Journal of Travel Research http://jtr.sagepub.

com

Research Paradigms and the Tourism Curriculum

John Tribe
Journal of Travel Research 2001; 39; 442

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://jtr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/39/4/442

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

Travel and Tourism Research Association

Additional services and information for Journal of Travel Research can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://jtr.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://jtr.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007

© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
MAY 2001 OF TRAVEL RESEARCH
JOURNAL

Research Paradigms and

the Tourism Curriculum
JOHN TRIBE

A critique of tourism curriculum proposals in the litera- RESEARCH PARADIGMS

ture enables different methodological approaches to curric- AND THE TOURISM CURRICULUM
ulum design to be identified and evaluated. Three method-
ological paradigms for researching into the curriculum
emerge. These are the scientific positivist, the interpretive, Method, Methodology,
and the critical. The analysis of this article points to differ- and Research Paradigms
ences between research paradigms, the implications of using Before engaging directly with these proposals, it is
each of them for curriculum design, and the limitations of important to draw a distinction between method and method-
scientific-positivist approaches. It finds that methods that ology in curriculum design. Method is a particular way or
are exclusively scientific-positivist may have only limited ap- developed routine for approaching a research question. It can
plication because of their lack of attention to meaning and be classed as a technique. In some cases, a particular method
values and underlines the importance of approaching curric- is clearly suggested by the question itself. For example, the
ulum design mindful of the full range of research paradigms. hypothesis that tourism undergraduates are less well quali-
fied at entry into higher education than other undergraduates
This article classifies and evaluates methodologies used suggests an empirical method and the use of a survey as the
to design the tourism curriculum. It does this by way of a cri- technique for testing the hypothesis.
tique of recent proposals for the curriculum in the literature Methodology, on the other hand, is explained by Cohen
of tourism higher education. These are the Koh (1995) study and Manion (1994, quoting Kaplan) as a means “to describe
and the National Liaison Group for Higher Education in and analyse these methods, throwing light on their limita-
Tourism (NLG) proposals (Holloway 1995). Koh’s market- tions and resources, clarifying their presuppositions and con-
ing approach was to survey industrialists and academics as a sequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at
basis for design of the tourism curriculum, and the more the frontiers of knowledge” (p. 39).
recent World Tourism Organization/Bournemouth Univer- Now it seems that there is considerable confusion
sity study (Shepherd 1997) deploys a similar method. The between methodology as perceived by Kaplan and its com-
NLG approach has been to generate its core curriculum from mon usage. For in the case cited above, the use of survey
a committee of NLG members and debate the issue at a method to test a hypothesis, methodology is often taken just
national conference, which took place in December 1994. to mean a detailed exposition of the rudiments of a particular
The critique of these proposals enables different method- method. In the example about undergraduate entry qualifica-
ological approaches to curriculum design to be raised and tions, the focus would be on the procedures to be adopted to
evaluated. Three methodological paradigms for researching ensure that the survey method resulted in a valid conclusion.
into the curriculum emerge. These are the scientific positiv- Thus, methodological issues would include those of sam-
ist, the interpretive, and the critical. pling, of sampling error, of questionnaire design, and of sta-
The analysis of this article points to differences between tistical presentation and interpretation of results. Methodol-
research paradigms, the implications of using each of them ogy, in this usage, is the process for ensuring that a particular
for curriculum design, and the limitations of scientific- technique has scientific validity.
positivist approaches. It finds that methods that are exclu- Methodology is frequently used in the same way in tour-
sively scientific-positivist may have only limited application ism education research. For example, Koh (1995, p. 69) has a
because of their lack of attention to meaning and values and section titled “Research Methodology,” which describes the
underlines the importance of approaching curriculum design
mindful of the uses of different research paradigms. This is
particularly important in view of the rapid global growth of John Tribe is Professor of Tourism in the Faculty of Leisure and
tourism and the sustainability issues that are generated by Tourism at Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College and a
visiting lecturer at the University of Surrey. The author would like
this growth. to thank Professor Ronald Barnett, University of London, for his
comments on this article.
Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 39, May 2001, 442-448
© 2001 Sage Publications, Inc.

Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007

© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 443

detail of a particular method—a two-phased survey, sample Usher (1996) explained a research paradigm as “an
size, and sampling techniques—that was used to inform the exemplar or exemplary way of working that functions as a
design of a tourism curriculum. But Kaplan is implying an model for what and how to do research, what problems to
altogether different meaning of methodology. He is arguing focus on and work on” (p. 13).
that it means not just a detailed exposition of the specific The point about paradigms is that there can be more than
method to be used but a sustained reflection on methods in one of them, that they offer distinctively different ways of
general. In this view, methodology is more a matter of con- doing things, and that they direct methods and practices. In
sidering the nature of the research question being posed and research into the tourism curriculum, as in other areas of
considering, from a range of possible methods, which might social sciences, there are paradigms based on scientific posi-
be an appropriate approach or combination of approaches. tivism and those based on alternative approaches.
This implies that the researcher has some breadth of knowl-
edge about the extent of possible methods and can survey the The Scientific-Positivist Paradigm
landscape of methods from a vantage point with an overview.
It also implies that the whole process of research is opened up There are several defining characteristics of scientific-
to critical reflection. It is what Hammersley (1992) and positivist research. First, it concentrates on positive data, that
Usher (1996) called reflexivity in research. is, on facts that can be verifiable and can survive attempts at
The significance of adopting a methodological approach falsification. This essentially excludes questions of a moral
is to be aware of possible problems of partiality and prema- or ethical nature that cannot be settled by an appeal to facts.
ture closure. As Usher (1996) explained, “I may think for The world of “ought” is therefore ruled out of bounds in
example my research is simply a neutral ‘finding out,’ but the favor of the world of “is.” Next, a rigorous scientific method
kinds of questions I ask and the methods I use may mean it is used, based on hypothesis formulation and testing against
functions oppressively” (p. 37). empirical evidence. Quantitative measurement and experi-
One problem then is that the conclusions offered to some ment are key techniques here. Researchers adhere to the prin-
research questions may be determined more by the method ciple of value neutrality. In effect, their role becomes one of a
deployed than the data being studied. In other words, differ- specialist conduit giving access to facts. They are in theory
ent methods would generate different outcomes. Take the replaceable by any other researcher who would reach identi-
following research question: “What modules should consti- cal results using the same data and methods.
tute a tourism degree?” A methodological trap is present The NLG and Koh set out to find the key elements of the
core curriculum by an appeal to the facts using the scientific-
here. If the researcher moves too quickly to a quantitative
positivist paradigm. The NLG aim was to seek “some con-
survey method, the bulk of the research effort is committed to
sensus on the body of knowledge which would be acceptable
the statistical techniques of sampling, questionnaire design,
to both academics and practitioners in the tourism industry”
and so on, as in the earlier example about entry qualifica-
(Holloway 1995, p. 2). This consensus was sought at a
tions. But a vital difference between the two examples is that
national conference attended by academics and industrialists
the question of meaning of tourism education in the second
that was held in London in December 1994. However, the
example is much less clear than that of degree entry qualifi- conference was not provided with a tabula rasa but rather
cations in the first. Hence the importance of initial method- with a set of “seven ‘areas of knowledge’ on which the com-
ological deliberation in the Kaplan sense. mittee members of the NLG were agreed” (Holloway 1995,
Proper attention to methodology rather than a rush to a p. 2).
preferred method will mean that the problem of the mean- Reference to an earlier review by the U.K. Council for
ing of tourism education is addressed. This may entail a National Academic Awards (CNAA 1993, p. 32) enables the
conceptual inquiry to be engaged in before, or in conjunc- genealogy of the NLG project to be traced, and seven similar
tion with, subsequent work, which itself may comprise subject areas can be found. The CNAA review is more
ethnomethodological, interview, or survey techniques. It is explicit on how these seven areas have been identified. They
possible that the results of such an approach would be com- are based on Airey and Middleton’s (1984) review of the cur-
pletely different from a “straightforward” survey since each riculum of tourism courses (which was based on Burkart and
approach would be measuring a differently defined educa- Medlik’s [1981] “Body of Knowledge”) and “information
tion. In one case, education is predefined by the researcher, supplied by academic institutions for this review” (CNAA
while in the other case, education is interpreted through a 1993, p. 32).
more open dialogue with its stakeholders who are trans- We may therefore note in the NLG proposals a strong link
formed from objects to subjects of the research. Hence the with a scientific-positivist methodology. Koh’s (1995) study
earlier assertion that research solutions may be determined is explicitly scientific-positivist—its rationale being that
by method. Usher (1996) paraphrased Gadamer’s caution hitherto, there had been “little or no empirical input from
that “understanding an object is always ‘prejudiced’ in the industry” (p. 68) on current U.S. programs. This is a defi-
sense that it can only be approached through an initial projec- ciency that Koh seeks to redress by using a survey-based
tion of meaning” (p. 21). method.
Conscious of the propensity of method to determine Both the NLG and Koh approaches can be understood as
results (i.e., to endorse one version of the truth in a situation operating within the model proposed by Tyler (1949), in
of multitruths), a methodological inquiry follows. The Koh which four major curriculum questions are posed:
and NLG proposals are situated in competing research para-
digms, and the implications of approaching curriculum 1. What educational purposes should the institution seek
design from within different paradigms is analyzed. to attain?

Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007

© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
444 MAY 2001

2. What learning experiences should be selected? the purposes of the research. It includes and excludes factors
3. How should these learning experiences be organized? and defines its terms with regard to solving the “problem” to
4. How can the effectiveness of learning be evaluated? be resolved. The reality of the researched world is not admit-
ted as a problem in itself.
In fact, it can be seen that the NLG and Koh only really What all this adds up to is a method that produces a
address the second of these questions and that the answer to vocationalist curriculum based on technique and means
the first question is implicit in their answer to the sec- rather than on a consideration of ends. The production of
ond—that is, the educational purposes presupposed by the graduates with good business techniques is, of course, a key
NLG and Koh are those serving the interests of the business aim of tourism higher education, particularly for students
of tourism. who have enrolled for a vocational degree. Thus, scientific-
It is here that the notion of value neutrality for scientific positivist methods have an important place in the develop-
positivism is demonstrated to be an incomplete one. Data ment of the tourism curriculum. In this respect, both the NLG
collection methods deployed by Koh were undoubtedly and Koh proposals are to be welcomed as contributing clari-
value-free. But an initial value position is imposed by seek- fication to the classification of essential components of the
ing empirical input from industry. The value imposed is that curriculum to meet the requirements of technical skill.
of industry values. Pinar and Grumet (1981) criticized the However, what is questionable is whether it is appropri-
Tyler-type approaches to curriculum design, noting “its more ate to allow such methods to dominate the design of the tour-
recent mirroring of scientific [mainstream social] method ism curriculum. Such an approach—the elevation of scien-
and its apolitical and ideological function” (p. 30). tific positivism to the paradigm for curriculum thinking—
This is a criticism that fairly might be leveled at Koh and can lead to a one-dimensional (Marcuse 1968) development
the NLG since they approach curriculum design in a similar of the curriculum.
style to that of Tyler. Their implicit adherence to business In this one dimension, a critical view of society is missed.
values with little regard for the possibility of competing val- Bourdieu’s (1990) thesis of cultural and social reproduction
ues suggests that they are unconscious of the ideological and a self-legitimating system suggests a problem here. An
positioning of their studies. uncritical curriculum, implicitly endorsing the dominant
This is a clear case of method imposing closure on the business ideology, can play a part in the reproduction of an
result. Since the research question has defined the key data to imperfect society. It is in response to these issues that this
be collected as the opinions of tourism managers, the result is article turns next to alternative paradigms for curriculum
a tourism curriculum for the efficient management of tour- research, which are captured under the headings of the inter-
ism with an emphasis on operational expertise such as finan- pretive and the critical.
cial control and marketing. Now this should produce gradu-
ates who are good managers, are innovative, and are customer- Alternative Paradigms
