BOTANY

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 Melikyan Yelena A.

BOTANY

Manual for foreign students

Yerevan
2017

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 PREFACE

This manual is intended for teaching the discipline of “Botany”

to the bachelors of the pharmacy faculty.

The manual is written in compliance to the educational

program.
The manual provides concise description of basic sections of
“Botany” discipline: Cytology, Anatomy, Morphology, Systematics.

The sections of Cytology and Anatomy include laboratory work

which will help to substantiate theoretical knowledge.

The section of Systematics does not include all groups of herbal

organisms. However, this section investigates Fungi, Algae, High
Class Sporadic and Seed Plants.

The knowledge of “Botany” discipline is very important for

training pharmacologist - specialists, in order to facilitate the process
of learning fundamentals of Pharmacognosy (science about herbal
plants) in future.

We have described the professional peculiarities of herbal plant

families applied in modern medicine. Besides the plants, which grow
in the territory of the Republic of Armenia, this section also includes
tropical, subtropical and many other regional valuable herbal plants.
We kindly express our gratitude in advance for all the remarks
and proposals with regard to this manual.

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 The main branches of Botany are:
1. Plant systematics - classification and naming of plants
2. Plant morphology - structure and form of plants
3. Plant anatomy - structure of plant cells and tissues
4. Plant embryology - development of generative and
embryological structures
5. Plant cytology - cell structure and functions
6. Plant physiology - life functions of plants
7. Plant biochemistry - chemical processes of metabolism
8. Plant genetics - genetic inheritance in plants
9. Plant geography - the study of plant distributions
10. Plant ecology - role and function of plants in the
environment
11. Ethnobotany -practical use of plants and plant products
12. Paleobotany - study of fossil plants and plant evolution
13. Palynology – all about pollen and spores
14. Pomology – all about fruits and nuts
15. Algology – all about Algae
16. Mycology – all about Fungi
17. Lichenology – all about Lichens
18. Bryology – all about Mosses, Liverworts, Hornworts
19. Pteridology – all about Ferns
20. Dendrology - study of woody plants, shrubs, trees, lianas.

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 Human and Animal Dependence on Plants
Our dependence on green organisms to produce the oxygen in
the air we breathe and to remove the carbon dioxide we give off
doesn`t stop there. Plants are also the sources of products that are so
much a part of human society that we largely take them for granted.
We know, of course, that rice, corn, potatoes and other vegetables are
plants, but all the foods, including meat, fish, eggs, cheese and milk,
to mention just a few, owe their existence to plants. Condiments,
such as spices, and luxuries, such as perfumes are produced by
plants, as are some dyes, adhesives, digestible surgical stitching
fiber, food stabilizers, beverages and emulsifiers. Our houses are
constructed with the lumber from trees, which also furnish cellulose
for paper, cardboard and synthetic fibers. Some of our clothing,
camping equipment, bedding, drapery and other textile goods are
made from fibers of many different plant families. All medicines and
drugs at one time came from plants, fungi or bacteria and many
important ones, including most of the antibiotics, still do.
Microscopic organisms play a vital role in recycling both plant and
animal wastes and aid in the building of healthy soil. Others are
responsible for human diseases and allergies.

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 Evolutionary History of Plants
The evolution of plants has resulted in widely varying levels of
complexity, from the earliest algal mats, through bryophytes,
lycopods and ferns, to the complex gymposperms and angiosperms
of today.
Evidence for the appearance of the first land plants occurred in
the Ordovician, about 450 million years ago, in the form of fossil
spores. Land plants began to diversify in the Late Silurian, about 430
million years ago. By the middle of Devonian, many of the features
recognised in plants today were present including roots and leaves.
Late Devonian free-sporing plants such as Archaeopteris had
secondary vascular tissue that produced wood and formed forests of
tall trees. The first land plants were non-vascular bryophytes,
represented today by mosses, hornworts, and liverworts. These
plants, lacking circulatory tissues, were quite short. They could only
survive in very moist areas where their spores could be dispersed
easily. Lacking a protective coating, spores are relatively fragile and
prone to drying out. Appearance of flowering plants began in the
Triassic (~200 million years ago), and their later diversification in
Paleogene. The latest major group of plants to evolve were the
grasses (about 40 million years ago). The grasses, as well as many
other groups, evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the
low CO2 and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the last 10
million years.
The earliest megafossils of land plants were thalloid organisms.
They could only survive when the land was waterlogged.
Early plants had to develop woody tissue that provided support
and water transport. The fruit plants to develop secondary growth
(with the help of vascular cambium) and a woody habit, were
apparently the ferns, and as early as the middle Devonian one
species, Wattieza, had already reached heights of 8m and a tree-like
habit.

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 The dominant groups today are the gymnosperms, which
include the coniferous trees, and the angiosperms, which contain all
fruiting and flowering trees. Both groups arose from within the
pteridosperms, probably as early as the Permian.
The first spermatophytes (“seed plants”), the first plants to bear
true seed – are called pteridosperms (“seed ferns”). Their foliage
consisted of fern-like fronds, although they were not closely related
to ferns. Most of gymnosperms incase their seeds in a woody cone or
fleshy aril (ex. yew), but none of them fully enclose their seeds. The
angiosperms are the only group to fully enclose the seed in a flower
carpel. Seeds increased the success rate of fertilized gametophytes.
The nutrient store could be “packaged” in with the embryo. The
process of double fertilization is unique and common to all
angiosperms.

Taxonomic Ranks of Botany are:

1. Empire or Domain
2. Superkingdom
3. Kingdom
4. Phylum (Division)
5. Class
6. Order
7. Family
8. Genus
9. Species

Macrosystems of Living Organisms

The entire organic world can be divided into two empires:

I. Empire Acellular Organisms - Noncellulata

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 II. Empire Cellular Organisms – Cellulata

Empire Noncellulata consists of only one Kingdom Vira

(Viruses), but many scientists believe viruses are not real organisms,
as it is not capable of independent metabolism.
Empire Cellulata is divided into two netcarta:
1.non-nuclear (or prokaryotes),
2.nuclear (or eukaryotes).
Prokaryotes do not have morphologically decorated nucleus and
organelles. In prokaryotes there are no mitosis, meiosis, sexual
process. Prokaryotes, unlike eukaryotes, are capable of multiplying
very rapidly.
Prokaryotes consist of two kingdoms:
1.Archaebacteria
2.Eubacteria (Bacteria).
The difference between them is the presence of double layer
lipid membranes in Bacteria.
Eukaryotes are divided into three kingdoms:
1.Plants (Plantae or Vegetabilia),
2.Mushrooms (Fungi),
3.Animals (Animalia).
The special ending of Taxa

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 Chapter 1
PLANT CELLS
Cell Structure and Communication

All living things are composed of cells. The plants cell wall is a
protective layer outside the cell membrane that also provides support
for the cell’s structure. It surrounds the protoplasm, which consists
of all the living components of a cell. These living components are
bounded by a membrane called the plasma membrane. All cellular
components between the plasma membrane and a relatively large
body called the nucleus are known as cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm is a soup-like fluid called cytosol, in which various bodies
called organelles are dispersed. Organelles are persistent structures
of various shapes and sizes with specialized functions in the cell;
most, but not all, are bounded by membranes.

The Cell Wall

The plant cell wall acts as a gatekeeper, because it determines

what can come in and out of the cell in order to keep the cell
protected. It protects the plant from pathogens, insects. There are
holes all over the cell wall called plasmodesmata, which allows
nutrients to enter and waste to exit the cell. In plants the main
structural component of cell walls is cellulose. In addition to
cellulose (strong fibers of carbohydrate polymer), cell walls typically
contain a matrix of hemicellulose (a glue-like substance that holds
cellulose fibrils together), pectin (the organic material that gives
stiffness to fruit jellies), and glycoproteins (proteins that have sugarb
associated with their molecules). The plant cell wall consists of 3
sections: middle lamella, primary cell wall and secondary cell wall.
. middle lamella – outer cell wall layer that contains
polysaccharides called pectins.

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 . primary cell wall – layer between middle lamella and plasma
membrane. It is composed of cellulose microfibrils contained within
a gel-like matrix of hemicellulose fibers and pectin polysaccharides.
This part provides the strength and flexibility of the cell.
. secondary cell wall – layer formed between the primary cell
wall and plasma membrane. It can contain lignin, which strengthens
the cell wall and aids in water conductivity in plant vascular tissue
cells.

Plant Cellular Components

Plant cells contain many membrane bounded cellular structures.

These organelles carry out specific functions necessary for survival
and normal operation like producing hormones, enzymes, and all
metabolic activities of the cell. Most chemical reactions that take
place in cells occur in the protoplasm, as part of a dynamic series of
events that make the plant a living entity. Each organelle within the
protoplast has a primary function, and the flow of metabolites
(products of chemical synthesis or breakdown).

The Plasma Membrane

While the plasma

membrane may inhibit
movement of some
substances, it can otherwise
allow free movement and can
even control movement of
other substances into and out
of the cell. The plasma
membrane is also involved in
the production and assembly
of cellulose for cell walls. Fig.1. The plant cell structure

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 The plasma membrane and other cell membranes are composed
of phospholipids arranged in two layers, with proteins interspersed
throughout (fig.1).

The Nucleus

The nucleus is the control center of the cell. In some ways, it

functions like combination of a computer program and a dispatcher
that sends coded messages or “blueprints” originating from DNA in
the nucleus with information that will ultimately be used in other
parts of the cell. In other words, the DNA in the nucleus provides the
original information needed to fulfill the cell’s needs. This nuclear
information contributes toward growth, differentiation, and the
myriad activities of the complex cell “factory”. The nucleus also
stores information, passing from cell to cell, as new cells are formed.
In living cells the nucleus may appear as a grayish, spherical to
ellipsoidal lump, sometimes lying against the plasma membrane, to
one side of the cell or toward a corner. Certain fungi and algae have
numerous nuclei within a single branched cell, but the cells of more
complex plants usually have a single nucleus.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The outer membrane of the nucleus is connected with the

endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum facilitates
cellular communication and channeling of materials. The ER is an
enclosed space consisting of a network of flattened sacs and tubes
that form channels through the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes may be distributed on the outer surface (i.e. the
surface is in contact with the cytoplasm) of the ER. Such
endoplasmic reticulum is said to be rough and is primarily associated
with the synthesis, secretion, or storage of proteins. This contrasts
with smooth ER, which has few, if any, ribosomes lining the surface,
and is associated with lipid secretion. Both types of ER can occur in
the same cell.
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 Ribosomes

Ribosomes are tiny bodies that are visible with the aid of an
electronic microscope. They are typically roughly ellipsoidal in
shape. Each ribosome is composed of two subunits that are
composed of RNA and proteins. They initiate protein synthesis.
Unlike other organelles, ribosomes have no bounding membranes,
and because of this, some scientists prefer not to call them
organelles.

