in a form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books, instructional guides
among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the
 teacher’s lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine
Basic Education.

3. Taught Curriculum. From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to
be implemented or taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the written
curriculum. The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written
curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be necessary. The
taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the
learning style of the learners.

4. Supported Curriculum is described as support materials that the teacher needs to

make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books,
charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like PowerPoint presentation,
movies, slides, models, realias, mock ups and other electronic illustrations.
Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs inside the four-
walled building. These include the playground, science laboratory, audio-visual
rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are the places where authentic
learning through direct experiences occur.

5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to evaluated to find

out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of
teaching and end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment as learning or
assessment of learning. If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the
assessed curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned
or mastered, then it is assessment of learning. In either way, such curriculum is the
assessed curriculum.

6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always

believe that if a student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a
non-reader to a reader or from not knowing to knowing or from being disobedient to
being obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These
are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and
critical thinking and lifelong skill.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a

great impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media,
parental pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities, are some
factors that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this
hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to include these in the written
curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.
 In every teacher’s classroom, not all of these curricula may be present at one time. Many of
them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed,
and learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and a teacher may or may
not be able to predict its influence on learning. All of these have significant part on the life
of the teacher as a facilitator of learning and direct implication to the life of the learners.

Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating in every
teacher’s classroom, it is then very necessary to learn deeper and broader about the role of
the teacher in relation to the school curriculum.

Lesson 2: The Teacher As A Curricularist

The Teacher as a curricularist . . . .

1. knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner
starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the content. As a
teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic
knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from experiences,
vicarious, and unintended). It is the mastery of the subject matter. (Knower)

2. writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts,

subject matter or content. These need to be written or preserved. The teacher writes
books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference materials in
paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer or reviewer. (Writer)

3. plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the
teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as a
guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration
several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include the learners, the support
material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context of the
learners among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a curriculum planner.
(Planner)

4. initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the

schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational
agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement.
Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness of the teacher, and
the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning. There will be many constraints
and difficulties in doing things first or leading, however, a transformative teacher will
never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (Initiator)
 5. innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent
teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence keeps on changing. From the content,
strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of students and
skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit.
A good teacher, therefore innovates the curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum
innovator. (Innovator)

6. implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written

will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As mentioned previously,
at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is this role where the teacher becomes the
curriculum implementor. An imlementor gives life to the curriculum plan. The teacher
is at the height of an engagement with the learners, with support materials in order to
achieve the desired outcome. It is where teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the
teacher is expected to the highest level. It is here where teaching as a science and an art
will be observed. It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come into
play. The success of a recommended, well written and planned curriculum depends on
the implementation. (Implementor)

7. evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes
have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results? What
do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are there some practices that should
be modified? Should the curriculum be modified, terminated or continued? These are
some few questions that need the help of a curriculum evaluator. That person is the
teacher. (Evaluator)

The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the classroom
everyday! Doing this multi-faceted work, qualifies teacher to be a curricularist.

To be a teacher is to be a curricularist even if a teacher may not equal the likes of John
Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, or Franklin Bobbit. But as a curricularist a teacher will be
knowing, writing, implementing, innovating, initiating and evaluating the curriculum in the
school and classrooms just like the role models and advocates in curriculum and curriculum
development who have shown the way.
 Module 2
The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum
Module Overview:
Curriculum is a written document that systematically describes goals planned,
objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. And some says
curriculum is considered as the “heart” of any learning situation which means that schools or
universities cannot exist without a curriculum. So this module will tackle about topics in teacher
as knower of curriculum.

Module 2 describes the school curriculum in terms of its definition, its nature and scope,
which are needed by the teacher as a knower. This module provides a wider perspective for the
teacher about the curriculum, in terms of curriculum approach, curriculum development process,
some curriculum models and the foundations upon which curriculum is anchored. This will help
the students understand the importance of and the approaches in the curriculum, adapts the
definition and different points of view of curriculum, and how to relate it in our daily activities.

Module Objectives:
At the end of the module, Students can be able to

 Identify the meaning and Scope of Curriculum

 Describe the different approaches to school curriculum

 Differentiate curriculum processes and models.
 Recognize the role of the teacher in the implementation of
the curriculum.

