ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT AND

APPLIANCE INSTALLATION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

INSTRUMENT AND TEST EQUIPMENT SETUP

AND HANDLING
EE-021-2:2012-CO2/P(2/15)

TAHAP 2

PENGENALAN ALAT PENGUJIAN (TEST

EQUIPMENT)
NOSS/JPK/KSM JULAI 2017
GCA01(CA01)
NOSS/JPK/KSM JULAI 2017
GCA01(CA01)
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. DESCRIPTION
1 MULTIMETER
2 OSCILLOSCOPE
3 FUNCTION GENERATOR
4 TACHOMETER
MOTIVATION OF A DAY
 OBJECTIVES

•The purpose of this subject is to learn the

types of instrument and test equipment.
•Also, another purpose is to understand the
function of each type of the instrument and
test equipment.
 1.0 MULTIMETER
• Multimeter is a useful test equipment that being
used in repairing works, installing and also testing
circuit continuity in electrical and electronics field.
• A multimeter can be defined as a measurement tool
which consists of a combination of Voltmeter,
Ammeter and Ohmmeter which functions to
measure certain quantities such as voltage, current
and resistance in an electronic circuit.
 1.1 Types of Multimeter
• There are two types of Multimeter which is:
a) Analogue Multimeter
b) Digital Multimeter
1.2 Difference between Analogue Multimeter
and Digital Multimeter
i. Analogue Multimeter
a) Using the Moving Indicator Needle and Scale to
read the measured reading value.
b) Only the Ohmmeter part uses the battery or
power supply source from within the
Multimeter
1.2 Difference between Analogue Multimeter
and Digital Multimeter
ii. Digital Multimeter
a) Using a digital display that is showing a number
that gives a reading of the value of a
measurement.
b) All parts use the battery or power supply
source from within the Multimeter.
 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
i. Analogue Multimeter
Advantages
a) Cheap
b) Easy to repair when its broken
c) Readily available

Disadvantages
a) Easily to be broken
b) Difficult to get the reading and need a skill in reading the
scale
c) The reading could be inaccurate due to parallax error
d) Must do calibration to 0 Ω adjustment before using to
measure the resistance.
 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
ii. Digital Multimeter
Advantages
a) Reading the measurement makes it easy
b) Easy to get the value with a digit numbers displays on
the screen
c) No need to do 0 Ω calibration.

Disadvantages
a) Expensive.
b) Difficult to repair when it broken.
 1.4 Digital Multimeter
i. Digital meter are an electronical meter that is not
acquire a coil or magnet.
ii. They are light, durable and easy to use.
iii. This meter will display a series of numbers on a liquid
crystal display (LCD).
iv. This meter has a range for AC voltage, DC voltage, DC
current and also resistor readings.
 1.5 Analogue Multimeter
i. Analogue multimeter using the movement of needle meter
to read the value on the display.
ii. It has four types of meter:-
i. Ohm meter
ii. DC Volt meter (DCV)
iii. AC Volt meter (ACV)
iv. DC Current meter (DCmA)

iii. For Ohm meter functions, a 3V DC bateri must connects in

series they’ll be used in a range x1 until x1k, and 9V DC is
used for the range x10k.
 PMMC
Diagram of D’Arsonval
•The Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
galvanometer used for dc measurement only.
•The basic moving coil system-D’Arsonval galvonometer

Pointer Principle & Construction:

Permanent • Based on the principle that when a current carrying
magnet conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts on
the conductor, which tends to move it to one side and
out of the field.
Core
•The motor action is produced by the flow of a small
current through a moving coil that is positioned in the
field of a permanent magnet
•A powerful U-shaped permanent magnet and soft
iron pole pieces bored out cylindrically.
• A soft iron core is fixed between the magnetic poles
Spring whose functions are i) to make the field uniform, and
Coil ii) to decrease the reluctance of the air path between
the poles and hence increase the magnetic flux.
• Surrounding the core is a coil of many turns wound
• A light pointer fixed to the frame moves on on a light aluminium or copper frame, supported by
the calibrated scale according to the amount delicate bearings/springs.
of electricity passed through the coil.
3
 Operation