Dictyosomes

Dictyosomes constituting the Golgi apparatus occur in protein-

secreting animal cells and a few plant cells with similar function.

Plastids

Most living plant cells have several kinds of plastids, the

chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Chloroplast is a type of plastid, characterized by its high
concentration of green pigment chloriphyll. Other plastid types, such
as the leucoplast and the chromoplast, contain little amount of
chlorophyll and do not carry out photosynthesis. The green colour
results from the presence of two pigments: chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b. A function of those pigments is to absorb light energy.

Fig.2. Chloroplasts

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 In plants chloroplasts occur in all green tissues, though they are
concentrated particularly in parenchyma cells of the leaf mesophyll.
With the help of chloroplasts photosynthesis occurs, a process by
which light energy is converted to chemical energy, resulting in the
production of oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds.
Chloroplasts are disc-shaped organelles found in cytosol of a plant
cell. It consists of a double membrane with outer and inner layers,
between which is a gap called the intermembrane space. A third,
internal membrane characterized by the presence of closed disks
(thylakoids) is known as the thylakoid membrane. The space between
the inner membrane and the thylakoid membrane is filled with
stroma, a matrix containing dissolved enzymes, starch granules and
copies of the chloroplast genome (fig. 2).
Chromoplasts are another type of plastid found in some cells of
more complex plants. They vary considerably in shape. They
sometimes develop from chloroplasts through internal changes that
include the disappearance of chlorophyll. Chromoplasts are yellow,
orange or red in color due to the presence of carotenoid pigments,
which they synthesize and accumulate. They are most abundant in
the yellow, orange, or some red parts of plants, such as ripe
tomatoes, carrots, or red peppers. The main evolutionary purpose of
chromoplasts is to attract animals and insects to pollinate the flowers
and disperse seeds (fig.3-1).
Leucoplasts are another type of plastids common to cells of
higher plants. They are essentially colorless, non-pigmented and are
located in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants, such as roots, bulbs
and seeds. They may be specialized for storage of starch, lipid or
protein and are then known as amyloplasts (which synthesize
starches), elaioplasts (which synthesize oils) and aleuroplasts (which
synthesize proteins). In some cell types at certain stages of
development leucoplasts are clustered around the nucleus. In general,
they are often described as amoeboid. After several hour - exposure
to light the leucoplasts can be transformed into chloroplasts (fig. 3-
2).

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 Fig.3. Chromoplast (1), Leucoplasts (2)
Plastids of all types develop from proplastids, which are small,
pale green or colorless organelles present in meristematic cells.
Depending upon the organs and presence or absence of light,
proplastids undergo transformation and develop into either colorless
leucoplasts or colored chromoplasts including green chloroplasts.

Mitochondria

The Mitochondria are double membrane bound organelle

found in all eukaryotic organisms. They can be considered the power
generators of the cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy
“currency” of the cell that powers the cell’s metabolic activities. This
process is called aerobic respiration. Mitochondria typically are
shaped like cucumbers, paddles, rods, or balls.

Vacuoles

In a mature living plant cell, as much as 80% or more of the

volume may be taken up by one or two large central vacuoles that are
bound by vacuolar membranes (tonoplasts). The vacuole evidently
received its name because of a belief that it was just an empty space;
hence its name has the same Latin root as the word vacuum (from
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vacuus-meaning “empty”). Vacuoles, however, are filled with a
watery fluid called cell sap, which contains dissolved substances,
such as salt, sugar, organic acids, and small quantities of soluble
proteins. It also contains water soluble pigments, called
anthocyanins, which are responsible for many of the red, blue, or
purple colors of flowers and some reddish leaves.
The primary vacuole functions include:
1.maintaining the fluid balance;
2.exporting the unwanted and toxic substances;
3.acting as a cellular pump;
4.maintaining the cell’s acidic internal pH;
5 determining relative cell size and shape (they can help the
cell elongate rapidly).

Ergastic (Reserve) Substances

Ergastic substances are non-protoplasm materials found in plant

cells. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles
or in the cell wall. They are usually either organic or inorganic
substances that are products of metabolism and include crystals, oil
droplets, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds that can aid the
organism in defense, maintenance of cellular structure, or just
substance storage.
Carbohydrates - Cellulose and starch are the main ergastic
substances of the plant cells. Cellulose is the chief component of the
cell wall, and starch occurs as a reserve material in the protoplasm.
Starch as starch grains, arises almost in plastids, especially
leucoplasts and amyloplasts. Starch grains are found in storage
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organs of plants, in a larger amount e.g., seeds, fruits, rhizomes etc.
Each starch grain has a central area called hilum. Starch is deposited
around hilum in the form of layers. Depending upon the position of
hilum, a starch grain may be concentric or eccentric. The primary
function of the starch grain is to provide carbohydrate energy to the
plant.
Aleurone Grains - They represent the storage proteins which
are generally insoluble and occur inside the special leucoplasts called
aleuroplasts. Depending upon their internal structure, the aleurone
grains are of four types:
 Amorphous;
 Protein matrix containing crystalloid;
 Protein matrix with globoid;
 Protein matrix with both crystalloid and globoid.
Fat droplets - Fat droplets occur abundantly inside the seeds,
either in endosperm (e.g. coconut), or cotyledons (e.g. mustard) (fig.
4).

a) b)

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 c)
Fig.4. a) starch grains, b) aleurone grains, c) fat droplets

INORGANIC (MINERAL) MATERIALS

The accumulation of inorganic materials within the plant and

their cells mostly takes place in the form of calcium salts or
anhydrous silicate salts. Calcium oxalate is common in plants of
many families. Their crystalline particles are of various shapes such
as prismatic, needle-shaped, diamond shaped, etc. Very often the
crystals occur as compound aggregates called druses. Elongated
crystals are called styloids and raphides. Raphides occur in the form
of bundles. Some crystals occur in a special type of cells called
idioblast cells. Calcium carbonate is also found in some plants (e.g.
Ficus leaves). Silica particles as crystal sand are found in petiole of
Atropa (fig. 5).

a)

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b) c)

d)
Fig.5. a)styloids, b)druses, c)raphides, d)crystal sand

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 Chapter 2
PLANT TISSUES
Most plants have three or four major groups of organs-roots,
stems, leaves, and in some instances, flowers. Each of these organs
is composed of tissues, which are defined as “group of cells
performing similar function”. Any plant organ may be composed of
several different tissues; each tissue is classified according to their
structure, origin, or function.

MERISTEMATIC TISSUES

Unlike animals, plants have permanent regions of growth called

meristems, or meristematic tissues, where cells are actively divided.
As new cells are produced, they typically are small, each with a large
nucleus, usually near the center, and with tiny vacuoles or no
vacuoles at all. As the cells mature, the vacuoles increase in size,
often occupying more than 90% of the volume of the cell.

Apical Meristems
Apical Meristems are meristematic tissues found at, or near
apices or the tips of roots and shoots, which increase in length as the
apical meristems produce new cells. This type of growth is known as
primary growth. Three primary meristems, as well as embryo leaves
and buds, develop from apical meristems. These primary meristems
are called protoderm, ground meristem, and procambium. The
tissues they produce are called primary tissues.

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 Lateral Meristems
The vascular cambium and cork
cambium are lateral meristems (fig. 6),
which produce tissues that increase the
growth of roots and stems. Such growth is
termed as secondary growth.

Intercalary Meristems
Intercalary meristems are capable of cell
division, and they allow for rapid growth and
regrowth of many monocots. Intercalary
meristems at the nodes of bamboo allow for
rapid stem elongation.
Fig.6. Lateral meristems

Floral Meristems

When plants begin the developmental process known as

flowering, the shoot apical meristem is transformed into an
inflorescence meristem, which goes on to produce the floral
meristem, which produces the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of
the flower. Their future growth is limited.

TISSUES PRODUCED BY MERISTEMS

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 Simple Tissues

Parenchyma
Parenchyma tissue is composed of parenchyma cells, which are
the most abundant of the cell types and are found in almost all major
parts of higher plants. They are spherical in shape when they are first
produced, but when all the parenchyma cells push up against one
another, they assume various shapes and sizes. They tend to have
large vacuoles and may contain starch grains, oils, tannins, and
crystals.
More often parenchyma cells have spaces between them; in fact,
in water lilies and other aquatic plants, the intracellular spaces are
quite extensive and form a network throughout the entire plant. This
type of parenchyma tissue with extensive connected air spaces is
referred to as aerenchyma (fig. 7).

Fig.7. Aerenchima

Parenchyma cells containing numerous chloroplasts (as found in

leaves) are collectively referred to as chlorenchyma tissue.
Chlorenchyma tissue’s function mainly is photosynthesis, while
parenchyma tissue’s without chloroplasts function mostly is food or
water storage. For example, the soft, edible parts of most fruits and
vegetables consist largely of parenchyma.
Prosenchyma is a type of parenchyma where cells are elongated
with tapering ends.
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 Vascular parenchyma is the parenchyma, which is found
associated with the vascular tissues xylem and phloem. Accordingly,
it is distinguished into xylem parenchyma and phloem parenchyma.
Medullary parenchyma is the parenchyma, which is found
radially arranged in between the vascular bundles in the stem. It is
meant for storaging reserve food.
Conjunctive parenchyma is the parenchyma, which occurs in the
root system. It is specially meant for water storage.
Many parenchyma cells live long; in some cacti, for example,
they may live to be over 100 years old.
When a plant is damaged or wounded, the capacity of
parenchyma cells to multiply is specially important in repair of
tissues.

Collenchyma
Collenchyma cells, like parenchyma cells, have living
cytoplasm and may remain alive a long time. Their walls generally
are thicker and more uneven in
thickness than those of
parenchyma cells. The unevenness
is due to extra primary wall in the
corners. Collenchyma cells provide
flexible support for both growing
organs and mature organs, such as
leaves and floral parts (fig. 8).
Fig.8. Collenchyma

Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma tissue consists of cells that have thick, tough,
secondary walls, normally impregnated with lignin. Most
sclerenchyma cells are dead and function in support. Two forms of
sclerenchyma occur: sclereids and fibers. Sclereids may be
randomly distributed in other tissues. For example, the slightly gritty
texture of pears is due to the presence of groups of sclereids, or stone

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cells, as they are sometimes called. The hardness of nut shells and
the pits of peaches and other stone fruits are due to sclereids.
Fibers may be found in association with a number of different
tissues in roots, stems, leaves, and
fruits. They are usually much longer
than they are wide. At present, fibers
from more than 40 different families
of plants are in commercial use in the
manufacture of textile goods, ropes,
strings, canvas, and similar products.
Archaeological evidence indicates that
humans have been using plant fibers Fig.9. Sclerenchyma
for at least 10,000 years (fig. 9).