centric. But the closure imposed is an emphasis on means and
technique at the expense of purposes. Ends are givens and are Alternative paradigms do not necessarily supplant scien-
rarely subject to critical scrutiny. Purpose is assumed to be tific positivism. Indeed, even the skeptical Hammersley
coterminous with profitability. (1992) pointed out the importance of scientific positivism to
The consequence of such a curriculum orientation is to educational researchers. He adverts particularly to its con-
produce managers who demonstrate not so much a lack of cern with “clarity of expression” and its “systematic treat-
concern for the social consequences of the single-minded ment of evidence, of searching for and taking due account of
pursuit of business efficiency but rather who are largely blind negative evidence, rather than simply fitting interpretations
to such consequences. For social consequences are not part to selected evidence” (p. 18).
of the agenda of a tourism curriculum designed by positivist Walle (1997) offered a balanced view while signaling
methodology. Ironically, scientific positivism’s pursuit of potential problems: “Science provides a powerful methodol-
value freedom has in this case endorsed a value position of ogy, however, it tends to eliminate the investigation of topics
business values. that are not easily attacked using its techniques” (p. 532).
Another difficulty is the belief that the use of a scientific- Walle’s main criticism is that scientific positivism’s rig-
positivist method will solve the questions of curriculum orous method can lead to an oversimplification of reality.
design. This is particularly apparent in the methodological This results from the exclusion of phenomena that cannot be
(sic) underpinnings to Koh’s work. Here, the combination of processed by its methods. The rich complexity of the world
survey and Delphi technique are proffered to produce what is as lived is sidestepped.
seen as an objective solution to the problem. It is implied that Alternative methodologies allow some of the limiting
the results of such a method are the solution. Indeed, Koh assumptions and requirements of scientific positivism to be
(1995) stated that a cross-sectoral sample of tourism industry waived. Positivism’s requirement to deal in verifiable facts is
executives would “validate” the findings (p. 68). However, lifted. This allows opinions to be voiced and the admittance
the Koh technique is to bring in a particular theory to solve a of data as well as areas of inquiry that are excluded from pos-
problem rather than to generate a theory that is shaped by the itivism by the verifiability principle. For example, Walle
practical reality of the situation. Koh’s findings are, in fact, (1997) explained that emic methods allow “attitudes, motives,
partially predetermined by the use of the parameters of his interests, responses, conflict and personality” (p. 529) into
survey technique. The method determines the result. The research.
results are only valid for those who were asked. Thus, Koh’s In alternative paradigms, the idea of a single objective
claim for validity is a limited one. reality that exists independently of the researcher is replaced
Next, a scientific-positivist method objectifies the re- by a more fuzzy world of multiple realities. The significance
searched world. It ascribes a reality to this world according to of subjectivity in forming these multiple realities is
Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007
© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 445