-When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure I or V, the operating current flows through
the coil.
-Since the coil is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet , a
mechanical force acts on it.
- As a result , the pointer attached to the moving system moves in a clockwise direction over the
graduated scale to indicate the value of I or V being measured.
-If the I in the coil is reversed, the deflecting torque also be reversed since the direction of the
permanent magnet is same.
-Consequently, the pointer will try to deflect below zero. Deflection (rotation) in this direction is
prevented by a sp ri ng “stop ”. Amount of rotation is proportional to the amount of current
flows
through the coil.
-Since the deflecting torque reverses with the reversal of current in the coil, such instrument can be
used to measure direct I and V only.
4
5
 Basic DC Ammeter
Ammeter circuit
Im Voltage across shunt and meter:
Rm
Ish
Rsh (Eq.1)
I
Known that: (Eq.2)
Rsh = resistance of the shunt
Substitute (2) into (1)
Rm = internal resistance of the meter
movement (resistance of the
moving coil)
Ish = current through the shunt I is n times larger than Im so:
Im = full scale deflection current (fsd) (Eq.3)
of the meter movement Substitute (3) then extract
I = full scale deflection (fsd) current
for the ammeter
n = multiplying factor
6
 Example 1
A 100µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 800Ω is
used in a 0 to 100mA ammeter. Find the value of the required shunt
resistance.

Answer

Identify I ammeter, I = 100 mA,

I for meter movement, Im = 100 µA, so Rm = 800Ω
I 100mA
The multiplication factor: n= = = 1000
I m 100A

Rm 800 800
R sh = = =  0.80
n −1 1000 −1 999

7
 Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt
Im
At point 1:
Rm
Parallel with so
Rsh
Rc Rb Ra
I − Im
I3 I1
At point 2:
3 1
I2 Parallel with so
I 2

At point 3:
Parallel with so

8
 Example 2
Im = 100A
Rm = 1k

Ra Rb Rc Rd

I
I1 I2 I3
I4
Design an Ayrton shunt meter as figure above
with the value Ra = 1Ω, Rb = 9 Ω, Rc = 90 Ω and
Rd = 900 Ω. Note: Show all the derivations

9
 Answer
Given Rm = 1kΩ, Im = 100μA
At range I1: Assume; Rsh1 = Ra
Known; Vm = Vsh1
I m (R b + R c + R d + R m ) = Ish1R a -----1; I sh1 = I1 − I m ----- 2

Substitute 2 into 1: I m (R b + R c + R d + R m ) = (I1 − I m )R a

I1 = I m (R a + R b + R c + R d + R m ) = 100 (9 + 90 + 900 + 1k + 1)= 100 (2000)= 0.2A = 200mA #

Ra 1 1

At range I3: Assume; Rsh3 = Ra + Rb + Rc

Known; Vm = Vsh3
I sh3 (R a + R b + R c ) = I m (R d + R m ) -----1; I sh3 = I 3 − I m ----- 2

Substitute 2 into 1: I m (R d + R m ) = (I3 − I m )(R a + R b + R c )

I m (R a + R b + R c + R d + R m ) 100 (9 + 90 + 900 +1k +1) 100 (2000)

I 3 = = = = 2mA #
Ra + Rb + Rc 1+ 9 + 90 100
10
 Answer
At range I4: Assume; Rsh4 = Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd
Known; Vm = Vsh 4
I m R m = I sh4 (R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 ) -----1; I sh4 = I 4 − I m ----- 2
Substitute 2 into 1:
I m R m = (I 4 − I m )(R a + R b + R c + R d ) #

I (R + R b + R c + R d + R m )
I 4 = m a
Ra + R2 + Rc + Rd

100(9 + 90 + 900 +1k +1) 100(2000)

= = = 0.0002A = 200A
1+ 9 + 90 + 900 1k

11
 Multirange Ammeter
+
+
R1 R2 R3 R4
Rm
_
D’Arsonval
Movement
S
_

- The range of the dc ammeter is extended by a number of shunts,

selected by a range switch.
- The resistors is placed in parallel to give different current ranges.
- Switch S (multiposition switch) protects the meter movement from
being damage during range changing.