 State the importance of curriculum in the teachers

classroom or environment.
Lesson 1: The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature, and Scope

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. A planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices
of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social
competence” (Daniel Tanner, 1980)

2. A written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content,

learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)

3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the
desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform
society make up a curriculum. (Schubert,1987)

4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program
of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives,
which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practices” (Hass, 1987)

5. As a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain
so fast as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy,
1987)

6. A plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool
that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities
and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the
school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)

7. As answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them?
(Cronbeth, 1992)

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person’s point of view, this
has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However, when put together, the different
definitions from confusion. However, when put together, the different definitions from diverse
points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever changing.
 Point of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to their
philosophical, psychological and even psychological orientations. These view can also define
what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of grammar,

reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs
(Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while liberal
education should be the emphasis in college.

 Arthur Bestoras an essentialist believe that the mission of the school should be
intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual
disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include mathematics, science,
history and foreign language.

 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the
subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many more. In
college, academic disciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences, languages,
mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for
curriculum development.

 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which
comes from various disciplines.

Collectively from the traditional view of the theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor and
Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic and is
concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social issues. From a
traditional view, curriculum is mostly written documents such syllabus, course of study, books
and references where knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish intended goals.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of specific
discipline do not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of curriculum is
the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how curriculum is defined from
a progressive point of view.

 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements that is tested by application.

 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children
have under the guidance of teachers.

 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum
as sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining
children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

 Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.

The nature of Curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person’s
philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, as set of subjects, a content, a program of

studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that
goes within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the teacher,
everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in school or what
individual learner experiences as a result of school. In short, Curriculum is the total learning
experiences of the learner, under the guidance of the teacher.

Lesson 2: Approaches About School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a content, a
process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there
are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as content or a body of
knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to approach it is a product or the learning outcomes
desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a process or what actually happens in the
classroom when the curriculum is practiced.
 1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline,

subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example, a primary
school mathematics curriculum consist of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction,
division, distance, weight and many more. Another example is in secondary school science
that involves the study of biological science, physical science, environmental science and
earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with biological science such are plants and animals,
physical science with the physical elements, force and motion, earth science with the layers
of the earth and environmental science with the interaction of the biological and physical
science and earth’s phenomena, climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such as
agriculture, mining industries, urbanization and so forth.

If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be
transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method. There can be a likelihood that
teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject
matter, however, the content or subject matter can also be taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have content regardless of their design or models. The fund of knowledge
is the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of
the earth and as product of research. In most educational setting, curriculum is anchored on
a body of knowledge or discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are:

1. topical approach, where much contents is based on knowledge and

experience are included;
2. concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub
concepts and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized;
3. thematic approach as a combination of concepts that develops
conceptual structures and
4. modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter.
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009)

1. Significance - Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and

generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant
if content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or
 psychomotor skills of the learner. As a education is a way of preserving culture, content
will be significant when this will address the cultural context of the learners.

2. Validity - The authenticity of the subject matter, forms is validity. Knowledge

becomes obsolete with the fast-changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check
and verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its original
form may not continue to be valid in the current times.

3. Utility - Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners, who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past,
but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will I use this in my future
job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be
useful in solving current concerns?

4. Learnability - The complexity of the content should be within the range of experience
of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate
organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles
that would influence learnability.

5. Feasibility- Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resource
available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are
there opportunities provided to learn these?

6. Interest - Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria mentioned
earlier, may include the following guide in the selection of the CONTENT.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Content is commonly used in the daily life.
2. Content is appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Content is valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career.
4. Content is related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and
integration.
5. Content is important in the transfer of learning in other disciplines
BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content
In 1952, Palma proposed the principle of BASIC as a guide in addressing CONTENT in the
curriculum B.A.S.I.C refers to Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity. In
organizing content or putting together subject matter, these principles are useful as a guide.

Balance - Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee
that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed
with in the time allocation.

Articulation - As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels, vertically
or horizontally across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided.
This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness in the content is desired and
can be assured if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need off team among
writers and implementers of curriculum.

Sequence - The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. This can be
done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the same content. In
both ways, the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is
current to something in the future.

Integration - Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has some
ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused in other
disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view of curriculum
instead of segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines acquire a higher
premium than when isolated.

Continuity - Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was

before, to where it is now and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It endures
time. Content may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and
developments in curriculum occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of
content are all elements of continuity.

