STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

MODULE 1 – BASIC CONCEPTS IN STATISTICS AND DATA

PRESENTATION

LESSON 1: Basic Concepts in Statistics

Self-Test 1
1. What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics. Give example of
studies that make use of the two.
 Descriptive statistics summarize and explain data, such as measures of central
tendency (mean) and variability (standard deviation). For example, finding out
what age a class's typical student is. Inferential statistics draw conclusions and
make assumptions about a population based on sample data. As an example,
consider determining the nation's average height from a sample.

2. Differentiate the four levels of measurement by giving 5 examples under each.

i. Nominal level
 Gender
 Marital status
 Eye color
 Religion
 Blood type
ii. Ordinal level
 Grading system in schools
 Levels of satisfaction in a customer survey
 Olympic medals
 Military ranks
 Places in a race
iii. Interval Scale
 IQ scores
 Height measured in inches or centimeters
 Weight measured in pounds or kilograms
 Time duration measured in minutes or hours
 Years of education completed
iv. Ratio level
 Height/weight ratio
 Ratio of income to expenses
 In a population, the number of men to women
 The ratio of students to teachers in a classroom
  The amount of debt to income

3. Estimate the sample size to be used in the study about the teaching competencies of
elementary school teachers in Metro, Vigan, given the total no. of teachers in the 5
districts. Prepare a table which will also show the number of respondents to be
taken per district.

N = 1,010
N 1,010
n= 2
= 2
=529
1+ Ne 1+1,010 ( 0.03 )

n 529
P= = =0.5238
N 1,010

Districts Population Sample

Vigan 300 (0.5238)300 157
Sta. Catalina 153 (0.5238)153 80
Caoayan 125 (0.5238)125 65
Bantay 234 (0.5238)234 123
San Vicente 198 (0.5238)198 104
TOTAL 1,010 529

LESSON 2: MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS IN STATISTICS

Self-Test 2
1. Find the value of each summation for the data given below
i 1 2 3 4 5
xi 7 5 9 8 5
yi 2 3 8 4 12

(∑ )
5
a. xi = (x1+x2+x3+x4+x5)²
l=1

= (7 + 5 + 9 + 8 + 5 )²
= 43²
 = 1, 849

5
b . ∑ xi ² = (x1)²+(x2)²+(x3)²+(x4)²+(x5)²
l=1
2 2 2 2
¿ 7 +5 +9 + 8 + 5²
¿ 49+ 25+81+64+ 25
¿ 244

4
c . ∑ xi yi = (x2)(y2)+(x3)(y3)+(x4)(y4)
l =2
= (5)(3)+(9)(8)+(8)(4)
= 15 + 72 + 32
= 119

5
d . ∑ ( yi , xi) = (y1)(x1)+(y2)(x2)+(y3)(x3)+(y4)(x4)+(y5)(x5)
l=1
¿ ( 2 ) ( 7 ) + ( 3 ) ( 5 ) + ( 9 )( 8 )+ ( 4 )( 8 )+ (12 )( 5 )
¿ 14+ 15+72+ 32+ 60
¿ 193

2. If the value of a constant c is 5, find the following.

4
a . ∑ c ( xi+ yi )=c (x 1+ x 2+ x 3+ ¿ x 4 )+ ¿ ¿
l=1

= 5 (7+5+9+8) +(2+3+8+4)
= 5 (29 + 17)
= 5 (46)
= 230

4
b . ∑ c (xiyi ²) = 5 (7)(2)² + (5)(3)² + (9)(8)² + (8)(4)²
l=1

= 5 (28 + 45 + 576 + 128 )

= 5 (777)
= 3,885
LESSON 3: Data Presentation
Self-Test – 3
1. A test administered to a math class of 50 students resulted in the following scores.
86 85 74 45 92 36 46 92 60 45
72 90 82 46 46 82 50 86 40 36
83 92 40 65 43 30 52 72 41 47
76 87 60 55 52 36 63 63 33 52
37 63 70 82 78 34 77 70 32 65
a. Construct a histogram using the stem and leaf method.
y

7
5
6 1 0 6
2 0 5 2 2
3 6 0 7 2
4 3 2 3 8 2
6 6 2 3 0 7 2
0 6 0 5 4 5 2
6 5 2 0 6 3 2
7 0 5 3 2 6 0
x
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b. Construct a frequency distribution selecting an appropriate class size.