CONDUCTING (VASCULAR) TISSUES

Most of the tissues we have discussed thus far consist of one

kind of cell, but a few important tissues are always composed of two
or more kinds of cells and are sometimes referred to as complex
tissues. Two of the most important complex tissues in plants, xylem
and phloem, function primarily in the transport of water, ions, and
soluble food (sugar) throughout the plant. Some complex tissues are
produced by apical meristems, but most complex tissues in woody
plants are produced by the vascular cambium.

Xylem
Xylem tissue is an important
component of the “plumping” and storage
systems of a plant and is the chief
conducting tissue throughout all organs for
water and minerals absorbed by the roots.
Xylem consists of a combination of
Fig.10. Xylem
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parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids, and ray cells. Vessels
are long tubes composed of individual cells called vessel elements
that are open at each end (fig. 10).

Tracheids, like vessel elements, are dead at maturity and have

relatively thick secondary cell walls. They allow water to pass from
cell to cell.
In cone-bearing trees and certain other non-flowering plants, the
xylem is composed almost entirely of tracheids. The walls of many
tracheids, as well as vessel elements, have spiral thickenings on them
that are easily seen with the light microscope. The lateral (sideways)
conduction takes place in the rays. Ray cells also function in food
storage. In woody plants, the rays radiate out of the center of stems
and roots like the spokes of a wheel.
Types of vessel elements are:
. annular vessels - in which the secondary thickenings are in
the form of rings;
. spiral vessels – in which the secondary thickenings are present
in the form of a helix or coil;
. scalariform – in which the secondary thickenings appear in the
form of cross bands resembling the steps of a ladder.
. reticulate vessels – in which the secondary thickenings are
irregular and appear in the form of a network.
. pitted vessels – in which the secondary thickenings result in
the formation of depressions on the primary wall called pits.

Phloem
In plant anatomy, sieve tube elements are a specialized type of
elongated cell in the phloem tissue of flowering plants. The ends of
these cells are connected with other sieve tube members. The main
function of the sieve tube is transport of carbohydrates in the plant
(from the leaves to the fruits and roots). Unlike the water-conducting
xylem vessel elements that are dead when mature, sieve elements are
living cells.
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 At the interface between two sieve tube members in
angiosperms are sieve plates, pores in the plant cell walls that
facilitate transport of materials between them. Each sieve tube
element is normally associated with one or more nucleated
companion cells, to which they are connected by plasmodesmata
(channels between the cells). Sieve tube members have no cell
nucleus, ribosomes, vacuoles. They depend on companion cells to
provide proteins. In leaves, companion cells help move the sugar that
is produced by photosynthesis from the mesophyll tissue into the
sieve tube elements (fig. 11).

Fig.11. Longitudal view of part of the phloem of a black locust tree

(Robinia pseudo-acacia). x1,000

Types of Vascular bundles in Plants

In the primary structure of stem, root and leaves the conductive

tissue xylem and phloem are grouped together. A group of xylem and
phloem form a vascular bundle.
Vascular bundles can be:
1. Collateral. In this type, xylem and phloem are arranged side
by side on the same radius. This bundle may be either open or closed.
Usually xylem is seen towards the inner side and phloem towards the
outer side.

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 a) Collateral open: Between xylem and phloem cambium is
present (Ex: Dicot stem).
b) Collateral closed. Between xylem and phloem there is no
cambium. (Ex: Monocot stem)
2. Bicollateral. Here two patches of phloem and one patch of
xylem are in the middle (Ex: f. Solanaceae), (fig. 12).
3. Concentric. One vascular element surrounds the other from
all sides.( Ex. Yucca, Selaginella).
4. Radial. Xylem and phloem are seen as patches and they
alternate each other, and occupy the different radii on the axis
separated by nonconductive tissue (Ex. dicot and monocot roots).

Fig.12. Vascular Bundles: a.Collateral, b.Bicollateral open,

c.Concentric, d.Radial

COVERING TISSUES

Epidermis

The outer-most layer of cells of all young plant organs is called

the epidermis (fig. 17). Most epidermal cells secrete a fatty
substance called cutin within and on the surface of the outer walls.
Cutin forms a protective layer called the cuticle. The thickness of the
cuticle (or, more importantly, wax secreted on top of the cuticle by
the epidermis) to a large extent determines how much water is lost
through the cell walls by evaporation. The cuticle is also
exceptionally resistant to bacteria and other disease organisms.
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 Epidermal cells of roots produce tubular extensions called root
hairs. The root hairs greatly increase the absorptive area of the
surface.
Leaves also have numerous small pores, the stomata, bordered
by pairs. Guard cells differ from other epidermal cells in shape; they
also differ in chloroplasts which are present within them. Some
epidermal cells may be modified as glands that secrete protective or
other substances (fig. 13).

Fig.13. Epidermis

Secondary Dermal Tissue

Periderm
Plants such as monocots show only primary growth, while
plants like conifers and woody dicots undergo primary as well as
secondary growth. The primary growth is responsible for the
extension of the length of plant parts, whereas secondary growth is
responsible for the increase in the growth and size of plant laterally.
Secondary growth takes place at two lateral meristems – the
vascular cambium and the cork cambium. These cells are
meristematic in nature and are capable of dividing and producing
new cells throughout their life time. The vascular cambium produces
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tissues of secondary xylem and secondary phloem. The cork
cambium is responsible for the formation of periderm which is
protective material that line the outer side of woody plants.
Periderm commonly replaces the epidermis in stems and roots
having secondary growth. The fundamental tissues which compose
the periderm are the phellogen, phelloderm and phellem.
The phellogen (cork cambium) is the meristematic portion of
the periderm and consists of one layer of initials.
The phelloderm is a living parenchymal tissue. They have
photosynthesizing chloroplasts and cellulosic walls.
The phellem or cork cells are phellogen derivative formed
outwards. It is non-living tissue which has walls that are heavily
suberized at maturity.
In stems and roots containing periderms, lenticels are formed to
allow for the escape of carbon dioxide and the entrance of oxygen.
They allow exchange of gases between the interior of the stem and
atmosphere (fig. 14).

Fig.14. Periderm

Bark

Bark is the outer-most layer of stems and roots of woody (trees,

woody vines, shrubs) plants. It consists of inner bark and the outer

- 27 -
bark. The inner bark which in older stems is a living tissue, includes
the inner-most area of the periderm.
From the outside to the inside of a mature woody stem, the
layers include:
1. Phellem (Cork)
2. Phellogen (Cork cambium)
3. Phelloderm
4. Cortex
5. Phloem
6. Vascular cambium
7. Xylem.
The bark includes 1 through 5 said -above, and is composed of
periderm and phloem and cells that produce these tissues. As the
stem ages and grows, changes occur that transform the surface of the
stem into the bark. Due to the thickening cork layer these cells die,
because they do not receive water and nutrients. This dead layer is
the rough corky bark that forms around tree trunks and other stems.

SECRETORY CELLS AND TISSUES

All cells secrete certain substances that can damage the

cytoplasm, if allowed to accumulate internally. Such materials either
must be isolated from the cytoplasm of the cells in which they
originate or moved outside of the plant body. The substances consist
of waste products that are of no further use to the plant, but some
substances, such as nectar, perfumes, and plant hormones, are vital to
normal plant functions.
Secretory cells may function individually or as part of a
secretory tissue. Secretory cells or tissues, which often are derived
from parenchyma, can occur in a wide variety of places in a plant.
Among the most common secretory tissues are those that secrete
nectar in flowers; oils in citrus, mint, and many other leaves;
mucilage in the glandular hairs of sundews and other insect-trapping
plants; latex in members of several plant families; and resins in
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coniferous plants, such as pine trees. Latex and resins are usually
secreted by cells lining tube-like ducts that form networks throughout
certain plant species. Some plant secretions, such as pine resins,
rubber, mint oil, and opium, have considerable commercial value.

External secretory tissues

External secretory tissues are epidermal hairs, hydathodes and

nectaries.
Epidermal hairs of many plants are secretory or glandular, such
hairs commonly have a head composed of one or more secretory
cells borne on a stalk (ex. Stinging Nettle). If one touches the hair, its
tip breaks off, the sharp edge penetrates the skin, and the poisonous
secretion is released.
Nectaries are glands, secreting a sugary liquid – the nectar, in
flowers, pollinated by insects, are called nectaries. Nectaries may
occur on the floral stalk or on any floral organ; sepal, petal, stamen
or ovary.
The hydathode structures discharge water – a phenomenon
called guttation through openings in margins of leaves. The water
flows through the xylem to its endings in the leaf and then through
the intercellular spaces of the hydathode tissue toward the openings
in the epidermis.

Internal secretory tissues

Generally there are three types of internal secretory tissues:

1. Schizogenous cavities;
2. Lysigenous cavities;
3. Laticiferous cavities.
1. Schizogenous cavities are formed by the enlargement of
intercellular spaces in the tissues. The cavity is surrounded by
epithelial layers, which are composed of glandular cells. The

- 29 -
epithelial cells secrete their products (such as resins, tannins etc.)
into the cavities.
2. Lysigenous cavities arise through dissolution of entire
cells. These secretory cells have big vacuole and protoplasm. The
vacuole stores secretory products. After disintegration the products
are relayed into the cavity. The cavity acts as a reservoir. The
lysigenous cavities in Citrus fruits and leaves of Eucalyptus store
essential oils.
3. Laticiferous tissues consist of thin walled, greatly
elongated and much branched ducts containing a milky or yellowish
colored juice known as latex. Laticiferous ducts, in which latex is
found, are two types (fig. 15 a):
1. Latex cell or non-articulate latex ducts;
2. Latex vessels or articulate latex ducts.
Latex cells are independent units which extend as branched
structures for long distances in the plant body. They originate as
minute structures, elongate quickly and by repeated branching ramify
in all directions but do not fuse together.
Latex vessels are the result of anastomosing of many cells
together. They grow as parallel ducts, which form a complex
network by means of branching. Latex vessels are commonly found
in many angiosperm families – Papaveraceae, Compositae,
Euphorbiaceae, etc.