12
 Ammeter insertion effects
- All ammeters have an internal resistance
-Inserting an ammeter in a circuit will increases the resistance of
the circuit and reduces the current in the circuit.
-This error caused by the meter depends on the relationship
between the value of resistance in the original circuit and the
value of resistance in the ammeter.

** For high range ammeter, the internal resistance in the

ammeter is low.
** For low range ammeter, the internal resistance in the
ammeter is high.

13
 R1 X
Ie E
Ie =
R1
E
E
Im =
Y R1 + R m
Expected current value in a series circuit
R1 X
Im Im R1
=
Ie R1 + R m
E Rm

 Im
Insertion Error % = 1−  x100%
Y 
 Ie 
Series circuit with ammeter
14
 Example 3
A current meter with internal resistance, 78 is used
to measure the current through resistor Rc in figure
below. Determine the percentage of error of the
reading due to ammeter insertion.

Ra = 1k X Y

E = 3V Rb = 1k Rc = 1k

15
 Answer

The current meter will be connected into the

circuit between points X and Y.

Rth = 1.5k 
Im = 0.95Ie
Insertion error = 4.94% ≈ 5%

16
 DC Voltmeter
Im 1 
S= ( )
Rs I fs V
V

Rm From Figure:

Purpose of Multiplier, Rs:

-To extend the voltage range of the
meter
- To limit the current through the
D’Arsonval meter
17
 Multirange Voltmeter
- A multi range voltmeter consists of
a deflection instrument, several
multiplier resistors and a rotary
switch. Two possible circuits are:

Basic multirange voltmeter

R1 R2 R3 R4

Im
V2
V1 V3
Rm

+
V4

Commercial multirange voltmeter

18
 Voltmeter loading effects

-When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a circuit

component, the voltmeter circuit itself is in parallel with the
circuit component.
-Since the parallel combination of two resistors is less than either
resistor alone, the resistance seen by the source is less with the
meter connected than without.
-Therefore, the meter indicates a lower voltage reading then
before the meter is connected.
-This effect is called voltmeter loading. The resulting error is called
a loading error.

19
 Example 4
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage across resistor RB in the
circuit below. The meters are as follows.
Meter A : S = 1k/V, Rm = 0.2k, range = 10V
Meter B : S = 20k/V, Rm = 1.5k, range = 10V

R1 = 25k

E = 30V
R B = 5k

Calculate:
a) Voltage across RB without any meter
b) Voltage across RB when meter A is used
c) Voltage across RB when meter B is used
d) Error in voltmeter readings.
20
 Answer
a) VRB = 5V
b RTA = 10k , Re1 = 3.33k ,
VRB = 3.53V
c) RTB = 200k , Re2 = 4.88k ,
VRB = 4.9V
d) Voltmeter A: % e = 29.4%
Voltmeter B: % e = 2%

21
 The Ohmmeter- Series Type Ohmmeter
Rz
Ifs • Function of Rz (variable resistor)
0.1Rz Rm and Rm are to limit the current
0.9Rz
through the meter
•To determine the value of
unknown resistor, Rx, The Rx is
connected to terminal X and Y
E
X Y
Rz
R1 Ifs
The circuit current E
I = Rz + Rm +Rx 0.1Rz 0.9Rz Rm