2. Curriculum Approached as a Process

We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can
also be approached as a process. Here, a curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun, but
as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As a process,
curriculum happens in the classroom as the question asked by the teacher and the learning
activities engaged in by the students. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in
which the processes occur. Used in analogy of a recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content
while the ways of cooking are the process.
 This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where learning
experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of curriculum is
understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will be
communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction,
implementation, teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When
educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1.
Problem based. 2. Hands-on, Mind On 3. Cooperative Learning
4.Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6. Case-based and many more. These responses approach
curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding
learning, methods of teaching and learning strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of
these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and learner do together or learners are
guided by the teacher. Some of the strategies are time-tested traditional methods while others are
emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies is means to achieve

the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired
learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described
as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An
effective process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives action
using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, product is what the
students desire to achieve as a learning outcome.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values
to function effectively and efficiently Approach. The real purpose of education is to bring about
significant changes in students’ pattern of behavior. It is important that any statement of
objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in
the students. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives stated as
intended learning outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching methods may be
organized and the results evaluated. A product of learning is operationalized as knowledge,
skills, and values.
 Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the achieved
learning outcomes. There maybe several desired learning outcomes, but if the process is not
successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or achieved learning
outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful experiences in the curriculum. All
of these are result of planning, content and processes in the curriculum.

Lesson 3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and
procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic. A change for the better means
alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes,
development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually it is linear and follows a
logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum
design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. Generally, most models involve
four phases.

1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes
the philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be
translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.

2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the

selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning
experience or activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to
measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the
resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementing in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The

teacher, who is the facilitator of learning, leads in putting into action the plan which is
based on the curriculum design. Together with the learners, the curriculum design guides
what will transpire in the classroom with the end in view of achieving the intended
learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves
the activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an
active process.

4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have
been achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning
(formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way,
 evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the
implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective
measures introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision making of
curriculum planners, and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development, model emphasizes
the planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the
following questions:

1. What education purposes should school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler’s model shows that in the curriculum development, the following

considerations should be made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. She believed that teachers should
participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach Taba begins from the
bottom, rather than from the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps
to her linear model which are the following:

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as
consisting of four steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets
of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for
an identifiable population served by a single school center.”

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains: Curriculum planners begin by specifying

the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish.
Each major goal represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human
relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals, and objectives
and domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation
standards, views of the different stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing: Designing of a curriculum follows where

appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is
provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic
disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These
are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the
development process

3. Curriculum Implementation: A designed curriculum is now ready for

implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional
objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are
utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students.

4. Evaluation: The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A

comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is
recommended. It should involve the total educational programme of the school
and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of
students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers
can determine whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of
instruction.

All the models, utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2) curriculum
designing, (3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating.
Lesson 4: Foundations of Curriculum Development

Foundation of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’
classrooms or learning environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers question like:
What are Schools for? What subjects are important? How should student learn? What
methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy.
John Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing”, he being a pragmatist. Or to an
essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential
subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but will only have few to illustrate as
presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism
 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect.
 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking: HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subject, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring.
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism
 Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent.
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; Essential subjects
 Trends: Back to Basics. Excellence in Education. Cultural Literacy

C. Progressivism
 Aim: Promote democratic social living.
 Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners.
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcome-based.
 Trends: Equal opportunities for all. Contextualized curriculum. Humanistic
education.

D. Reconstructionism
 Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
 Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms.
 Focus: Present and future educational landscape.
  Trends: School and curricular reform. Global education. Collaboration and
Convergence. Standards and Competencies.

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to
us the chronological development along a timeline. Reading materials would tell us that
curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book “The
Curriculum.” Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum development during their
own time. Here are eight among the many, we consider to have great contribution.

Persons Contribution
 Started the curriculum development
movement.
 Curriculum as a science that emphasize on
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) students’ needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life
 Objectives and activities grouped together when
task is clarified.
 Like Bobbit, curriculum is science and
emphasizes student’s needs.
Werret Charters (1875-1952)  Objectives and activities should match.
Subject matter or content relates to
objectives.
 Curricula are purposeful activities which are
child-centered.
William Kilpartick (1875-1952)  The purpose of the curriculum is child
development and growth. The project method was
introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and
student plan the activities.
 To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole
child. It is child-centered.
 With the statement of objectives and related
Harold Rugg (1886-1960) learning activities, curriculum should produce
outcomes.
 Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.
 Sees curriculum as organized around social
functions of themes, organized knowledge and
learner’s interest.
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)  Caswell believes that curriculum, instruction and
learning are interrelated.
  Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter
is developed around social functions and learners’
interests.
 As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler
believes that curriculum is a science and an
extension of school’s philosophy. It is based on
students’ needs and interest.
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)  To Tyler, curriculum is always related to
instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms
of knowledge, skills and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving. The
curriculum aims to educate generalists and not
specialists.
 Contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical
foundations of concepts development and critical
Hilda Taba (1902-1967) thinking in social studies curriculum.
 Helped lay the foundation for diverse student
population.