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 Glandular tissues

A gland may consist of isolated cells or small group of cells with

or without a central cavity. They contain some secretory or excretory
products. These glands are:
1. oil secreting glands (essential oils – orange, lemon);
2. mucilage secreting glands (Piper betel leaf);
3. gums, resin and tannin secreting glands (gymnosperms-Pine);
4. digestive glands (enzymes or digestive agents-Drosera);
5. water secreting glands (at the tip of leaf veins-Dionaea) (fig.
15 b).

a)

b)
Fig.15. a) Glandular hairs, b) milky ways

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 Homologous and Analogous organs

Homologous organs have the same evolutionary origin and

different functions. In plants, all the stem modifications or all the
root modifications are homologous with each other. Such structures
serve different functions like support, food storage, etc.
Analogous organs have different evolutionary origin, but the
same function. For example, leaf tendril and stem tendril. They both
perform the function of coiling or support (fig. 16).

a) b)

Fig.16. a) Homologous organs, b) Analogous organs

Embryogenesis and Organogenesis

Plant embryogenesis is the process that produces a plant
embryo. It occurs naturally as a result of sexual fertilization and the
formation of the zygotic embryos. The embryo along with other cells
- 32 -
from the mother plant develops into the seed or the next generation,
which, after germination, grows into a new plant.
Plant organogenesis is simply the process of forming new
organs, occurs continuously and only stops when the plant dies.
In the shoot, the apical meristem regularly produces new lateral
organs (leaves or flowers) or lateral branches.

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 Chapter 3
PLANT ORGANS
Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and
reproductive. Vegetative plant organs are roots, stems and leaves.
The reproductive organs are variable. In flowering plants they are
represented by the flower, seed and fruit. In conifers, the organ that
bears the reproductive structures is called a cone. In other divisions
of plants, the reproductive organs are called strobili (in
Lycopodiophyta), or simply gametophores (in Mosses).

ROOTS

Roots anchor trees firmly in the soil, usually through an

extensive branching network that constitutes about one-third of the
total dry weight of the plant. The roots of the most plants do not
usually extend more than 3 to 5 meters down into the earth. The roots
of a few plants, such as alfalfa, however, often grow more than 6
meters. Some plants, such as cacti, form very shallow root systems,
but these systems still effectively anchor the plants with a densely
branching mass of roots radiating out in all directions up to 15 meters
from the stem.

Root systems

In general, the plant root system consists either of a taproot

system (with primary root) or fibrous root system (adventitious
roots).(fig.17).
When a seed germinates, the tiny, rootlike radicle, a part of the
embryo within it, grows out and develops into a thick, tapered
taproot, from which thinner branch roots arise (e.g. Dandelions).
- 34 -
Adventitious roots are those that do not develop from another root
but develop instead of a stem or leaf. A fibrous root system, which
may have large numbers of fine roots of similar diameter, develops
from the adventitious roots. Many mature plants have a combination
of taproot and fibrous root systems.
Root hairs greatly increase the total surface area of the root.
Many plants such as peas and carrots, whose seeds have two
seed leaves – commonly referred to as dicots –have taproot systems
with one, primary roots from which secondary roots develop.
Monocotyledonous plants (e.g. corn and rice, whose seeds have one
seed leaf, commonly referred to as monocots), on the other hand,
have fibrous roots system. Adventitious and other types of roots may
develop in both dicots and monocots.

Fig.17. a) taproot, b) fibrous root

FUNCTIONS OF THE PLANT ROOT

The functions of the plant root system include:

1. Anchorage and support. The plant root system anchors the
plant body to the soil and provides physical support. In general,
taproot system provides more effective anchorage.

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 2. Absorption and conduction. The plant root system absorbs
water, oxygen and nutrients from the soil in mineral solution, mainly
through the root hair. From the root, these move upward.
3. Storage. The root serves as a storage organ for water and
carbohydrates as in the modified swollen roots of carrot, sweet
potato. Fibrous roots generally store less starch than taproots.
4. Photosynthesis. Some roots are capable of performing
photosynthesis, as in the epiphytic orchids and aerial roots of
mangrove trees.
5. Aeration. Plants that grow in watery places have modified
roots called pneumatophores to which oxygen diffuses from the air.
6. Movement. In many bulb- and corm-forming plants,
contractile roots pull the plant downward into the soil where the
environment is more stable.
7. Reproduction. The plant root system also serves as a natural
means of perpetuating species. In mature horsetail tree (Casuarina
equisetifolia) and certain plants, clonal seedling or offshoots are
commonly seen growing profusely around the trunk from
horizontally growing roots. Likewise, new plants emerge from left-
over tuberous roots after harvest in fields grown to sweet potato
(Ipomaea batatas) and yam been (Pachyrhizus eroses). As a rule,
plants with a fibrous root system are easier to transplant than those
with tap roots.

ROOT STRUCTURE

Young roots usually reveal four regions or zones. Three of the

regions are not sharply defined at their boundaries. The cells of each
region gradually develop the form of those of the next region, and the
extent of each region varies considerably, depending on the species
involved. These regions are called (1) the root cap, (2) the region of
cell division, (3) the region of elongation, and (4) the region of
maturation.
- 36 -
 The Root Cap

The root cap is composed

of a thimble-shaped mass of
parenchyma cells covering the
tip of each root. It is quite large
and obvious in some plants,
while in others, it is nearly
invisible. One of its functions is
to protect from damage the
delicate tissues behind it as the
young root tip pushes through
often angular and abrasive soil
particles. The root cap has no
equivalent in stems. The
dictyosomes of the root cap’s
outer cells secrete and release a
slimy substance that lodges in
the walls and eventually passes
Fig.18. Root regions to the outside.
The root cap, whose cells have an average life of less than a
week, can be slipped off or cut from a living root, and when this is
done, a new root cap is produced. The root cap also functions in the
perception of gravity. It is known, that amyloplasts (plastids
containing starch grains) act as gravity sensors, collecting on the
sides of root-cap cells facing the direction of gravitation force (fig.
18).

The Region of Cell Division

Cells in the region of cell division, which is composed of an

apical meristem (a tissue of actively dividing cells) in the center of
- 37 -
the root tip, produce the surrounding root cap. Here the cells divide
every 12 to 36 hours, while at the base of the meristem, they may
divide only once every 200 to 500 hours. Cells in this region are
mostly cubical with large nuclei and very small vacuoles.
Both in roots and stems, the apical meristem soon subdivides
into three meristematic areas (1) the protoderm gives rise to an outer
layer of cells, the epidermis; (2) the ground meristem, to the inside
of the protoderm, produces parenchyma cells of the cortex; (3) the
procambium, which appears as a solid cylinder in the center of the
root, produces primary xylem and primary phloem.

The Region of Elongation

The region of elongation, usually extends about 1 centimeter or

less from the tip of the root. This is the area of root lengthening. The
cells that were produced in the meristematic region grow in this
zone. No new cells are produced here, but this is the area that
actually creates the growth of the root.

The Region of Maturation

Most of the cells mature, or differentiate, into the various

distinctive cell types of the primary tissues in the region, which is
sometimes called the region of differentiation, or root hair zone. Root
hairs absorb water and minerals and greatly increase the total
absorptive surface of the root.
The root hairs are not separate cells; they are tubular extensions
of specialized epidermal cells. They are so numerous. A single plant
occupying less than 0.6 cubic meter soil is found to have more than
14 billion root hairs.
The cuticle which may be relatively thick on the epidermal cells
of stem and leaves is thin enough on the root hairs and epidermal
- 38 -
cells of roots allow water to be absorbed but still sufficient to protect
against invasion by bacteria and fungi.

ROOT ANATOMY
ANATOMY OF A TYPICAL MONOCOT ROOT

A transverse section passing through the monocot root reveals

the following details:
 Epiblema
 Cortex
 Endodermis
 Stele
 Pericycle
 Conjunctive tissue
 Pith
 Vascular bundles.

Epiblema is outer-most covering of the root formed by a single

layer of compactly arranged, barrel-shaped parenchyma cells. The
cells are characteristically thin-walled since they are involved in
absorption of water. A cuticle and stomata are absent. Some of the
epiblema cells are produced into long unicellular projections called
root hairs.
Cortex is a major component of the ground tissue of the root. It
is represented by several layers of loosely arranged parenchyma
cells. Intercellular spaces are prominent. The cortex is mainly meant
for storage of water. The cells also allow a little amount of water into
the xylem vessels.
Endodermis is the inner-most layer of cortex formed by
compactly arranged barrel-shaped cells. Some of the cells are thin-
walled and are known as passage cells. They allow water to pass into

- 39 -
the xylem vessels. The other cells are characterized by the presence
of thickening on their radial walls. These thickenings are known as
"casparian thickenings". They are formed by the deposition of a
waxy substance called suberin. These thickenings play an important
role in creating and maintaining a physical force called root pressure.
Stele is the central cylinder of the root consisting of pericycle,
conjunctive tissue, pit and vascular bundles.
Pericycle is the outer-most covering of the stele represented by
a single layer of parenchima cells.
Conjunctive tissue is represented by loosely arranged
parenchyma cells found in between the bundles. The cells are
specialized for water storage.
Pith is the inner-most region of the root representing the central
axis. It is composed of a few loosely arranged parenchyma cells.
Vascular bundles are radial in arrangement (fig. 19).

Fig.19. Monocot root

- 40 -
 ANATOMY OF TYPICAL DICOT ROOT

A transverse section passing through the root of sunflower

reveals the following details:
 Epiblema
 Cortex
 Endodermis
 Stele
 Pericycle
 Conjunctive Tissue
 Vascular bundles
 Pith.

Epiblema is the outer-most covering of the root formed by a

single layer of compactly arranged, barrel-shaped, parenchyma cells.
The cells are thin-walled since they are involved in absorption of
water. A cuticle and stomata are absent. Some of the epiblema cells
are produced into long unicellular projections called root hairs.
Cortex is a major component of the ground tissue of root. It is
represented by several layers of loosely arranged parenchyma cells.
Intercellular spaces are prominent. The cortex is mainly meant for
storage of water. The cells also allow a little amount of water into the
xylem vessels.
Endodermis is the inner-most layer of cortex formed by
compactly arranged barrel-shaped cells. Here some of the cells are
thin-walled and are known as "passage cells". These cells allow
water to pass into the xylem vessels. The other cells are characterized
by the presence of thickening on their radial walls. These thickenings
are known as "casparian thickenings" and are formed by the
deposition of a waxy substance called suberin.
- 41 -
 Stele consists of pericycle, cojunctive tissue and vascular
bundles.
Pericycle is the outer-most layer of stele composed of one layer
of parenchymatous cells. At the time of secondary growth, it
produces secondary cambium or phellogens.
Conjunctive tissue is represented by a group of radially
arranged parenchyma cells found in between the vascular bundles.
The cells are specialized for water storage.
Vascular bundles – they are 2-8 in number, radial or arranged
in ring.
Pith is centrally located. It consists of thin walled, parenchyma
cells with intercellular spaces. It helps in storage of food materials
(fig. 20,21).