recognized. The idea of value neutrality comes under closer operation. Students, tourists, tourism businesses, tourism
examination as ideology and “taken for granteds” are held up employees, host communities, and others affected by or
for scrutiny. Indeed, values, ends, and ethics are often wel- interested in the tourism phenomenon will count. The inter-
comed into the discussion, in contrast to positivism, which pretive method will define tourism’s society, that is, all those
“abandons ethics and politics to irrationalism” (Hammersley with a stake in tourism, widely. It will seek a consensual
1992, p. 18, paraphrasing Habermas). In alternative para- interpretation for the curriculum or accept multiple interpre-
digms, the human aspect of research activity is realized, and tations. While the voices of academics and industrialists have
interactions between the researcher and the researched world been sought in the designs of the two curricula under exami-
are brought to the foreground. At the extreme, the research nation, the voices of this wider tourism society have not been
process becomes more like an art than a science. given expression. The methods deployed under the interpre-
These characteristics are found in varying degrees in the tive paradigm range from the more structured qualitative
main alternative research paradigms of the interpretive and techniques of focus groups and participant observation,
the critical. through accounts, case studies, and action research, toward
the more artistic methods of hermeneutics, literary criticism,
The Interpretive Paradigm
and emics.
The interpretive approach to curriculum design seeks under-
standing and meaning. So, while in the scientific-positivist The Critical Paradigm
tradition the social world is objectified by the researching
Substituting “students” for “children” in R. Young’s
subject, the interpretive tradition treats the social world as
subject, encouraging it to speak for itself. For example, in the (1989) observation and inserting the term tourism gives a
scientific-positivist tradition, students and tourist hosts good idea of the concerns of critical theorists of the curricu-
become objectified, the former objects of a curriculum and lum as applied to tourism higher education: “[Students] must
the latter objects of tourism. be prepared to take their place in a [tourism] society that
The interpretive approach holds that human actions and already exists . . . the [tourism] society which exists is only an
social constructs (such as the curriculum) cannot be treated imperfect representation of what it could be” (p. 2).
by researchers in the same way as natural objects. Within the Such concerns signal possible curriculum shortcomings
interpretive paradigm, insight into the tourism curriculum is and again R. Young (1989) expressed these with clarity,
sought by reference to the participants in the curriculum in reworking the words of Hegel: “We are potentially a self-
the widest sense. They provide the starting point. This is in forming species, if only we could recognise and vitalise our
contrast to the scientific-positivist approach, where, typi- capacity to be aware of our authorship of history” (p. 27).
cally, a hypothesis is formulated using meanings that have Critical theory holds out a special promise for tourism
been ascribed from the researcher’s preconceptions. This world making. The critical paradigm uses critical theory
hypothesis is then subject to empirical scrutiny, and the developed by the Frankfurt School (Horkheimer, Adorno,
method, which appears to be value-free, clouds the values Marcuse, and Habermas), which itself develops thinking
impregnated in the whole exercise. In the scientific-positivist from Marx and beyond. In particular, critical theory exposes
approach, the social world is frozen into an objectified real- the interests that are associated with different research para-
ity. It can only speak through the limited aperture provided digms. Habermas’s (1978) theory of knowledge-constitutive
by the research instrument. interests concludes that there is no interest-free knowledge.
Grundy (1987) explained that for a curriculum designed In Knowledge and Human Interests, Habermas sets out the
by interpretive methods, “all participants in the curriculum three interests that motivate human inquiry.
event are to be regarded as subjects, not objects” (p. 69). By First, there is a technical interest that seeks control and
this, Grundy means that the curriculum researchers should management of the environment and that dominates thinking
not set themselves up as subjects and then objectify other in a modern technological world. Second, there is a practical
possible participants in the curriculum event so that they interest that seeks an understanding of the world and envi-
become mere actors in their script. Rather, the possible par- ronment. Third, there is an emancipatory interest that seeks
ticipants in the curriculum event should be cast as subjects emancipation and freedom from falsehood and dogma. Each
and be invested with the power of authorship. The script, in
of these interests is served by a particular methodology. The
this case the tourism curriculum, is therefore written with a
technical interest is served by scientific positivism, the prac-
more open mind and more collaboratively.
Thus, the interpretive method for designing a tourism tical interest is served by interpretive methods, and the
curriculum aims to promote understanding of tourism from emancipatory interest is served by critical theory. The
the point of view of all the stakeholders in the tourism envi- scheme of knowledge-constitutive interests is set out in col-
ronment. The extent of the tourism world and tourism aims umns 1, 2, and 3 of Table 1 (Carr and Kemmis 1986; Grundy
and purposes are not predetermined or predefined. Rather, 1987; Gibson 1986).
part of the interpretive method is to seek agreement and Critical theory suggests that a tourism curriculum derived
understanding of the tourism world and tourism purposes. from positivist methodology serves technical interests. In
What this means is that the tourism world is not just a nar- this case, the interests of nature are subordinated to the inter-
row business world where the key social actors are the tourist ests of man (Gibson 1986). One might adjust this view to
and the tourism providers. Rather, other stakeholders are suggest that the interests of mankind are subordinated to the
given much greater voice in the interpretive method, whether interests of particular interest groups. A critical approach to
positively engaged in the business of tourism or not. An the tourism curriculum seeks to expose and rectify this
interpretive method for curriculum research would therefore imbalance and seeks emancipation from the grip of any par-
encourage accounts from all the actors affected by its ticular ideology.
Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007
© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
446 MAY 2001