The ratio of the current, I to the FSD, Ifs is

E
I R Z +R m +R
P = = x
I fs E E
R Z +R m
X Y
Rx
I R Z +R m
P = =
I fs RZ + Rm + R x
22
 Example 5
An ohmmeter uses a 1.5V battery and a basic 50μA meter
movement. Calculate
a) The value of Rz required
b) The value of Rx that would cause half scale deflection in
the circuit.
Rz
R1 Ifs = 50A
0.1Rz 0.9Rz Rm = 1k

E = 1.5V
X Y
Rx

23
 Answer

a) Rz = 29k 

b With midscale deflection, Rx is equal to

the internal resistance, Rm of the
ohmmeter,therefore Rx = 30k 
I = 30 μA

24
 Shunt type Ohmmeter
R2 R1 X
I

E Rm Rx

•Function of R1 is to eliminate the current flow through a meter

•The R2 is a variable resistor which functioning as a zero setting
•Unknown Resistance, Rx is connected in parallel with the
meter
•Normally R1 >> Rm which R1 ten times larger than Rm, so that any
unknown resistance that connected parallel with meter will effect the
small amount of current.

25
 Multiple Range Ohmmeter
• capable of measuring resistance over a wide range of values
Ifs Rz
Rm

R 1 R1

R 10 R2

R 100 R3

E
X Y

•Rz consists of fixed resistance and zeroing potentiometer.

•Rz is necessary to limit the current through the meter movement.
26
 Example 6
2.875k I F S D = 3 7 . 5 A

Rm = 3.82k

9k 900 90 10

236k 20k 1470 140 14

R  1k R  100 R  10

R  10k R 1

15V 1.5V

Rx
27
 Question
Calculate the meter current and indicated
resistance for the ohmmeter circuit for figure
above on its R X 1 range when
a) Rx = 0 b) Rx = 24 

28
 Answer

a) Ib = 62.52mA
Im = full scale = 0 

b) Ib = 31.25mA
Im = half scale = 24 

29
 Introduction for Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes

Digital storage
Digital
(DSO)

Digital
Analog (CRT) phosphor
(DPO)
Oscilloscope

41
 Analog (CRT)
-The cathode ray oscilloscope aka oscilloscope is probably the
most versatile electrical measuring instrument . ELECTRICAL
parameters can be observed with the oscilloscope are:
Dc & Ac Indirect measurement
time
voltage of dc , ac

Waveform
Phase
Frequency evaluation;
relationships
rise time
NONELECTRICAL physical quantities that can be measured by
using a transducer to convert the physical parameter to an
equivalent
Voltage are:
- Pressure - strain
- Temperature - acceleration

Oscilloscopes 42
 Major subsystems of oscilloscope

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)

2. Vertical amplifier

3. Horizontal amplifier

4. Sweep generator

5. Trigger circuit

6. Associated power supply

Oscilloscopes 43
 Common operation of oscilloscope

- The generated electron beam send a Phosphors layer on

screen
- one dot appear at whole screen and the brightness is depend
on how many electron hit the phosphors layer on screen
- To display two dimension shape, electron beam will diflect to
x axis and y axis
- X axis is deflected with one constant ratio that is time
(time/div)
- Y axis is deflected as how much the electron beam will be for
a specified input signal (volt/div)

Oscilloscopes 44
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
The major components of a general purpose CRT are:
Evacuated Deflected
Electron gun Accelerating Phosphor
glass plate
assembly anodes coated screen
envelope assembly

Oscilloscopes 45
 Evacuated Glass Envelope

6 inch

• Screen size diameters of approximately 1 to 25 in or larger.

