ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT AND

APPLIANCE INSTALLATION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

INSTRUMENT AND TEST EQUIPMENT SETUP

AND HANDLING
EE-021-2:2012-CO2/P(8/15)

TAHAP 2

DIODE

NOSS/JPK/KSM JULAI 2017

GCA01(CA01)
NOSS/JPK/KSM JULAI 2017
GCA01(CA01)
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. DESCRIPTION
1 INTRODUCTION OF DIODE
2 CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE
CHOICE BETWEEN SILICON AND
3
GERMANIUM
4 DIODE CIRCUIT DESIGN
MOTIVATION OF A DAY
INTRODUCTION
• A diode is a semiconductor device which
has a single p-n junction that allows electric
current to flow through it in only one
direction from anode to cathode.

•Most diodes are made using semiconductor

materials such as silicon and germanium.

•Diode have many functions :-

o Converters
o Decoders
o Signal rectifiers
o Signal limiters
o Voltage regulators and etc.
Characteristics of Diodes
• A diode is a specialized electronic component.
• There are several types of diodes used in electronic circuits.
• The types of diode used depends on the functions of the circuit which
is being used, the size of the product in it will mounted or the ratings
and operating characteristics.
• These diodes can be identified by name, circuit applications and
symbols.
Symbol and structure
• A diode acts as a switch or component
through which electrons will flow easily
in one direction.

• In the figure below, shows the direction

of current flowing through diode.

• It cannot flow on both sides, causes the

current flow from anode to cathode that
blocks the current as reverse bias.

• Diodes comes in a variation shapes and

sizes depending on their function or
application in electronic circuits.
I-V Characteristic Curve
• The current-voltage relationship
is the most important
characteristic of a diode.
• We called it as I-V curve because
it shows the relationship
between the voltage applied
between the anode and cathode.
• A diode will operate in one of three conditions depending on the
voltage applied across it:
1) Forward bias: When voltage across the diode, 𝑽𝑫 is positive, the diode is
“switched on” and current can flow. The voltage, 𝑉𝐷 should be greater than
the forward voltage 𝑽𝑭 in order for the current to be significant.

2) Reverse bias: When voltage across the diode, 𝑽𝑫 is less than 𝑽𝑭 , but
greater than the breakdown voltage, −𝑉𝐵𝑅 , the diode is in “off” mode. In
this mode, current flow is blocked, and the diode is “switched off”.
However, a very small amount of current called reverse saturation current
still flows through the diode when it is in reverse bias condition.

3) Breakdown: When the reverse bias voltage applied across the diode is very
large and is negative, the reverse current increases rapidly.
Bulk Resistance
• Bulk resistance (𝑹𝑩 ) Is a resistance across the diode when is in
forward bias.
• It is also represents the resistance of the p-region (𝑹𝑷 ) and the
resistance of the n-region (𝑹𝑵 ) of the p-n junction of a diode.
• Usually the bulk resistance is less than 1Ω.

𝑹𝑩 = 𝑹𝑷 + 𝑹𝑵
POWER DISSIPATION
• The power dissipated by a diode (𝑷𝑫 ) can be calculated using the formula:

𝑷𝑫 = 𝑽𝑫 𝑰𝑫

Where; 𝑽𝑫 = voltage across the diode

𝑰𝑫 is the current through the diode.

• Power rating is the maximum power 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 a diode can safely handle
without being destroyed. It is defined as:

𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙

Where; 𝑽,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = maximum voltage across the diode

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = maximum current through the diode.
Example
A diode has a power rating of 4 W. If the diode voltage is 1.5V and the
diode current is 2A, will the diode be destroyed?

Solution:
𝑷𝑫 = 𝑽𝑫 𝑰𝑫
= (1.5V)(2A)
=3W

❖The diode will not be destroyed since the power dissipate is less than
the power rating of 4 W.
DIODE DATA SHEET
• Before you can select the diode that is suitable for your application, you need to obtain more
information about the diode from manufacturer’s data sheet.
• The data sheet for the diode 1N4001 to 1N4007 will be given later.
• The main characteristics that you need to know are:

1. Reverse Breakdown Voltage : The maximum reverse bias voltage the diode can withstand before
breakdown occurs. Known symbol as 𝑽𝑹𝑹𝑴 , 𝑽𝑹𝑾𝑴 , 𝑽𝑹 , PIV, PRV or BV. The reverse breakdown
for 1N4001 is 50V.