Cumulative
Class Intervals Frequency (f) Frequency
(cf)
90-99 4 50 c. Construct a
80-89 8 46 histogram, a
70-79 8 38 frequency
60-69 7 30 polygon and a
50-59 5 23 cumulative
40-49 10 18
30-39 8 8
Σf = 50
polygon frequency graph for these data using the frequency distribution constructed from
letter b.

2. Given the table below, construct the following:

Private Household Population 7 years old and over

By Highest Grade Completed, Town X: 2000
Highest Grade Completed Number (2000) Number (1995)
No grade completed 39,651 47,363
Elementary 250,089 233,449
High School 59,973 41,867
College 19,985 12,367
Academic degree holder 12,439 8,592
Not stated 582 3,832
TOTAL 382,719 347,470

a. Pie diagram

No grade completed Elementary High School

College Academic degree holder Not Stated

b. Grouped bar for 1995 and 2000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
No Grade Elementary High School College Academic Not stated
Completed degree
holder
2000 1995
 MODULE 2 -MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY,
DISPERSION, AND POSITION

LESSON 1: Measures of Central Tendency

Self – Test
Give what is asked for in the following problems:

1. The data given below are the weights (lbs) of 15 pupils of Mr. Cruz.

35 38 39 38 39
45 41 47 38 43
40 42 45 50 48

a) Calculate the mean, median and mode.

∑ xi= 35 + 45 + 40 + 38 + 41 + 42 + 39 + 47 + 45 + 38 + 38 + 50 + 39
+N 43 + 48 / 15
= 628/15
Mean = 41.87

Median = arranging from lowest to highest for ungrouped data

35, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45,45, 47, 48, 50

Therefore, the median is 40

Mode
35, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45,45, 47, 48, 50
The mode is 38

b) Interpret the results.

The mean is 41.87 is interpreted as the average weight of the pupils of Mr.
Cruz. The mode is 40 and is meaning to say that half of the pupils
weighted 39 below and the other half weighted 41 and above. The mode is
38 as it frequently occurred in class.

2. An elementary school teacher gathered data in the NEAT performance in

English of 70 pupils in his own school. The performance of the pupils are
summarized in a frequency table given below.
 Class score Frequency
96-100 1
91-95 5
86-90 10
81-85 4
76-80 15
71-75 14
66-70 8
61-65 7
56-60 2
51-55 3
46-50 1
N = 70
Determine the mean, median and mode and interpret the results.
 Mean
Class Score Frequency (f) Deviation (d) fd
96-100 1 +5 5
91-95 5 +4 20
86-90 10 +3 30
81-85 4 +2 8
76-80 15 +1 15
71-75 14 0 0
66-70 8 -1 -8
61-65 7 -2 -14
56-60 2 -3 -6
51-55 3 -4 -12
46-50 1 -5 -5
Σf = 70 = N Σfd = 33

Solution:
Σfd (i)
X = assumed mean +
N
 73+33(5)
= = 75.35
70
 Median

Cumulative Frequency
Class Score Frequency (f)
(cf)
96-100 1 70
91-95 5 69
86-90 10 64
81-85 4 54
76-80 15 50
71-75 14 35
66-70 8 21
61-65 7 13
56-60 2 6
51-55 3 4
46-50 1 1

N = 70
Solution:
( N /2)−cfb( i)
Md = II +
fm
(70 /2)−21(5)
= 70.5 + = 71.5
70

 Mode
 Consider the table above
Solution:
d2i −1 (5)
Mo = II + = 70.5 + = 69.5
d 1+ d 2 6+(−1)

Interpreting the results:

The average score of the class in NEAT performance in English is 73.35.
Fifty percent of the students got scores above 71.5 and the other fifty percent got fifty
percent below it on the NEAT performance in English.
At the NEAT performance in English, 69.5 score mostly occurred during the test.
LESSON 2: Measures of Dispersion
Self Test
Answer the following problems:
1. Compute the mean, range, standard deviation, and variance of the 10 scores
presented below: 12, 14, 17, 22, 27, 32, 34, 37, 42, 52
Mean:
¿ 28.9−0
A.D.= Σ∨ Xᵢ− X∨ N ¿ =
10
= 2.89
Σ¿ Xᵢ = 289/10
= 28.9
Range:
Re = Hu – Ll
= 52 – 12
= 40

Standard Deviation:

S . D .=
√ Σ(Xᵢ− X)²
N−1

=
√ (28.9−0)²
10−1
=
9√
28.9 ¿ 1.79

Variance:
Σ ( Xᵢ−X )²
s² =
N −1
(28.9−0)² 2
= =( 1.79 ) =3.21
10−9

2. For the scores below, compute the standard deviation.

77, 83, 69, 72, 85, 90, 95, 75, 55, 45
 Solution

S . D .=
√ Σ(Xᵢ− X)²
N−1

=
√ (74.6−0)²
10−1
=
√74.6
9
=2.88

3. As the head of a social service agency, you believe that your staff of 20 social
workers is very much overworked compared to 10 years ago. Th case loads for each
worker are reported below for each of the two years in question.
1990 2000
52 55 42 82
50 49 75 50
57 50 69 52
49 52 65 50
45 59 58 55
65 60 64 65
60 65 69 60
55 68 60 60
42 60 50 60
50 42 60 60

a. Has the mean case load increased?

1990 2000
¿ 54.25 ¿
A.D.= Σ∨ Xᵢ− X∨ N ¿ = = 2.71 A.D. = Σ∨ Xᵢ− X∨ N ¿ =
20
60.3
=3.015
20
Σ¿ Xᵢ = 1,085/20 = 54.25 Σ¿ Xᵢ=1,206=60.3
Based on the mean or average deviation calculated, the workload had increased by
10.85%.
 b. Compare the standard deviations for the two time periods along with the changes in the
mean. What happened? Why?

1990 2000

S . D .=
√ Σ(Xᵢ− X)²
N−1
S . D .=
√ Σ(Xᵢ− X)²
N−1

¿
√ (54.25−0)²
10−1
=
√
54.25 = 2.46
9 √ (60.3−0)²
10−1
=
√
60.3 = 2.59
9

During the next 10 years, from 1990 to 2000 the workers have increased their workload
and have more varied cases. We can assume that due to increasing population that the
cases increase. As such it can be considered as a factor.

LESSON 3: Measures of Position

Self-Test
Answer the following problems:
1. Anna got 70 percentiles in Personnel Administration in a class of 42.
a. What does the above percentile rank mean?
It means that in the class of 42, Anna obtained a rank higher than 70% of the class at
Personnel Administration.
b. How many students are surpassed by Anna?
Anna surpassed 70% of the class or 29 students of the class.
c. What is the percentile point (P₇₀)?

2. Using the data on performance of 55 students in Statistics (presented below),

determine the following and interpret the results.
Class Range Frequency Cumulative Frequency
93-97 2 55
88-92 4 53
83-87 5 49
78-82 3 44
73-77 10 41
68-72 12 31
63-67 9 29
 58-62 8 20
53-57 7 12
48-52 5 5

a. 50th percentile (P₅₀)

Cumulative
Class Range Frequency Cumulative
Frequency %
93-97 2 55 100.00
88-92 4 53 96.36
83-87 5 49 89.09
78-82 3 44 80
73-77 10 41 74.54
68-72 12 31 56.36
63-67 9 29 52.72
58-62 8 20 36.36
53-57 7 12 21.81
48-52 5 5 9.09