 Described how curriculum change is a

cooperative endeavor.
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)  Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the
professional core of planners.
 Significant improvement through group
activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychological provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It
unifies elements of the learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological
foundations of education are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning?
What is the optimal level of students’ participation in learning the various contents of the
curriculum? In this module we shall consider three groups of learning theories: behaviorism
or association theories; cognitive- information processing theories and humanistic theories
(Ornstien&Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.
3.1 Association and Behaviorism
3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Persons Contribution
 Father of the Classical Conditioning
Theory the S-R Theory.
  The key to learning is early years of life is to
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) train them what you want them to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning
practice called indoctrination.

 Championed the Connection Theory

 Proposed the three laws of learning
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) - Law of readiness
- Law of exercise
- Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response
 Proposed the Hierarchical Learning
Theory. Learning follows a hierarchy
Robert Gagne (1916-2002)  Behavior is based on prerequisite
conditions.
 Introduced tasking in the formulation of
objectives

Persons Contribution
 Theories of Jean Piaget

- Describes cognitive development in terms

of stages from birth to maturity
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2),
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
operation stage (7-11) and formal
operations (11 - onwards)

 Key to learning

- Assimilation (incorporation of new

experience)
- Accommodation (learning modification
and adaptation)
- Equilibration (balance between
previous and later learning)

 Theory of Lev Vygotsky

- Cultural transmission and

 development
- Children could, as a result of their
interaction with society, actually perform
Ley Vygotsky (1896-1934)
certain cognitive actions prior to arriving
at developmental stage
- Learning precedes development
- Sociocultural development theory

 Key to learning

- Pedagogy creates learning processes that

lead to development
- Child is an active agent in his or her
educational process.

 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

- Humans have several different ways of

Howard Gardner processing information and these ways are
relatively independent of one another
- Eight intelligences: linguistic,
logicomathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

 Emotion contains the power to affect

Daniel Goleman action
- Emotional Quotient
3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contribution
 Gestalt Theory
- Learning is explained in terms of
“wholeness” of the problem.
- Human beings do not respond to isolated
stimuli but to an organization or pattern of
stimuli.

Gestalt  Key to learning

- Learning is complex and abstract
- Learners analyze the problem,
 discriminate between essential and
nonessential data, and perceive
relationships.
- Learners will perceive something in relation
to the whole. What/how they perceive is
related to their previous experiences.

 Self-actualization Theory
 Classic theory of human needs.
 A child whose basic needs are not met will
not be interested in acquiring knowledge of
the world
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)  Put importance in human emotions, based on
love a trust

 Key to learning

- Produce a healthy and happy learner who

can accomplish, grow and actualize his or
her human self.

 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning

- Established counselling procedures and

methods for facilitating learning.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) - Children’s perceptions, which are highly
individualistic, influence their learning
and behaviour in class.

 Key to learning is

- Curriculum concerned with process not

product; personal needs, not
subject matter, psychological
meaning, not cognitive source.

Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols Contribution
 Society as a source of change
School and Society  Schools as agents of change
  Knowledge as an agent of change
 Considered two fundamental elements-
schools and civil society-to be major topics
John Dewey (1859-1952) needing attention and reconstruction to
encourage experimental
intelligence and plurality
 Wrote the book Future Shock
 Believed that knowledge should prepare
Alvin Toffler students for the future
 Suggested that in the future, parents might
have the resources to teach prescribed
curriculum from home as a result of
technology, not in spite of it. (Home
Schooling)
 Foresaw schools and students worked
creatively, collaboratively, and
independent of their age.

In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational

philosophies, historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of
these foundations are interrelated to each.

Reference

Bilbao, P.B., Corpuz, B.B. & Dayagbil, F.T. (2014). Curriculum development for teachers.
Lorimar Publishing, INC. Quezon City, Metro Manila.