• quality oscilloscopes use a CRT that has a circular screen
approximately 5in in diameter
•All electrical connections except the high voltage connection
are made through the base of the CRT
• The glass envelope is evacuated to a fairly high vacuum to
Oscilloscopes permit the electron beam to traverse the tube easily. 46
 Electron Gun
Electron gun

Focus Deflection Acceleration High voltage

Triode

Phosphor
screen

base mesh

-consists of the triode section and the focus section

-The purpose is to provide a source of electrons, converge
and focus them into a well defined beam, and accelerate
them to toward the fluorescent screen.
-The electrons that make up the beam are produce by
thermionic emission from the heated cathode.
Oscilloscopes 47
 Cont…
-The cathode is surrounded by a cylindrical cap that is at a negative
potential
- The grid cap has a small hole located along the longitudinal axis of
the CRT, as shown in figure below, acts as the control grid
- the control grid is at a negative potential, electrons are repelled away
from the cylinder walls and stream through the hole where they move
into the electric fields of the focusing anodes.

Oscilloscopes 48
 Cont…
-The focus lens consists of the first anode, focus ring and
astigmatism aperture or second anode, this section is
obtain the minimum size and best defined spot on the
phosphor screen of the CRT

Deflection Plates
-The function is to display waveform on the CRT’s
phosphor screen by deflected the electron beam with the
force exerted on each electron by the electric field

Post Deflection area

-the normal wave form display the waveform on the CRT is
less than 10MH, so it can be extended to achieve the
required beam deflection by the increased velocity.
Oscilloscopes 49
 Cont…

mesh

- to increased CRT length is to add a dome-shaped mesh

to CRT just beyond the deflection plates as shown
- the mesh reduces trace brightness and increases the
size of spots unless the post deflection accelerating
voltage is increased significantly.

Oscilloscopes 50
 - electron beam strikes the phosphor coated face of the
CRT, a spot of light is produced because the phosphor
absorbs kinetic energy from electrons and gives up the
energy in the form of light
-Phosphor possesses a second desirable characteristic
called phosphorescent, it continues to emit light for a
period of time after the source of excitation is removed
The length of time phosphorescent continues is a
measure of the persistence of the fluorescent material -
The focus control is connected to the focusing anode and
its form an electrostatic lens to collimate the electrons into
a well defined beam.
- The beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen by
adjusting the controls marked horizontal position and
vertical position.
Oscilloscopes 51
 Vertical amplifier
- is the principal factor in determining the sensitivity and bandwidth of
the oscilloscope
- The gain of the vertical amplifier determines the smallest signal that the
oscilloscope can be satisfactory reproduce on the CRT screen
- The sensitivity of an oscilloscope is directly proportional to gain of the vertical
amplifier; that which allows us to observe smaller-amplitude signals. The vertical
sensitivity is a measure of how much the electron beam will be deflected for a
specified input signal.
- Bandwidth of an oscilloscope determines the range of frequencies that can be
accurately reproduced on the CRT screen, the greater the bandwidth, the wider
the range of frequencies that can be observed with the instrument

Oscilloscopes 52
 Horizontal amplifier
The horizontal amplifier basically serves two purposes:

1. When the oscilloscope is being used in the ordinary mode of

operation to display a signal applied to the vertical input, the
horizontal amplifier will amplify the sweep generator output.

2. When the oscilloscope is being used in the X-Y mode, the

signal applied to the horizontal input terminal will be amplified by
the horizontal amplifier.

Oscilloscopes 53
 Sweep Generator
- Sweep generator consists of ramp generator and
non inverting Schmitt trigger
-When ac is applied to the vertical plates and
horizontal plates are grounded, then spot on the
screen produce a vertical line by moving up and
down
- If ramp (sawtooth wave) is applied on horizontal
plate, spot moves horizontally along with up and
down movement, producing a waveform
-To display a waveform, saw tooth wave (repetitive
ramp) is applied on horizontal plate, generated by a
horizontal sweep generator
-During the sweep time, Ts, the beam moves from
left to right across the CRT screen. The beam is
deflected to the right by the increasing amplitude of
the ramp voltage and the fact that the positive
voltage attracts the negative electrons.
- During retrace time, Tr, the beam returns quickly to
the left side of the screen. The control grid is
generally “gated off”, which blanks out the beam
during retrace and prevents an undesirable retrace
Oscilloscopes pattern from appearing on the screen. 54
 Attenuator Oscilloscopes