2. Maximum Forward Current : The maximum current the diode can handle in forward bias. It is
designated as 𝑰𝑭 or 𝑰𝑶 . 1n4001 maximum forward current is 1A.

3. Forward Voltage Drop : Voltage drop across diode in the forward bias. It is designated as 𝑽𝑭 . Th e
forward voltage drop for 1N4001 is 0.93V (typical) and 1.1V (max).

4. Maximum Reverse Current : The maximum current the diode can handle in reverse direction. It is
designated as 𝑰𝑹 or 𝑰𝑹𝑹𝑴 . The reverse current for 1N4001 is 0.05 µA (typical) and 10 µA (max) at
25°C.
CHOICE BETWEEN SILICON AND GERMANIUM
• Ge diode can operate at a maximum temperature of around 80°C and
has moderate leakage current but a Si diode can operate at a
maximum temperature of around 200°C and has very low leakage
current.

• That’s why Si diodes are more commonly used in circuit designs than
Ge diodes.
IDEAL DIODE
• An ideal diode acts as a perfect conductor (zero resistance) in the
forward direction and as a perfect insulator (infinite resistance) in the
reverse direction.
• An ordinary switch acts like an ideal diode.
SECOND APPROXIMATION
• The ideal approximation is all right in troubleshooting situations.
• In the second approximation, the diode represented as a switch in
series with a barrier potential of 0.7V (for Si).
Diode Circuit
Learning the applications of diode in modern electronic technology
INTRODUCTION
• AC provides a means for us to AC source load
distribute electrical power, but
most devices actually want DC
– bulbs, toasters, heaters, fans don’t
care: plug straight in
diode only conducts
– sophisticated devices care because when input voltage is positive
they have diodes and transistors that
require a certain polarity
• rather than oscillating polarity derived input voltage
from AC
• this is why battery orientation matters
in most electronics
• Use diodes to “rectify” AC signal
• Simplest rectifier uses one diode:
voltage seen by load
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
• Rectification is the process of
converting alternating current (AC) to AC source load
direct current (DC).
• Figure 4.1(a) shows the input voltage
waveform. It is a sine wave with an Figure 4.1 (b)
instantaneous value of Vin and a peak
value of Vp(in). diode only conducts
• In the half-wave rectifier of Figure 4.1(b), when input voltage is positive
the diode conducts during the positive
half cycles but does not conduct during
the negative half cycles.
input voltage
• A half-wave signal is produced at the
output as shown in Figure 4.1(c). Figure 4.1 (a)
• The peak output voltage equals the
peak input voltage.
Figure 4.1 (c)
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙) voltage seen by load
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
• The DC value of a signal is the same as the average value of the signal.
𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
• For example, if the peak voltage of the half-wave signal is 50 V,
then the DC voltage or average value is 15.9 V.
• When you compare Figure 3.1(c) with Figure 3.1(a), each cycle of
input voltage produces one cycle of output voltage. Therefore the
output frequency is the same as the input frequency.

𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛
Second Approximation
• The diode does not turn on until the ac source voltage reaches the
barrier potential of 0.7 V.
• So, we do not get a perfect half-wave voltage across the load resistor.

𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 0.7 𝑉 (2𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

• For example, if the peak source voltage is 50 V, the load voltage will
have a peak of only 49.3 V.
Example 3.1
• Assume that the circuit in Figure 4.1(b) has an AC source of 20 V/50 Hz
and a load resistor of 1 kΩ. Calculate the peak load voltage and DC load
voltage for an ideal diode and using second approximation.
Solution:
• The AC source shown in the circuit is the rms (or effective) value
and not the peak value. The rms value is given as: Vrms = 0.707Vp

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 20
𝑉𝑝 = = = 28.3 𝑉
0.707 0.707
Example 3.1 (continue)
• For an ideal diode:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 = 28.3 𝑉
𝑉𝑃 28.3
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = =9𝑉
𝜋 𝜋

• For the second approximation:

𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 0.7 𝑉 = 28.3 𝑉 − 0.7 𝑉 = 27.6 𝑉
𝑉𝑃 27.6
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 8.79 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
• Figure 4.2(a) shows a full-wave rectifier circuit with a grounded
center tap on the secondary winding. The full-wave rectifier is
equivalent to 2 half-wave rectifiers.
• Each of these rectifiers has an input voltage equal to half the
secondary voltage due to the center tap.
Circuit Operation
• Diode D1 conducts on the positive half cycle and diode D2 conducts
on the negative half cycle.
• Figure 4.2(b) shows the equivalent circuit for the positive half-
cycle.
• D1 is forward-biased.
• This produces a positive load voltage as indicated by the + and -
polarity across the load resistor.
• Figure 4.2(c) shows the equivalent circuit for the negative half-cycle.
• D2 is forward-biased.
• This also produces a positive load across the load resistor.
• During both half cycles, the load voltage has the same polarity and
the load current is always in the same direction.
Circuit Operation (continue)
• The DC value of a signal is twice the average value of the signal since
the full wave signal has twice as many positive cycles as the half-wave
signal.
2𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
• The frequency of the full-wave signal is double the input frequency
since the full-wave output has twice as many cycles as the sine-wave
input.
𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛
• For the second approximation:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 0.7 𝑉 (2𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Example 3.2
Figure below shows a full-wave rectifier circuit. Find:
a) Vp(out) in ideal diode
b) Vp(out) in secondary approximation
c) fout

10:1
240 V / 50 Hz

1 kΩ
Example 3.2 (Solution)
• Peak primary voltage:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 240
𝑉𝑝(1) = = = 339.5 𝑉
0.707 0.707
• With a 10:1 step-down transformer, peak secondary voltage:
𝑉𝑝(1) 339.5
𝑉𝑝(2) = = = 33.95 𝑉
10 10
• Because of the center tap, the input voltage to each half-wave
rectifier is only half the secondary voltage:
𝑉𝑝(2) 33.95
𝑉𝑝(𝑖𝑛) = = = 16.98 𝑉
2 2
Example 3.2 (continue)
• For an ideal diode:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 = 16.98 𝑉
2𝑉𝑃 2(16.98)
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 10.81 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋

• For the second approximation:

𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 0.7 𝑉 = 16.98 𝑉 − 0.7 𝑉 = 16.28 𝑉
2𝑉𝑃 2(16.28)
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 10.36 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 2 50 = 100𝐻𝑧
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
• Figure 4.3(a) shows a bridge rectifier circuit.
• It is similar to a full-wave rectifier because it produces a full-wave
output voltage.
• Diodes D1 and D2 conduct on the positive half cycle, and D3 and D4
conduct on the negative half cycle.
• This results in the rectified load current flowing during both half
cycles.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER - Circuit Operation

• Figure 4.3(b) shows the

equivalent circuit for the
positive half cycle.
• Diodes Di and D2 are forward
biased.
• A positive load voltage is
produced as indicated by the plus-
minus polarity across the load
resistor.
• Figure 4.3(c) shows the
equivalent circuit for the
negative half cycle.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER - Circuit Operation
• Diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased.
• A positive load voltage is produced across the load resistor.
• During both half cycles, the load voltage has the same polarity
and the load current is in the same direction.
• The advantage of this bridge full-wave rectification compared
to the center-tapped full-wave rectification is the entire
secondary voltage can be used instead of only half.
• The DC value of the output signal is:

2𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
BRIDGE RECTIFIER - Circuit Operation
• The output frequency of the output signal is:
𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛

• Since the bridge rectifier has 2 diodes conducting for every cycle of
the input signal, the peak output voltage for the 2nd approximation is
given by:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 1.4 𝑉 (2𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Example 3.3
• Figure below shows a bridge rectifier circuit.
• From Example 4.2, the peak secondary voltage is: Vp(2) = 33.95 V
Find:
a) Vp(out) in ideal diode
b) Vp(out) in secondary approximation
c) fout
Example 3.3(Solution)
• For ideal diode:
Vp(out) = Vp(2) = 33.95 V since all the secondary voltage is used.
2𝑉𝑃 2(33.95)
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 21.61 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
For 2nd approx:
𝑉𝑃(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛 − 1.4 𝑉 = 33.95 𝑉 − 1.4 𝑉 = 32.55 𝑉
2𝑉𝑃 2(32.55)
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = = 20.72 𝑉
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 2 50 = 100𝐻𝑧
 CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER
• To produce a DC output voltage equal
to the peak value of the rectified
voltage, a capacitor-input filter is used.
• This type of filter is widely used in
power supplies.
• Figure 4.4(a) shows an ac source, a
diode and a capacitor.
• The diode is forward-biased and acts like
a closed switch during the first quarter
cycle.
• The capacitor charges until the input
reaches its maximum value of Vp (Figure
4.4b).
CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER (continue)
• After the input voltage reaches the
peak, it starts to decrease. As soon
as the input voltage is less than
Vp, the diode turns off and acts as
an open switch (Figure 4.4c).
• The capacitor remains fully
charged and the diode remains
open during the remaining cycles.
• As such, the output is constant
and equals to Vp as shown in
Figure 4.4(b).
CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER (continue)
• A load resistor needs to be
connected across the capacitor
for the capacitor-input filter to be
useful as shown in Figure 4.5(a).
• As long as the time constant (RLC)
is greater than the period, the
capacitor will remain almost fully
charged to a load voltage of
approximately Vp.
• A small deviation from a perfect DC
voltage called ripple is seen in
Figure 4.5(b).
CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER (continue)
• The diode is off between peaks and
the capacitor discharges through the
load resistor, RL.
• Since the capacitor only discharges
slightly between peaks, the peak-to-
peak ripple is small.
• The diode conducts briefly when the
next peak arrives and recharges the
capacitor to the peak value.
• When a full-wave or bridge rectifier
voltage is applied to the RC circuit, the
capacitor discharges for only half as
long and therefore the peak-to- peak
ripple is half the size it would be
with a half-wave rectifier as shown
in Figure 4.5(c).
CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER (continue)
• The peak-to-peak ripple output voltage, Vr of the capacitor-input
filter can be estimated using:
𝐼
𝑉𝑅 =
𝑓𝐶
where I = dc load current; f = ripple frequency; C = capacitance.
• The formula works with half-wave or full-wave voltages.
• Use 50 Hz for half-wave and 100 Hz for full-wave.
Example 4.4
• If the dc load current is 1 mA and the capacitance is 25pF, the
ripple with a bridge rectifier and a capacitor-input filter is:

𝐼 1 × 10−3 𝐴
𝑉𝑅 = = −9
= 0.4 𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑓𝐶 (100)(25 × 10 )
POWER SUPPLY UNIT
• Block Diagram
Smoothing
Rectifier Regulator
AC Source Transformer Capacitor Load
Circuit Circuit
Circuit

• Circuit Diagram
Unregulated Power Supply Unit
Regulated Power Supply Unit
CLIPPERS AND LIMITERS
• The diodes used in low frequency power supplies are
called rectifier diodes.
• It is optimized for use at 50 Hz and has power ratings
greater than 0.5 W.
• Rectifier diodes have little use other than in power supplies
because most circuits in electronics are running at much
higher frequencies.
• Diodes that are optimized for use at higher frequencies and
with power ratings less than 0.5 W are called small-signal
diodes.
Positive Clipper
• A clipper is a circuit that
removes either positive or
negative parts of a waveform.
• It is useful for signal shaping,
circuit protection and
communications.
• Figure 4.6(a) shows a positive
clipper circuit that removes all
the positive parts of the input
signal.
• The output signal has only
negative half cycles.
Positive Clipper
• During the positive half cycle, the diode
turns on and looks like a short across the
output terminals.
• The output is zero.
• On the negative half cycle, the diode is open
and the negative half cycle appears across the
output.
• The series resistor, Rs is made to be much
smaller than the load resistor, Rl.
• To a second approximation, the diode voltage
is 0.7 V when conducting and therefore the
clipping level is not zero, but 0.7 V as
shown in Figure 4.6(b) for an input signal
with a peak signal of 20 V.
 Negative Clipper
• If we reverse the polarity of the diode as
in Figure 4.7(a), we get a negative
clipper.
• It removes the negative parts of the
signal and output has only positive half
cycles ideally.
• Due to the diode offset (barrier
potential) the clipping level is at -0.7 V.
• Figure 4.7(b) shows the output of an
input signal with a peak voltage of 20 V.
Operating Condition of Clippers
• The clipper will not work properly unless the
series resistance Rs is much greater than the bulk
resistance Rb and also unless the series resistance
Rs is much smaller than the load resistance RL.
• The general conditions are: 100Rb < Rs < 0.01RL
• When a clipper satisfies these conditions, it is called a
stiff clipper.
Limiter or Diode Clamp
• The limiter is also called a diode clamp.
• It is called as such since it clamps or limits the voltage to a specified
range.
• With a diode clamp, the diodes remain off during normal operation.
• The diodes conduct only when something is abnormal, like when the
signal is too large.
• This is useful for protecting sensitive circuits. For example, a limiter
can be used to protect a moving-coil meter against excessive
input voltage and current.
Limiter or Diode Clamp
• The normal input to the limiter
circuit in Figure 4.8(a) is a signal
with peak of only 15 mV.
• During normal operation, the
output is the same as the input
signal because neither diode is
turned on since the input signal
is lower than the barrier
potential (0.7 V) of the diodes.
Limiter or Diode Clamp
• Figure 4.8(b) shows how the
limiter circuit is used to protect a
sensitive circuit.
• If the input signal tries to rise
above 0.7 V, the output is limited
to 0.7 V.
• If the input signal tries to drop
below -0.7 V, the output is
limited to -0.7 V.
• In a circuit like this, the input
signal is always smaller than 0.7
V in either polarity for normal
operation.
How to test a Diode by using Multimeter
• The diode testing using a Digital Multimeter
(DMM) can be carried in two ways because there
are two modes available in DMM to check the
diode. These modes are:

• Diode Mode
• Ohmmeter Mode (or Resistance Mode)
How to test a Diode by using Multimeter
• The Diode Test Mode is the best way to test a
diode as it relies on the characteristics of the
Diode.
• In this method, the diode is put in forward bias
and the voltage drop across the diode is
measured, using a Multimeter.
• A normally working diode will allow current to flow
in forward bias and must have voltage drop.
How to test a Diode by using Multimeter
• In the Resistance Mode Test of the diode, both
the forward and reverse bias resistances of the
diode are measured.
• For a good diode, the forward bias resistance
should be few hundreds of Ohms to few Kilo
Ohms and the reverse bias resistance should be
very high (usually indicated as OL – open loop in
a multimeter).
How to test a Diode by using Multimeter
How to test a Diode by using Multimeter
• Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the diode.
• Keep the Digital Multimeter (DMM) in diode checking mode
by rotating the central knob to the position where the diode
symbol is indicated. In this mode, the multimeter is capable
to supply a current of approximately 2mA between the test
leads.
• Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the anode and
black probe to the cathode. This means the diode is forward-
biased.
Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing
Procedure
• Identify the terminals of the diode i.e., anode and cathode.
• Keep the Digital multimeter (DMM) in resistance or ohmmeter
mode by rotating the central knob or selector to the place where
ohm symbol or resistor values are indicated. Keep the selector in
low resistance (may be 1K ohm) mode for forward-bias and keep
it in high resistance mode (100K ohm) for the reverse bias testing
procedure.
• Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the
cathode. This means diode is forward-biased. When the diode is
forward-biased, the resistance of the diode is so small.
Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing
Procedure
Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing
Procedure
Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing
Procedure
• Now reverse the terminals of the multimeter such
that anode is connected to black probe and cathode
to red probe. So the diode is reverse biased.
• If the meter shows a very high resistance value or OL
on meter display, then the diode is good and functions
properly. Since in reverse biased condition diode
offers a very high resistance.
How to Test a Diode using Analog
Multimeter?
How to Test a Diode using Analog
Multimeter?
• Keep the multimeter selector switch in low resistance value
• Connect the diode in the forward-biased condition by connecting the
positive terminal to anode and negative to the cathode.
• If the meter indicates a low resistance value, then it says that the diode is
healthy.
• Now put the selector in high resistance position and reverse the terminals
of the meter by connecting positive to the cathode and negative to anode.
In this case, the diode is said to be in reverse bias.
• If the meter indicates OL or a very high resistance, then it refers to the
perfect condition of the diode.
• If the meter fails to show above readings, then the diode is said to be
defective or bad.
How to Test LED (Light Emitting Diode)?
How to Test LED (Light Emitting Diode)?
• Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the LED.
• Place the multimeter selector / knob in diode mode.
• Connect the probes of the meter to LED such that it is
forward-biased.
• If the LED is working properly, then it glows otherwise the
LED is defective.
• Reverse-biased testing cannot be possible with LED since it
doesn’t work in reverse-biased condition.
How to Test a Zener Diode?
How to Test a Zener Diode?
• Identify the terminals anode and cathode of the Zener diode and its
identification process is similar to the normal PN diode (using a mark).
• Connect the test circuit as shown in the above figure.
• Place the multimeter knob in voltage mode.
• Connect the meter probes across the Zener diode as shown in figure.
• Gradually increase the input supply to the diode, and observe the voltage
on the meter display. This reading on the meter must be such that as we
increase the variable supply, meter output should increase until the
breakdown voltage of the diode. And beyond this point meter should show
a constant value of voltage irrespective of any increase of the input
variable supply. If it so, then Zener diode is healthy, otherwise defective.
Video of Full wave Rectifier
Reference
• ElectronicsHub.org, How to Test a Diode? Using Analog and Digital
Multimeter – By Ravi Teja (April 8, 2021)
https://www.electronicshub.org/test-a-diode/