Fig.20. Dicot root

- 42 -
 Fig.21. Cross section of dicot and monocot roost

SPECIALIZED ROOTS

Some plants, however, have roots with modifications that adapt

them for performing specific functions as well as the absorption of
water and minerals in solution.

Food-storage Roots

Most roots and stems store some food, but

in certain plants, the roots are enlarged and
store large quantities of starch and other
carbohydrates, which may later be used for
extensive growth. In carrots, beets, turnips, and
radishes, the food-storage tissues are actually a
combination of root and stem. Although the
external differences are not obvious,
approximately 2 centimeters at the top of an
average carrot is derived from the stem tissue
that merges with the root tissue below (fig. 22).
Fig.22. Food-storage
roots

- 43 -
 Water-storage Roots

Some members of the Pumpkin Family (Cucurbitaceae) produce

huge water-storage roots. This is particularly characteristic of those
that grow in arid regions or in those areas where there may be no
precipitation for several months of the year. In certain manroots
(Marah), for example, roots weighing 30 kilograms or more, are
frequently produced, and a major root of one calabazilla plant
(Cucurbita perennis) was found to weigh 72,12 kilograms. The water
in the roots is apparently used by the plants when the supply in the
soil is inadequate.

Propagative Roots

Many plants produce adventitious buds (buds appearing in

places other than stems) along the roots that grow near the surface of
the ground. The buds develop into aerial
stems called suckers. The rooted suckers
can be separated from the original root and
grow individually. Cherries, apples, pears
and other fruit trees often produce suckers.
The adventitious roots of rice-paper plants
(Tetrapanax papyrifera) and tree-of-heaven
(Ailanthus altissima) can become a
nuisance in gardens, often producing
propogative roots 10 meters or more from
the parent (fig. 23).
Fig.23. Propagative root

- 44 -
 Pneumatophores

Some swamp plants, such as the

black mangrove (Avicennia nitida) and the
yellow water weed (Ludwigia repens),
develop special spongy roots, called
pneumatophores, which extend above the
water’s surface and enhance gas exchange
between the atmosphere and the surface
roots to which they are connected (fig. 24). Fig.24. Pneumatophores

Aerial Roots

Velamen roots of orchids, prop roots of banyan trees,

adventitious roots of ivies, and photosynthetic roots of certain
orchids are among various kinds of aerial roots produced by plants.
The epidermis of velamen roots, which is several cells thick, aided in
the absorption of rain water. Some tropical plants, produce sizable
prop roots extending for several feet above the surface of the ground
or water.
Many of the tropical figs produce roots that grow down from the
branches until they contact the soil.
Once they are established, they
continue secondary growth and look
just like additional trunks.
The vanilla orchid, from
which we obtain vanilla flavoring,
produces chlorophyll in its aerial
roots and, through photosynthesis,
can manufacture food within them
(fig. 25).
Fig.25. Aerial root

- 45 -
 Contractile Roots

Some herbaceous dicots and

monocots have contractile roots that pull
the plant deeper into the soil. Many lily
bulbs are pulled a little deeper into the soil
each year as new sets of contractile roots
develop (fig. 26).

Fig.26. Contractile root

Buttress Roots

Some tropical trees growing in shallow soil produce huge,

buttress-like roots toward the base of the trunk, giving them great
stability. Apart from their angular appearance, these roots look like a
part of the trunk.

Parasitic Roots

Some plants, including dodders, broomrapes, and pinedrops,

have no chlorophyll (necessary for
photosynthesis) and have become
dependent on chlorophyll-bearing
plants for their nutrition. They
parasitize their host plants via
peglike projection called haustoria,
which develop along the stem in
contact with the host. The haustoria
penetrate the outer tissue and
establish connections with the Fig.27. Parasitic root
xylem and phloem (fig. 27).
- 46 -
 Mycorrhizae

More than three-quarters of all seed plant species have various

fungi associated with their roots. The association is mutualistic; that
is, both the fungus and the root benefit from it and are dependent
upon the association for normal development.
The fungus is able to absorb and concentrate phosphorus much
better than it can be absorbed by the root hairs.
These “fungusroots”, or mycorrhizae are essential to the normal
growth and development of forest trees and many herbaceous plants.

Root Nodules

Although almost 80% of our atmosphere consists of nitrogen

gas, plants cannot convert the nitrogen gas to usable forms. New
species of bacteria, however, produce
enzymes with which they can convert
nitrogen into nitrates and other
nitrogenous substances readily absorbed
by roots. The members of the Legume
family, which includes peas, beans, form
associations with certain soil bacteria that
result in the production of numerous small
swellings called root nodules that are
clearly visible when such plants are
uprooted. The nodules contain large
numbers of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (fig.
28). Fig.28. Root nodules

- 47 -
 Chapter 4
PLANT ORGANS: THE PLANT STEM
The plant stem is a component of the shoot system, the portion
of the plant body of angiosperms having phototropic response.
Besides the stem, the plant shoot also consists of leaves and
reproductive organs.
The stem has been described as a "central axis" to which all
other parts are attached. The first stem, that develops from a seed,
arises from the epicotyl, an embryonic shoot within the seed.

STEM SHAPES

The main stem shapes are: round, square, angular, oval, lens,
triangular, hollow, winged, ribbed, milkysap, spines.
The stems of family Poaceae is called straw. It is a hollow stem,
in which chloroplasts are absent, and the stems become woody. It
gives the mature plant mechanical strength. Vascular bundles have
chess-like location and are covered with sclerenchyma.
The stem supports the leaves; to conduct water and minerals to
the leaves, where they can be converted into usable products by
photosynthesis; and to transport these products from the leaves to
other parts of the plant, including the roots. The stem conducts water
and nutrient minerals from their site of absorption in the roots to the
leaves by means of certain vascular tissues in the xylem. The
movement of synthesized foods from the leaves to other plant organs
occurs through other vascular tissues in the stem called phloem. Food
and water are also frequently stored in the stem.
There are some plants that appear to be stemless. Actually these
stems are just extremely short, the leaves appearing to rise directly
out of the ground, these stems are called acaulescent (ground rosette,
- 48 -
e. g. some Viola species). All stems of angiosperms, including those
which are highly modified, are recognizable from other plant organs
by their presence of nodes, internodes, buds and leaves.
A node is a point on the stem from which leaves or buds arise.
The portion between two successive nodes is the internode. Nodes
can hold one or more leaves, as well as buds which can grow into
branches (with leaves and flowers). Adventitious roots may also be
produced from the nodes (fig. 29).

Fig.29. Node, internode, bud

STEM FUNCTIONS

The main functions of the stems are:

 transportation
 connect the roots with leaves
 storage of nutrients and water
 vegetative propagation
 photosynthesis (in green stems)
 modifications

- 49 -
 ANATOMY OF STEM

A thin transverse section of a young stem reveals the internal

structure when observed under the microscope:

Internal Structure of Monocot Stem

1.Epidermis - it is the outer-most layer of the stem, composed

of square-shaped cells and interrupted by stomata. It is protective in
nature.
2.Hypodermis - it lies below the epidermis. It consists of 2 or 3
layers of sclerenchymatous cells. It is mechanical in functions and
provides support and strength to the stem.
3.Ground tissue - it consists of a mass of thin-walled
parenchyma cells extending from below the hypodermis to the centre
of the stem. It is not differentiated into definite tissues like cortex,
endodermis, pericycle, etc., as in dicot stems. The cells of the ground
tissue have intercellular spaces. The cells contain reserve food
materials. Vascular bundles are scattered in the ground tissue.
4. Vascular bundles - they lie closer to periphery. The
peripheral vascular bundles are smaller than the central ones. Each
vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath of thick-walled
sclerenchyma cells called the bundle-sheath. It provides protection
and gives strength to the vascular bundles. Vascular bundles are
conjoint, collateral and closed. Each vascular bundle is composed of
xylem and phloem.
In woody dicot plants the rings grow to make a complete ring
around the stem. Xylem growth makes the "annual rings" used to tell
the tree's age. In woody dicot plants, water and mineral movement
occurs in the more recent years of xylem rings. Drought reduces the
size of the annual rings (size of xylem tubes) and thus the potential
for water and nutrient movement (fig. 30).

- 50 -
 Fig.30. Monocot stem

Internal structure of Dicot stem

1. Epidermis- it forms the single-celled outer-most layer of the
stem. The outer walls of epidermal cells are cutinized. It bears multi-
cellular hairs and a few stomata. It is protective in nature.
2. Cortex- lies below the epidermis. It is differentiated into 3
zones:
a) Hypodermis; it is formed of 4 to 5 cell thick layer of
collenchymatous cells. These cells are living and contain
chloroplasts.
b) General cortex; it lies below the hypodermis, it consists of a
few layers of thin-walled parenchymatous cells with intercellular
spaces. Some of the cells have chloroplasts and they are known as
chlorenchyma.
c) Endodermis; it is the inner-most layer of cortex. It is made up
of single row of compact barrel-shaped cells without intercellular
spaces. Since the cells of endodermis contain starch grains, it is also
known as starch-sheath. Casparian strips are distinctly visible in
endodermal cells.
3. Pericycle- it lies below the endodermis. Here the
sclerenchyma cells are dead and they provide mechanical support to
the plant and protect the vascular bundles.

- 51 -
 4. Vascular bundles- they are many in number and arranged in
ring inclosed by the pericycle. The vascular bundles are collateral
and open. Each vascular bundle is composed of xylem, phloem and
cambium.
Xylem- it is the inner-most layer of vascular bundles and lies
towards the centre of the stem. Xylem consists of vessels, tracheids,
wood fibers and wood parenchyma.
Phloem- it lies below the pericycle and is composed of sieve
tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchima. The phloem cells
store starch, protein and fats.
Cambium- it is a strip of thin-walled cells lying in between the
phloem and xylem. The cambial cells consist of a single layer of
meristematic cells.
5. Pith of medulla-it is the central part of the stem, composed
of parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces. Its main function
is storage of food and transverse conduction of food materials (fig.
31).