Pn = .50(55) = 27.5
ll = 62.5
F = 20
Class width = 5

( ₚN −F )ᵢ
Pₙ = II +
f
( 27.5−20 ) (5)
= 62.5 +
10
= 62.5 + 3.75
P₅₀ = 66.25

b. Q₁, Q₃ AND QD

Qₙ=II +
[ ( 4)
n
)
N −F ᵢ

f
Where:
Qₙ =
ll = 57.5
f =8
F =12
i=5
 [ 13.75−12 ) 5
Q ₁=57.5+
8
[ 13.75−12 ) 5
= 57.5+
8
= 57.5 + 1.093
Q₁ = 58.59

Q₃
¿ II +
[() )
3
n
4
N−F ᵢ

f
[ 41.25−41 ) 5
= 77.5+
3
= 77.92
77.92−58.59
QD =
2
= 9.67
c. D₃ = P₃₀
( ₚN −F )ᵢ
P₃₀ = ll +
f
( 16.5−12 ) (5)
= 57.5 +
10
= 57.5 + 2.25
D₃ = 59.75
 MODULE 3 – THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

LESSON 1: Unit Normal Distribution

Exercise

1. Below z= 2.05

The area under the unit normal curve for z=2.05 is approximately 0.9798.

2. Above z=2.52

The area under the unit normal curve for z = 2.52 is approximately
0.9948.

3. Above z= -1.44

The area under the unit normal curve for z = -1.44 is 0.0749.

4. Below z= 1.23

Since we want the area under the curve for a z= 1.23, we subtract the area
to the left of -1.2 from 1 to get the area to the right of -1.2, which is 1 –
0.8849 = 0.1151. Therefore, the area under the unit normal curve for z =
1.23 is approximately 0.1151.

5. Between z=-1.75 and z=2.52

The area under the unit normal curve between z = -1.75 and z = 2.52 is
approximately 0.9546

6. Between z=-1.51 and z= -2.12

Using a standard normal distribution table, we find the area to the left of
z=-1.51 is 0.0655 and the area to the left of z=-2.12 is 0.0179. To find the
area between z=-1.51 and z=-2.12, we can subtract the smaller area from
the larger area: 0.0655 – 0.0179 = 0.0476Therefore, the area under the
standard normal curve between z=-1.51 and z=-2.12 is approximately
0.0476.

7. Between z= 1.25 and z= 0.45

The area to the left of z = 1.25 is 0.8944. Looking up z = 0.45 in the table,
we find that the area to the left of z = 0.45 is 0.6736. Therefore, the area
under the unit normal curve between z = 1.25 and z = 0.45 is:

0.8944 – 0.6736 = 0.2208

The area under the unit normal curve between z = 1.25 and z = 0.45 is
approximately 0.2208.

EXERCISE

1. If a person with an I.Q. greater than 3 standard deviations

above the mean is considered a genius, what percent of the
population would be considered genius?

• IQ scores in the general population have a

standardized mean of 100 and a standard deviation of
15. Three standard deviations above the mean would
be 3 * 15 = 45 points. Only about 0.0232% of the
population would be considered geniuses based on
having an IQ score greater than 3 standard deviations
above the mean.

2. In a certain year, 500,000 high school seniors took the NEAT.

Its standard score had a mean of 400 and a standard deviation
of 100. Approximately how many students scored

a. 350 and above

The proportion of students with scores higher than 350 is approximately

1 – 0.6915 = 0.3085. Therefore, approximately 154,250 students scored
350 and above.

b. Below 500

Approximately 84.13% of students scored below 500. Therefore,

approximately, 0.8413 x 500,000 = 420,650 students scored below 500.

c. Between 400 and 600

Approximately, the number of students who scored between 400 and 600
would be: 0.4772 x 500,000 = 238,600. Therefore, approximately 238,600
students scored between 400 and 600.

d. Less than 350

Approximately 30.85% of the 500,000 (or 0.3085 x 500,000) students

scored less than 350.

0.3085 x 500,000 = 154,250

Therefore, approximately 154,250 students scored less than 350.

e. Above 400

Approximately 250,000 students scored above 400.

f. Exactly 400

Since the standard score of a test is the number of standard deviations a

score is from the mean, a standard score of 400 means that the score is
exactly at the mean. Therefore, the number of students who scored
exactly 400 would be approximately equal to the number of students who
took the NEAT, which is 500,000.