TABLE 1
KNOWLEDGE-CONSTITUTIVE INTERESTS

General Outcomes for the

Paradigm Assumptions Interests Outcomes Tourism Curriculum
Scientific Separation of fact and values: Technical Prediction and control; Problem of competing values
positivism Concentration on fact instrumental action ignored. Curriculum design
based on measurable facts
Interpretive Difficult nature of “facts” and Practical Enlightenment and Importance attached to multiple
method importance of relativism understanding understandings of tourism
world in curriculum design
Critical theory Unification of facts and values Emancipatory Liberation Values are given due weight in
curriculum design. Curricula
less prone to ideological bias

This emancipatory cognitive interest was described by initially to identify which particular ideological influences
Grundy (1987) as leading to a “transformation in the way in are at work. Ideology critique then asks whose interests are
which one perceives and acts in ‘the world.’” (p. 99). being served by a particular ideology. The very nature of ide-
The emancipation that is sought through critical theory is ology can make these tasks difficult. Commonsense, taken-
a triple one. First, emancipation from control by technical for-granted systems can mask the existence of an ideology.
interests; second, emancipation from ideology; and third, Gramsci’s (1971) concept of hegemony helps our under-
emancipation by appropriate action to change things for the standing of ideology in this respect.
better. In its original political meaning, hegemony referred to the
Habermas’s (1978) critical theory entails consideration influence of one state over another. Gramsci’s development
of the purpose of knowledge and admits values, moral issues,
of the concept is more subtle. He uses the term not to describe
and repercussions into the frame of critical thinking. This is
the explicit, conscious imposition of one ideology on a range
in contrast to scientific positivism where means and ends,
facts and values, and theory and practice are separated out, so of unwilling groups. Instead, his use of the term refers to the
that only means, facts, and theory remain. In critical theory, situation where a collection of ideas—an ideology—perme-
“knowledge and interest in emancipation coincide and thus ates and saturates the natural way of thinking of a society. It
make for those unities which positivism severs—theory and becomes the accepted or commonsense view of the world. In
practice, means and ends, thought and action, fact and value, other words, our perception of reality is colored by this
reason and emotion” (Gibson 1986, p. 37). accepted view of things that is historically rooted. The deeply
Attention is now turned to how critical theories may be embedded nature and long tradition of a particular ideology
applied to tourism education. serve to camouflage the ideology’s existence.
A neo-Marxist critique of the tourism curriculum would It is suggested that the underlying dominant common-
be that the superstructure of society, which includes educa- sense view (ideology) that permeates most literature and
tion along with institutions such as the law and the govern- research on the tourism curriculum is a vocationalist one. Its
ment, is determined by the base of economic and material guiding idea is that tourism should be organized to bring
factors. Under this “base determines superstructure” theory, profit to the organizing company and satisfaction to the pay-
tourism education would be charged with training a ing tourist. This is the commonsense background in which
workforce for the base with the necessary personalities and NLG and Koh are operating. What both of their approaches
attitudes. lack is a consciousness or a critical scrutiny of this ideology.
The narrow list of management of tourism-type modules The ideology promotes particular kinds of knowledge, as
suggested by Koh and the NLG illustrates the potential for
evident in the Koh and NLG curricula. They favor market-
base to determine superstructure. However, the simple Marx-
ing, measurement, management, and planning, and while
ist deterministic model cannot account for the considerable
autonomy enjoyed by educational institutions of the super- there are signs of questioning components (sustainability,
structure and indeed their ability to turn their critical sights environmental impacts), they are as adjuncts to the main
against the interests of the economic and material base. thrust of the business of tourism. Neither curriculum holds up
The concept of ideology is more relevant to the curricu- the whole tourism enterprise for deep critical evaluation.
lum than that of crude economic determinism. For Neither asks whether the tourism world that we are creating
Habermas, a key problem for scientific positivism is its fail- is the tourism world we want. For, not least, the composition
ure to be sufficiently conscious of the influence of ideology of “we” (i.e., the arbiters of the tourism world as it is devel-
on choice of research questions, methods, and thus findings. oping) is assumed to be businesses and tourists with purchas-
He deployed ideology critique as a means of identification of ing power. Employing critical theories to the curriculum
ideology. This critique offers the possibility of escape from seeks to develop descriptions and theories about tourism that
ideology. Critique enables self-understanding and reveals are not dominated by the operation of a particular ideology.
other possible views of the world. As Arendt (1978) expressed it: “Critical thinking makes oth-
An ideology is a system of beliefs that directs the policies ers present and thus moves potentially in a space which is
and activities of its adherents. The job of critical theory is public, open to all sides” (p. 257).
Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007
© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 447