Fig.31. Dicot stem

- 52 -
 Gymnosperm stems

All gymnosperms are woody plants. Their stems are similar in

structure to woody dicots, except that most gymnosperms produce
only tracheids in their xylem, not the vessels found in dicots.
Gymnosperm wood also often contains resin ducts.

According to the height of the plant, we classify them into:

1. Trees: Plants with ligneous stems, with a superior height of 5
meters. In the case we call the stems trunks. They do not generally
branch up to a considerable distance from the soil.
2. Shrubs: They are those plants with ligneous stems from 1 to
5 meters tall. In this case, branching begins at the soil level.
3. Bushes: Ligneous plants - shorter than 1 meter tall.
4. Herbaceous plants: They have non-woody short stem and
generally they die back at the end of each growing season. Both
grasses and forbs are herbs (fig. 32).

a b c d

Fig.32. a) tree,b) shrubs,c) bushes,d) herbacus plant

BUDS

A bud is an embryonic stem which has the potential for further

plant growth. It may develop into a leaf, flower, or both. Such buds
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are called leaf buds (vegetative), flower buds (reproductive) and
mixed buds, respectively. Many buds remain dormant within a
certain duration or they may be embedded in the stem tissue as to
become hardly visible. A single bud that is found at the apex of the
stem is called terminal bud, while lateral buds or axillary buds occur
in the leaf axils, they develop into leaves, lateral brunches or flowers.
As a result of injury, adventitious buds may be formed also in the
internode of the stems, in leaves or roots. The "eyes" of the potato
tuber are buds. Terminal bud contains apical meristem, found at the
tip of a stem. It increases the length of a stem. Lateral buds develop
into a leaf or flower. Lateral and terminal buds are protected by bud
scales which are modified leaves, they cover and protect the bud. It
helps the bud survive climate changes; when the bud opens in the
spring, the scales fall off leaving a bud scale scar.
Leaf scar is the remains of the leaf after it has fallen off the
tree; it is just below the lateral bud.
Naked bud is a bud without a protective bud scale (e.g.
Viburnum family).
Edible buds - some plants are cultivated because their buds are
edible (Artichokes and Cabbage) (fig. 33).

a b

c
Fig.33.a) leaf buds, b) flower buds, c) artichoke
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 Dicot stems

Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around the stem. In

plants with secondary growth, vascular cambium begins to produce
secondary phloem outside, and secondary xylem inside. The yearly
additions of secondary xylem are commonly called “growth rings”.
Rings can be counted visually.
The cambium forms two systems of vascular tissue, one
vertically up the axis, and the other horizontally across the axis
(called a ray system). Inward from the cambium, xylem rays are
produced, and outwardly phloem rays are produced. Associated with
the rays are gum ducts in dicots, which contain resins, oil, gums.
Comparable to gum ducts, some conifers have resin ducts.
Secondary xylem tissue, “wood”, may be composed of sapwood and
heartwood. Sapwood consists of xylem components, active in the
transport of water and mineral nutrients. The inner heartwood is
composed of inactive xylem that stores secondary metabolites.
Monocot Stem. Monocots have no vascular or cork cambium
and, therefore, no secondary growth. They exist in primary state of
growth (herbaceous plants). In large plants bodies such as palms,
thickening of the trunk occurs by multiple divisions of parenchyma
cells.

TREE RINGS
Greek botanist Theophrastus (ca. 371- ca. 287 BC) first
mentioned that the wood of trees has rings. Leonardo da Vinci was
the first person to mention that trees form rings annually and that
their thickness is determined by the condition under which they
grew. Tree rings or annual rings, can be seen in a horizontal cross
section cut through the trunk of a tree. Growth rings are the result of

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new growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the bark
that is classified as a lateral meristem. It is known as a secondary
growth. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through
the seasons of the year; thus, one ring generally marks the passage of
one year in the life of the tree. The rings are more visible in
temperate zones, where the seasons differ more markedly. In spring
growth is comparatively rapid. Many trees in temperate zones make
one growth ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark.
Hence, for the entire period of a tree's life, a year-by-year record or
ring pattern is formed that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic
conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and long
growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result
in a very narrow one (fig. 34).

Fig.34. Tree rings

Stem Modifications

In most plants stems are located above the soil surface, but
some plants have underground stems.
There are three types of stem modifications:
1. Underground
2. Aerial
3. Subaerial

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 The underground stems, by being situated below the surface of
the soil, protect themselves from weather and animal attacks, and
serve as storehouses for food reserve and in vegetative propagation.
Their stem nature can be
distinguished by the presence of
nodes and internodes, scale
leaves at the nodes, axillary
buds in axils of scale leaves and
a terminal bud. The
underground stems are of 4
types, namely:
 Rhizome
 Tuber
 Bulb
 Corm. Fig.35. Underground stems
Stems may be of various forms to serve different functions, such
as for food or water storage (fig. 35).
Bulb- the stem here is reduced and represented by a short disc.
The lower surface of the stem produces many adventitious roots (e.g.
Onion, Garlic). In bulbs of onion, the inner leaves are fleshy, while
the outer ones are dry. This is called as tunicated bulb. The apical
bud of the bulb produces the shoot. The axillary buds sometimes
produce daughter bulbs, as in garlic.
Corm - A solid, bulb-like, underground stem without fleshy
scales forms a corm. It has greatly shortened internodes. Examples
are the food-storage, reproductive corms of Gladiolus.
Rhizome - is a thick horizontally growing stem, which usually
stores food materials. It has nodes and internodes, scale leaves,
axillary buds, adventitious roots and a terminal bud. Usually the
growing points of the rhizome continue to remain underground
causing an elongation of rhizome. Roots develop from the lower
surface of rhizome (e.g. Ginger).
Tuber - is a swollen end of an underground branch which arises
from the axil of a lower leaf. These underground branches grow
horizontally outwards in the soil. Each tuber is irregular in shape due
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to the deposition of food materials (starch). On the surface of each
tuber many leaf scars are seen. Each such leaf scar encloses an
axillary bud, and it is called an "eye". These eyes of potato are
capable of producing new plants by vegetative propagation (e.g.
Potato).

Aerial stem modifications are:

1. stem tendril
2. stem thorn
3. phylloclade
4. bulbil
5. cladodes and cladophylls

Stem tendrils- the terminal bud gives rise to a tendril and the
axillary bud becomes modified into a tendril in Passiflora (fig. 36).

Fig.36. Stem tendrils

Stem thorn- is a hard, straight, and pointed structure. In

Bougainvillea and Duranta, the axillary bud is modified into a thorn.
The thorn sometimes bears leaves, flowers and fruits as in
Pomegranate. The thorns not only check the rate of transpiration, but
also protect the plants from herbivore grazing (e.g. Citrus) (fig. 37).

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 Fig.37. Stem thorn

Phylloclade- is a flattened stem of several internodes

functioning as a leaf. In Opuntia the stem is modified into a green
flattened structure called phylloclade. On the surface of the
phylloclade, clusters of spines are formed. These spines are the
modified leaves of the axillary bud. These spines not only check the
rate of transpiration but also protect the plant from herbivores. The
phylloclade has distinct nodes and internodes (e. g. Opuntia) (fig.
38).

Fig.38. Phylloclade
Bulbil - is a modification of vegetative or floral bud. It is
swollen due to the storage of food. It can function as an organ of
vegetative propagation. In Agave the floral buds are modified into
bulbils (fig. 39).
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 Fig.39. Bulbil

Cladodes and Cladophylls - a phylloclade of one or two

internode is called a cladode. Cladophyll is a flattened leaf like stem
arising in the axils of a minute, bract-like, true leaf (e. g. Asparagus)
(fig. 40).

Fig.40. Cladodes and Cladophylls

Subaerial stem modifications are:

1. Runner
2. Offset
3. Stolon
4. Sucker

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 Runner- arises from the base of the stem as a lateral branch and
runs along the surface of the soil. It develops distinct nodes and
internodes. At each node the runner produces roots below and leaves
above. In this way many runners are often produced by the mother
plant and they spread out on the ground on all sides. If any accidental
injury results in the separation of a runner, the severed parts are
capable of leading an independent existence (e.g. Fragaria) (fig. 41).

Fig.41. Runner

Offset- is a short thick runner like a branch which produces a

new plant at its tip. The offsets grow in all directions from the main
stem of the parent plant. If any injury results in the separation of
these units, each is capable of leading an independent existence (e.g.
Pistia) (fig. 42).

Fig.42. Offset

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 Stolon- here lateral branches called stolons originate from the
underground stem. The stolons grow horizontally outwards for a
varying distance in the soil. Ultimately their terminal bud emerges
out of the ground and develops into a new plant. A runner, sucker or
any basal branch which produces roots is called a stolon (e.g.
Colocasia) (fig. 43).

Fig.43. Stolon
Sucker- a lateral branch arising close to the ground level
traveling underground for some distance, turning up at its end and
producing a new plant is a sucker (e. g. Mint, Chrysanthemum) (fig.
44).

Fig.44. Sucker ()

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 Chapter 5
PLANT ORGANS: LEAVES

Regardless of their ultimate size or form, all leaves originate as

primordia in the buds. In early spring, a leaf primordium may consist
of fewer than 200 cells, but in response to changes in temperature,
day-length, and availability of water, hormones are produced that
stimulate these cells to begin dividing. Within a few days or weeks,
the original 200 cells have been multiplied, differentiated, and
expanded into a structure consisting of millions of cells. The first
leaves produced may appear quite different in form from those
produced later.
At maturity, most leaves have a stalk, called the petiole, and a
flattened blade, or lamina, which has a network of veins (vascular
bundles) (fig. 45). A pair of leaf-like, scale-like, or thorn-like
appendages, called stipules, are sometimes present at the base of the
petiole. Occasionally, leaves may lack petioles; when they do, they
are said to be sessile. Leaves of deciduous trees normally live
through only one growing season, and even those of evergreen trees
rarely function for more than 2 to 7 years.