- an attenuator network is placed between the vertical input

terminal and the input of the vertical amplifier.
- The purpose of the attenuator is to reduce the amplitude of
the vertical input signal before applying it to the vertical
amplifier.
- The most basic attenuator is a simple resistive voltage
divider. With this circuit, the input voltage Vi, will be
attenuated by a factor of 10000 with the switch S set to
position A, in position B, C, and D, the attenuation factors
will be 1000, 100, and 10, respectively in switch position
E there is no attenuation.
- The attenuation in any switch position can be determined
from the ratio of the total resistance from the position of
interest to ground to the total series resistance, written as

55
 56

Simple attenuator network

 Vo R
=
Vi Rt

Where
R = total resistance from the desired attenuator
terminal to ground
Rt = total series resistance

The attenuation factor is the reciprocal of the voltage

divider ratio.

Attenuator, A = 1 / Vo ratio

Oscilloscopes 57
 The Display

Oscilloscopes 58
 Voltage measurement

Oscilloscopes 59
 Time and Frequency measurement

Oscilloscopes 60
 Determining frequency with Lissajous
Patterns
-The oscilloscope can be used in X-Y mode to determine
the frequency of a signal.
-The frequency is determined by applying the signal of
unknown frequency to either the X or the Y input terminal
and a signal of known frequency to other input terminal.
-The pattern observed on the screen is called Lissajous
Figure. The particular Lissajous pattern observed depends
on the ratio of the two frequencies.

f v number of horizontal tan gencies

=
fh number of vertical tan gencies
Oscilloscopes 61
Oscilloscopes 62
 Phase angle computation
- Oscilloscopes can also be used in X-Y mode to determine the
phase angle between two signals of the same frequency.
-The pattern displayed on the CRT screen may vary from straight line
with a positive slope, if the signals are in phase, to a straight line with
a negative slope for signals 1800 out of phase.
- If the phase angle is any angle between 00 and 3600 besides 1800, a
circle or ellipse, will be displayed. The phase angle is easily
determined from the ellipse.
- The ratio of the Y axis intercept and the maximum vertical deflection,
Y2 is equal to the sine of the phase angle, that is,

Y1
Sin =
Y2
Where
θ = phase angle in degrees, Y1 = Y axis intercept
Oscilloscopes Y2 = maximum vertical deflection 63
Oscilloscopes 64
Oscilloscopes 65
Oscilloscopes 66
Oscilloscopes 67
 Example 1
Figure 1 indicated the measurement of signal by analog oscilloscope
using the X-Y method. The accuracy of oscilloscope is about ± 2.5% and
the vertical frequency is 100 kHz. Calculate:
(i) the frequency of fx.
(ii) the possible range of error for fx.
(iii) the absolute error and percentage of error for fy, when the actual
time of fy; vertical frequency is 9.5µs.

Oscilloscopes Figure 1 68
 Answer

𝑓𝑥 𝑓ℎ 1
1. ) i) 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑓𝑣 = 3 (1M)

100𝑘𝐻𝑧
∴ 𝑓𝑥 = = 33.33𝑘𝐻𝑧# (1M) Total : 2M
3

2.5
ii) 33.33 𝑘𝐻𝑧 ± 2.5% = 33.33𝐸 + 03 × = 833.25
100
33.33 kHz ± 833.25 range : 32.5k Hz ~34.16kHz # (2M)

1
iii) 𝑓𝑦 = 9.5𝜇 = 105.26𝑘𝐻𝑧 (1M)
𝑒 = 105.26𝑘 − 100𝑘 = 5.26𝑘 (1M)
5.26𝑘
% 𝑒 = 105.26𝑘 × 100 = 4.99% = 5% # (1M)