A PARTIAL CURRICULUM TABLE 2

METHODOLOGICAL PARADIGMS
From the preceding analysis, it can be seen that the Koh FOR CURRICULUM RESEARCH
and NLG curricula use scientific-positivist methods and
Paradigm NLG Koh
largely overlook interpretive or critical approaches. A num-
ber of points derive from this. Scientific positivism √ √
Interpretive method
1. The two proposals effectively clarify the essential Critical theory
dimensions of a vocationalist tourism education to Note: NLG = National Liaison Group for Higher Education in
serve technical interests. Tourism.
2. The ultimate beneficiaries of tourism degrees con-
structed according to such blueprints are employers
and tourists, and the employed side of students. A scientific positivism was employed, and the interpretive and
wider tourism society is not necessarily well served. critical paradigms were overlooked. In this respect, the para-
3. Both curricula carry considerable presuppositions digm within which the NLG and Koh proposals operate can
that are not made explicit. be characterized as necessary but incomplete. This conclu-
4. Both curriculum proposals bracket values out of their sion considers how this problem may be approached.
approaches. A curriculum is socially constructed, that is, it is the prod-
5. Both curricula have a hidden curriculum of values, uct of human thought and negotiation. Curricula, as M. Young
that is, business interests are valued more highly than (1971) noted, “are no less social inventions than political par-
other interests. ties or new towns” (p. 24). Curricula are forged by men and
6. The ideology legitimated by these proposals is that women and for men and women, and so curriculum analysis
tourism is conceived of as a phenomenon that should must take account of a complex series of interpenetrations
be organized to bring profit to the organizing enter- between the conceiver, the conceived, the conceived for
prise and satisfaction to the paying tourist. whom, and the conceived for what purposes.
7. Both proposals perform a legitimating function for A curriculum for tourism needs to develop a tourism soci-
the status quo, business, and the emerging orthodox ety not just as society for business but one of society for all its
tourism curriculum. stakeholders. In other words, practical and emancipatory
8. Both proposals act as if there was no problematic— interests need to be addressed as well as technical interests.
merely a question of more or less marketing or This requires research be undertaken that uses approaches
finance. from all three methodological paradigms employing the full
9. There is emphasis on means at the expense of consid- range of positivist, interpretive, and critical methodologies.
eration of ends. In some cases, an empirical method will be appropriate, for
10. The tourism world is objectified according to the pre- example, in attempting to match curriculum content to voca-
conceptions of the researchers. tional needs. This is because vocational needs are capable of
11. The narrow methods employed by each proposal objective measurement, at least theoretically.
determine a narrow curriculum. However, to design a curriculum to include non-
12. Such methods tend to be reproductive of the world
vocationalist aspects, questions of meaning and purpose of
that is rather than consider the world that could be.
the curriculum arise. It is here that an emphasis on reflective
philosophical method becomes necessary. Lawton (1983),
This points to the limitations of a positivist-scientific em-
writing about curriculum design for schools, proposed a
pirical approach to curriculum design. These are summarized
curriculum-planning model with two initial stages. These
in column 4 of Table 1. A partial, rather than comprehensive,
required philosophical and sociological analysis. Initially,
curriculum has emerged. Curriculum design requires more
Lawton held that philosophical questions must be raised and
than an analysis of business wants. For the consumer of the
addressed. These questions relate to the aims of education
tourism curriculum is not just business, as Koh implicitly be-
and the meaning of a worthwhile education. Sociological
lieves, but it is the wider tourism society that is affected by
questions relate to the kind of society we have. It is vital in
the tourism enterprise. We need to hear these other voices.
Lawton’s view to resolve such questions before the next stage
of curriculum design—in this case selecting modules—may
proceed. It is concluded that Lawton’s approach be used to
CONCLUSION address the problem that has been identified—that is, that an
interpretive methodology (albeit with philosophical deliber-
A gap in curriculum research in tourism is evident from ation over meaning) and a critical approach underpinned by
this analysis. This gap is caused by the fact that existing anal- sociological analysis are used prior to, or at least in conjunc-
yses of the curriculum operate within a research paradigm tion with, any other research. The specifics of such a curricu-
that results in only a partial account of the possible curricu- lum will be tackled in a subsequent article, in which the
lum for tourism higher education. In particular, a shortcom- importance of curricula themes such as “Mindful Managers”
ing of this is a lack of attention to the aims and purpose of a (Moscardo 1997), critical skills, reflective practice (Schön
tourism curriculum. Table 2 is used to identify the research 1983), liberal reflection, and dedicated modules such as
paradigms used by the NLG and Koh curricula. Only practical philosophy for tourism will be addressed.

Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007

© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
448 MAY 2001

REFERENCES Koh, K. (1995). “Designing the Four-Year Tourism Management Curricu-

lum: A Marketing Approach.” Journal of Travel Research, 33: 68-72.
Lawton, D. (1983). Curriculum Studies and Educational Planning. London:
Airey, D., and V. Middleton (1984). “Tourism Education Course Syllabuses Hodder and Stoughton.
in the UK: A Review.” Tourism Management, 5 (1): 57-62. Marcuse, H. (1968). One Dimensional Man. London: Sphere.
Arendt, H. (1978). The Life of the Mind. New York: Harcourt Brace. Moscardo, G. (1997). “Making Mindful Managers.” Journal of Tourism
Bourdieu, P. (1990). Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. 2d ed. Studies, 8 (1): 16-24.
Translated by R. Nice. London: Sage. Pinar, W., and M. Grumet (1981). “Theory and Practice and the
Burkart, A., and S. Medlik (1981). Tourism, Past, Present and Future. Lon- Reconceptualisation of Curriculum Studies.” In Rethinking Curricu-
don: Heinemann. lum Studies, edited by M. Lawn and L. Barton. London: Croom Helm,
Carr, W., and S. Kemmis (1986). Becoming Critical. Sussex, UK: Falmer. pp. 25-39.
Cohen, L., and L. Manion (1994). Research Methods in Education. 4th ed. Schön, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. London: Maurice Temple
London: Routledge. Smith.
Council for National Academic Awards (1993). Review of Tourism Studies Shepherd, R. (1997). “The Graduate Tourism Aptitude Test (GTAT).” In
Degree Courses. London: Council for National Academic Awards. The ATTT Tourism Education Handbook, edited by E. Laws. London:
Gibson, R. (1986). Critical Theory and Education. Kent, UK: Hodder and The Tourism Society.
Stoughton. Tyler, R. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago:
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Translated by University of Chicago Press.
Q. Hoare and G. Smith. New York: International Publishers. Usher, R. (1996). “A Critique of the Neglected Epistemological Assump-
Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: Product or Praxis. Sussex, UK: Falmer. tions of Educational Research.” In Understanding Educational Re-
Habermas, J. (1978). Knowledge and Human Interests. London: search, edited by D. Scott and R. Usher. London: Routledge.
Heinemann. Walle, A. H. (1997). “Quantitative versus Qualitative Research.” Annals of
Hammersley, M. (1992). “Two Cheers for Positivism! or, What Can Educa- Tourism Research, 24 (3): 524-36.
tional Researchers Learn from the Philosophy of Science?” Paper pre- Young, M., ed. (1971). Knowledge and Control. London: Macmillan.
sented at the Seminar on Methodology in Educational Research, June, Young, R. (1989). A Critical Theory of Education. Hemel Hempstead, UK:
Open University, United Kingdom. Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Holloway, C. (1995). Towards a Core Curriculum for Tourism: A Discus-
sion Paper. London: The National Liaison Group for Higher Educa-
tion in Tourism.

Downloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com by Dimitris Agouridas on August 3, 2007

© 2001 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.