Fig.45. Leaves structure

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 Leaves of flowering plants are associated with leaf gaps, and all
have an axillary bud at the base. Leaves may be simple or
compound. A simple leaf has a single blade, while the blade of a
compound leaf is divided in various ways into leaflets. Pinnately
compound leaves have the leaflets in pairs along an extension of the
petiole called a rachis, while palmately compound leaves have all the
leaflets attached at the same point at the end of the petiole.
Sometimes, the leaflets of a pinnately compound leaf may be
subdivided into still smaller leaflets, forming a bipinnately
compound leaf.
The flattened surface of leaves, which is completely covered
with a transparent protective layer of cells, the epidermis, admits
light to all parts of the interior. Many leaves twist daily on their
petioles so that their upper surfaces are inclined at right angles to the
sun’s rays throughout daylight hours.
Green leaves capture the light energy available to them by
means of the most important process for life on earth. This process
is called photosynthesis (fig. 46). All the energy needs of living
organisms ultimately depend on photosynthesis.
The lower surfaces of leaves (and in some plants, the upper
surface as well) are dotted with tiny pores called stomata, which not
only allow entry for the carbon dioxide gas needed for
photosynthesis, but also play a role in the diffusion out of the leaf of
oxygen produced during photosynthesis. The stomatal apparatus,
which consists of a pore bordered by a pair of sausage-shaped guard
cells, controls the water loss when the guard cells inflate or deflate,
opening or closing the pore.
Leaves also perform other functions. For example, all living
cells respire, and in the process of this and other metabolic activities,
waste products are produced. These wastes accumulate in the leaves
and are disposed of when the leaves are shed, mostly in the fall.
Before dropping from the plant, the leaves are sealed off at the bases
of their petioles. The following season, the discarded leaves are
replaced with new ones.

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 Leaves play a major role in the movement of water absorbed by
roots and transported throughout the plant. Most of the water
reaching the leaves is evaporated in a vapor form into the atmosphere
by a process known as transpiration. In some plants, there are special
openings called hydathodes at the tips of leaf veins. Root pressure
forces liquid water out of hydathodes, usually at night when
transpiration is not occurring. The loss of water through hydathodes
is called guttation.

Fig.46. Green leaves

Leaf Arrangement and

Types

Many of the roughly

275,000 different species of
plants that produce leaves can be
distinguished from one another
by their leaves. The variety of
shapes, sizes, and textures of
leaves seems to be almost
infinite. The leaves of some of Fig.47. Leaf types
the smaller duckweeds are less than 1 millimeter (0.04 inch) wide.
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The mature leaves of the Seychelles Island palm can be 6 meters (20
feet) long, and the floating leaves of a giant water lily, which reach 2
meters in diameter, can support, without sinking, weights of more
than 45 kilograms.
In addition to flattened, variously shaped, colored, spine-like
leaves and those of various textures, there are others that are tubular,
feathery, cup-shaped, or needle-like. Leaves may be smooth or hairy,
slippery or sticky, waxy or glossy, pleasantly fragrant or foul
smelling, edible or poisonous. They also may be of almost every
color of the rainbow and of exquisite beauty, especially when viewed
with a microscope (fig. 47).

LEAF ARRANGEMENT: in botany phyllotaxis is the arrangement

of leaves on a plant stem. Leaf arrangements are:
 Alternate
 Opposite
 Whorled
 Basal rosette
 Equitant

Alternate - a single leaf is attached at each node. The leaves

may be arranged in straight rows or spiral around the stem (e.g.
Cercis canadensis) (fig. 48).

Fig.48. Alternate leaf

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 Opposite - a pair of leaves occur at each node (e.g.
Cercidiphyllum japonicum) (fig. 49).

Fig.49. Opposite leaf

Whorled- three or more leaves arising from the same node to

form whorls of leaves along the stem (e.g. Galium mollugo) (fig. 50).

Fig.50. Whorled leaf

Equitant - leaves are overlapping as is typical in some Iris (e.g.

Amaryllidaceae) (fig. 51).

Fig.51. Equitant leaf

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 Basal rosette - all the leaves arise from the base of the plant
(e.g. Dandelion). (fig. 52).

Fig.52. Basal rosette leaf

LEAF VENATION

The arrangement of veins in a leaf or leaflet blade (venation)

may also be either pinnate (fig. 53) or palmate (fig. 54). In
pinnately veined leaves, there is one primary vein called the midvein,
which is included within an enlarged midrib: secondary veins branch
from the midvein. In palmately veined leaves, several primary veins
fan out of the base of the blade. The primary veins are more or less
parallel (fig. 55) to one another in monocots. The branching
arrangement of veins in dicots is called netted or reticulate (fig. 56)
venation. In a few leaves (e.g., those of Ginkgo), no midvein or other
large veins are present. Instead, the veins fork evenly and
progressively form the base of the blade to the opposite margin. This
is called dichotomous (fig. 57) venation.

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Fig.53. Pinnate leaf venation

Fig.54. Palmate leaf venation

Fig.55. Parallel leaf venation

- 69 -
 Fig.56. Reticulate leaf venation

Fig.57. Dichotomous leaf venation

Leaf margins
Leaves come in many sizes and shapes; they are often used to
help identify plants. Leaf margins are:
entire: has a smooth edge with neither teeth nor lobes,
crispate: curved or ruffled,
sinuate: with a sinous margin,
undulate: having a wavy margin,
lobate: lobed,
pinnatifid: with pinnated divisions,
pinnatisect: with similar parts on each side of the central axis
and sessile,
palmatifid: is a palmately lobed leaf,
crenate: the edge of the leaf has blunt, rounded teeth,
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 serrate: it has sharp “saw - like” teeth,
serrulate: it is similar to serrate, but has smaller, evenly-spaced
teeth,
dentate: having a toothed margin,
ciliate: hair-like edge,
spinose: as above with the teeth point tipped,
runcinate: hairing incised margins with the lobes or teeth
curved towards the base (dandelion L.),
incised: it has incised margin, deep, irregular teeth,
laciniate: margins cut into a ribbon-like segment,
dissected: they are deeply or repeatedly cut into many
partitions, but not into individual leaflets (fig. 58).

Fig.58. Leaf margins

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

Three types of internal structure of leaves occur:
 dorsoventral
 isobilateral
 radial
If a typical dorsoventral leaf is cut transversely and examined
with the aid of a microscope, three regions stand out: epidermis,

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mesophyll, and veins (vascular bundles). The epidermis is a single
layer of cells covering the entire surface of the leaf. The epidermis on
the lower surface of the blade can sometimes be distinguished from
the upper epidermis by the presence of tiny pores called stomata.
Except for guard cells, the upper epidermal cells for the most
part do not contain chloroplasts. A coating of waxy cutin is normally
present. In addition to the cuticle, many plants produce other waxy
substances on their surfaces. The wax affords added protection to the
leaves. Different types of glands may also be present in the
epidermis. Glands often secrete sticky substances.

Stomata

The lower epidermis of most plants generally resembles the

upper epidermis, but the lower is perforated by numerous tiny pores
called stomata. Some plants (e.g., corn) have these pores in both leaf
surfaces, while others have them exclusively on the upper epidermis.
Each pore is bordered by two sausage-shaped cells that usually are
smaller than most of the neighboring epidermal cells. These guard
cells are part of the epidermis, but they, unlike most of the other cells
of epidermis, contain chloroplasts.
The functioning of guard cells is aided by the photosynthesis
that takes place within them. The primary functions include
regulating gas exchange between the interior of the leaf and the
atmosphere. When the guard cells are inflated, the stomata open;
when the water content of the guard cells decreases, the cells deflate
and the stomata close (fig. 59).

Fig.59. Stomata
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 Mesophyll and veins

Most photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll between the

two epidermal layers. The upper-most mesophyll consists of
compactly stacked, barrel-shaped, or post-shaped parenchyma cells
that are commonly in two rows. This region is called the palisade
mesophyll and may contain more than 80% of the leaf’s chloroplasts.
The lower region, consisting of loosely arranged parenchyma cells
with abundant air spaces between them, is called the spongy
mesophyll. Its cells also have numerous chloroplasts.
Parenchyma tissue with chloroplasts is called chlorenchyma.
Chlorenchyma tissue is found in stems of herbaceous plants as well
as in leaves. Veins (vascular bundles) of various sizes are scattered
throughout the mesophyll. They consist of xylem and phloem tissues
surrounded by a jacket of thicker-walled parenchyma cells called the
bundle sheath. The veins give the leaf its “skeleton”. The phloem
transports sugars and other carbohydrates throughout the plant.
Water is brought up to the leaf by the xylem, which is part of a vast
network of “plumbing” throughout the plant.

Fig.60. Mesophyll and veins in dorsoventral leaf

Monocot leaves, besides having parallel veins, usually do not

have the mesophyll differentiated into palisade and spongy layers.
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Some monocot leaves have large, thin-walled bulliform cells, which
are large, bubble-shaped epidermal cells that occur in groups on the
upper surface of the leaves of many monocots. They are generally
present near the mid vein. They are empty and colorless. When these
cells absorb water, they become turgid. The leaf straightens up.
Whereas on the other hand, at the time of insufficient water supply,
these cells lose water and become flaccid and they make the leaf
curled. The curling minimizes water loss (fig. 60).
An isobilateral leaf is usually vertically oriented to expose both
surfaces to the sun. They have equal numbers of stomata on both
faces of the leaf.
Radial leaf- in the cross-section of Pine needle central vein
contains two vessels. The phloem tubes have companion cells. The
photosynthetic mesophyll cells are folded and are not differentiated
into separate palisade and spongy mesophylls. The endodermis has
Casparian strips. The needles have a small surface area to volume
ratio. The stomata, which occur on all sides in vertical rows, are
sunken. The waxy, waterproof cuticle is thick. Beneath the epidermis
are one or more layers of strengthening fibrous sclerenchyma cells
forming a hypodermis. These strengthen the needle and prevent it
collapsing when dehydrated or frost-damaged (fig.61).

SPECIALIZED LEAVES

If the leaves of all plants could function normally under any

environmental condition, various leaf modifications would provide
no special benefits to a plant. But the form and structure of tropical
rain-forest plants do not adapt them to thrive in a desert, and cacti
soon die if planted in a creek because their structure, form and life
cycles are attuned to specific combinations of environmental factors,
such as temperature, humidity, light, water and soil conditions. The
modifications of leaves occupying any single ecological niche may
be very diverse, resulting in such a rich variety of leaf forms and

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specializations throughout the Plant Kingdom that only a few may be
mentioned here.

Shade Leaves

A single tree may have leaves that superficially all appear

similar, but close inspection may reveal various differences. For
example, because leaves in the shade receive less total light needed
for photosynthesis, they tend to be larger than their counterparts in
the sun. In addition, since they receive less intense sunlight and heat,
they are thinner, and have fewer well-defined mesophyll layers and
fewer chloroplasts. They also do not have as many hairs (fig. 61).