69
Oscilloscopes 70
Introduction to Function Generator
• A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or
software used to generate different types of electrical waveforms
over a wide range of frequencies.
FUNCTION GENERATOR USED TO GENERATE
VARIOUS KIND OF WAVEFORM SUCH AS…
1. Triangle Wave
2. Sine Wave
3. Square Wave
4. Sawtooth Wave and etc…
Triangle wave
• Simple function generators usually generate
triangular waveform whose frequency can be
controlled smoothly as well as in steps.
• This triangular wave is used as the basis for all of
its other outputs.
• The triangular wave is generated by repeatedly
charging and discharging a capacitor from a
constant current source.
Triangle wave
• This produces a linearly ascending or descending
voltage ramp.
• As output voltage reaches upper and lower limits,
the charging and discharging is reversed using a
comparator, producing the linear triangle wave.
• By varying the current and the size of the capacitor,
different frequencies may be obtained.
Integrator circuit to produce the Triangle wave
Procedure:
• In this circuit, capacitor is used as a feedback element.
• The circuit connection is shown in figure as to how triangle waveform
can be produced
• The negative feedback of the op-amp ensures that the inverting input
will be held at 0 Volts (virtual ground).
• If the input voltage is exactly 0 volts there will be no current through
resistor.
• Therefore, no charging of the capacitor, and there output voltage will
be not change.
Procedure:
• We cannot guarantee what voltage will be at output with respect to
ground in this condition but we can say that output voltage is
constant.
• If we apply a constant positive voltage to the input, the op-amp
output will not fall negative at a linear rate, in attempt to produced
the changing voltage across the capacitor necessary to maintain the
current established by the voltage difference across the resistor.
• A constant negative voltage at the input result in linear, rising voltage
at the output.
• The output voltage rate of change will be proportional to the value of
the input voltage.
SQUARE WAVE
Cont…
• First the inverting terminal (2) is at zero potential and the input at the
non-inverting terminal (3) has some potential V1.

• This occurs due to the power supply of the operational amplifier.

• The potential difference between the two input terminals is Vi – 0 =

V1.

• The ‘+ve ‘ voltage drives the output of operational amplifier into ‘+ve’
saturation voltage (+Vsat).
Cont…
• When the +Vsat is fed back to the inverting terminal (2) through the
resistor R, the capacitor C gets charged and the potential of the right
side plate of the capacitor gradually rises (or) the V2 value rises.

• When V2 becomes slightly more than V1, the input becomes ‘-ve’ and
immediately this ‘-ve’ voltage drives the output of the operational
amplifier in to ‘-ve’ saturation voltage (- Vsat).
TACHOMETER
• A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-
counter, RPM, gauge) is an instrument
measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk,
as in a motor or other machine.
• The device usually displays the revolutions per
minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but
digital displays are increasingly common.
Types of Tachometers

•Analog Tachometers
•Digital Tachmeters
•Contact and Non-contact Tachometers
•Time and Frequency measuring
tachometers
Tachometer categories
Cont…
Block Diagram
Working Principle
• Pulses are fed to the tachometer at the
frequency to be measured. A scale factor is
applied to produce readings of desired types
(linear speed, flow rates, etc)
• Two basic principles:-
1. Principle of fixed time based tachometer
2. Principle of reciprocal tachometer
Working Principle
• The ignition system triggers a voltage pulse at the
output of the tachometer electrochemical part
whenever the spark plug fires.
• It shows that the average voltage of the pulse train is
proportional to the engine speed.
• The signal from the head is transmitted by standard
twin screened cable to the indicator.
• The temperature range to handle operations over a
range of -20 until 70 degrees.
Applications

•Automobiles
•Laser Instruments
•Analog Audio Recording
•Medical Applications
USES
• The tachometer in a vehicle enables the driver to
select suitable throttle and gear settings for the
driving conditions.
• It enables the driver to prevent exceeding speed
capability of subparts such as spring retracted valves
of the engine, and overheating, thereby causing
unnecessary wear or permanent damage and even
failure of engines.