Fig.61. Shade leaves

Leaves of Arid Region

Leaf modifications are generally more pronounced in different

climatic zones or habitats. Because of the limited availability of
water, wide temperature ranges, and high light intensities, plants
growing in arid regions have developed adaptations that allow them
to thrive under such conditions. Many have thick, leathery leaves and
fewer stomata, or stomata that are sunken below the surface in
special depressions, all of which reduce loss of water through

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transpiration. They also may have succulent, water-retaining leaves
or no leaves at all (with the stems taking over the function of
photosynthesis), or they may have dense, hairy covering. Pine trees,
whose water supply may be severely restricted in the winter when the
soil is frozen, have some leaf modifications similar to those of desert
plants. The modifications include sunken stomata, a thick cuticle,
and a layer of thick-walled cells (the hypodermis) beneath the
epidermis (fig. 62).

Fig.62. Leaves of Arid Region

Leaves of Aquatic Area

The submerged leaves of plants that grow in water usually have

considerably less xylem than phloem, and the mesophyll, which is
not differentiated into palisade and spongy layers, has large air
spaces.

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 Leaf Modifications

Tendrils

There are many plants whose

leaves are partly or completely
modified as tendrils (fig. 63). These
modified leaves when curled tightly
around more rigid objects, help the
plant in climbing or in supporting
weak stems. Fig.63. Tendrils
As the tendrils develop, they become coiled like a spring. When
contact with a support is made, the tip not curls around it, but the
direction of the coil reverses; sclerenchyma and collenchyma cells
then develop in the vicinity of contact. The sclerenchyma cells
provide rigid support, while the collenchyma cells impart flexibility.
This makes a very strong but flexible attachment that protects the
plant from damage during the winds.

Spines, Thorns and Prickles

The leaves of many cacti and other desert plants are modified as
spines (fig. 64). This reduction of leave surface reduces water loss
from the plants, and the spines also tend to protect the plants from
browsing animals. In such desert plants, photosynthesis, which
would otherwise take place in leaves, occur in green stems. Most
spines are modifications of the whole leaf, in which much of the
normal leaf tissue is replaced with sclerenchyma.
Like grape and other tendrils, many spine-like
objects arising in axils of leaves of woody plants
are modified stems rather than modified leaves.
Such modifications could be referred to as
thorns to distinguish them from true spines. The
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Fig.64. Spines
prickles of roses and raspberries, however, are neither leaves nor
stems but are outgrowths from the epidermis or cortex.

Storage Leaves

Desert plants may have succulent leaves (leaves that are

modified for water retention). The adaptations for water storage
involve large, thin-walled parenchyma cells without chloroplasts.
These non-photosynthetic cells contain large vacuoles that can store
relatively substantial amounts of water. If removed from the plant
and set aside, the leaves will often retain much of the water for up to
several months.
The fleshy leaves of onion, lily, and other bulbs store large
amounts of carbohydrates, which are used by the plant during rapid
growth early in the subsequent growing season (fig. 65).

Fig.65. Storage leaf

Reproductive Leaves

Some of the leaves of the walking fern are most unusual in that
they produce new plants at their tips. Occasionally, three generations
of plants may be found linked together. The succulent leaves of air
plants have little notches along the leaf margins in which tiny
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plantlets are produced, complete with roots and leaves, even after a
leaf has been removed from the parent plant. Each of the plantlets
can develop into a mature plant if given the opportunity to do so (fig.
66).

Fig.66. Reproductive leave

Insect-Trapping Leaves

Highly specialized insect-trapping leaves have intrigued

humans for hundreds of years. Almost 200 species of flowering
plants are known to have these leaves. In swampy areas and bogs of
tropical regions, certain needed elements, particularly nitrogen, may
be deficient in the soil, or they may be in a form not readily available
to the plants. Some of these elements are furnished when the soft part
of insects and other small organisms trapped by the specialized
leaves are broken down and digested. All the plants have chlorophyll
and are able to make their food. It has been demonstrated that they
can develop normally without insects if they are given the nutrients
they need.

Pitcher Plants

The blades of leaves of many pitcher plants are flattened and

function like those of any other leaves. Some of the leaves of these
plants are larger and cone-shaped or vase-like.

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 Pitcher leaves have nectar-secreting glands around the rim. The
distinctive odor produced by these glands attracts insects, which
often fall into the watery fluid at the bottom. If the insects try to
climb out, they find the walls highly polished and slippery. In fact,
the walls of some pitcher plant leaves are coated
with wax, and as the insects struggle up the surface,
their feet become coated with the wax, which builds
up until the victims seem to have acquired heavy,
clod-like boots. Eventually they drown, and their
soft parts are digested by bacteria and by enzymes
secreted by the plant’s digestive glands near the
bottom of the leaves (fig. 67).
Fig.67. Pitcher plants

Sundews

The tiny plants called sundews often do not measure more than
2.5 to 5.0 centimeters in diameter. The roundish to oval leaves are
covered with up to 200 upright glandular hairs that look like
miniature clubs. There is a clear, glistening drop of sticky fluid
containing digestive enzymes at the tip of each hair. As the droplets
sparkle in the sun, they may attract insects, which find themselves
stuck if they alight. The hairs are exceptionally sensitive to contact,
responding to weights of less than one-thousandth of a milligram,
and bend inward, surrounding any trapped insect within a few
minutes. The digestive enzymes break down the soft parts of the
insects, and after digestion has been completed (within a few days),
the glandular hairs return to their original positions. If bits of
nonliving debris happen to catch in the sticky fluid, the hairs barely
respond, showing they can distinguish between protein and
something “inedible” (fig. 68).

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 Fig.68. Sundews

Venus’s Flytraps
The two halves of the blade have the appearance of being
hinged along the midrib, with stiff, hair-like projections located
along their margins. There are three tiny trigger hairs on the inner
surface of each half. If two trigger hairs are touched simultaneously
or if any one of them is touched twice within a few seconds, the
blade halves suddenly snap together, trapping the insect or other
small animal. As the creature struggles, the trap closes even more
tightly. Digestive enzymes secreted by the leaf, break down the soft
parts of the insect, which are then absorbed. After digestion has been
completed, the trap reopens, ready to repeat the process (fig. 69).

Fig.69. Venus’s flytraps

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 AUTUMNAL CHANGES IN LEAF COLOR

The chloroplasts of mature leaves contain several groups of

pigments, such as green chlorophylls and carotenoids, which include
yellow carotenes and pale yellow xanthophylls. Each of these groups
plays a role in photosynthesis. Usually, considerably more
chlorophyll than other pigments is present, and the intense green
color of the chlorophylls masks or hides the presence of the carotenes
and xanthophylls. In the fall, however, the chlorophylls break down,
and other colors are revealed. The exact cause of the chlorophyll
breakdown is not known.
Water-soluble anthocyanin and betacyanin pigments may also
accumulate in the vacuoles of the leaf cells in the fall. Anthocyanins,
the more common of the two groups, are red if the cell sap is slightly
acidic, blue if it is slightly alkaline, and of intermediate shades, if it
is neutral. Betacyanins are usually red (fig. 70).

Fig.70. Leaf colors

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 Chapter 6
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS
Flowers may be of any color or combination of colors of the
rainbow, as well as black or white; they may have virtually any
texture, from firmly and transparent to thick and leathery, spongy to
sticky, hairy, prickly, or even dewy wet to the touch.
Flowering plants can go from the germination of a seed to a
mature plant producing new seeds in less than a month, or the
process may take as long as 150 years. In annuals, the cycle is
completed in a single season and ends with the death of the parent
plant. Biennials take two growing seasons to complete the cycle;
perennials, however, may take several to many growing seasons to
go from a germinated seed to a plant producing new seeds, although
many species that aren’t annuals do produce seeds during their first
growing season. Perennials may also produce flowers on new growth
that dies back each winter, while other parts of the plant may persist
indefinitely.
Flowering plants have been placed in two major classes, known
as the Dicotyledonae and the Monocotyledonae, commonly dicots
and monocots.

Structure of Flowers

Each flower, which begins as an embryonic primordium that

develops into a bud, occurs as a specialized branch at the tip of a
stalk called a peduncle, which may in some instances have branchlets
of smaller stalks called pedicels. A peduncle or pedicel swells at its
tip into a small pad known as a receptacle. The other parts of the
flower, some of which are in whorls, are attached to the receptacle.

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 The outer-most whorl typically consists of three to five small,
usually green, leaf-like sepals. The sepals of a flower, which are
collectively referred to as the calyx, may, in some flowers, be fused
together. In many species, the calyx protects the flower while it is in
the bud (fig. 71).

Fig.71. Structure of Flowers

The next whorl of flower parts consists of three to many petals;

the petals collectively are known as the corolla. Corollas attract
pollinators, such as bees, in some flowers (e.g. petunias), the petals
are fused together into a single, flared, trumpet-like sheet of tissue.
The corolla may not be showy and is often missing altogether or
highly modified in wind-pollinated plants such as grasses. The calyx
and the corolla together are called as the perianth. Bracts are
specialized leaves that may be as colorful as petals and can attract
pollinators the way petals do.
Several to many stamens are attached to the receptacle in the
center of the flower. Each stamen consists of a semi-rigid but
otherwise usually slender filament with a sac called an anther at the
top.
The pistil, which often is shaped like a tiny vase that is closed at
the top, consists of three regions that merge with one another. At the
top is the stigma, which is usually connected by a slender, stalk-like
style to the swollen base called the ovary. The ovary later develops

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into a fruit. Ovule bearing leaves are called carpels. In some
instances, two or more carpels eventually fuse together, and many
ovaries are now compound, consisting of two to several united
carpels.
The ovary is said to be superior if the calyx and corolla are
attached to the receptacle at the base of the ovary, as in pea and
primrose flowers. In other instances,
the ovary becomes inferior when the
receptacle grows up around it so that
the calyx and corolla appear to be
attached at the top, as in cactus and
carrot flowers. An ovule, the
development of which takes place after
fertilization has occurred, eventually
becomes a seed (fig. 72).
Peach flowers are produced
singly, each on its own peduncle, but
many other flowers such as lilac, grape,
and bridal wreath are produced in
inflorescences, which are groups of
several to hundreds of flowers that may
all open at the same time, or they may
follow an orderly progression to
Fig.72. Ovary locations
maturation.

FLORAL FORMULA is a system of representing the

structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols.
Ca (K) -calyx
Co (C) - corolla
P - perianth
A - androecium
G - gynoecium
G2 - superior ovary
G2 - inferior ovary
♂ - male
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 ♀ - female
- bisexual
 - actinomorphic
↑ - zygomorphic
 - to represent many
x - number of floral parts
Enclosing figure within brackets () - fusion
Line drawn over symbols of floral parts - adhesion

Floral diagram

Floral diagram is a graphic representation of the flower

structure. It shows the number of floral parts, their arrangement and
fusion. Different parts of the flower are represented by their
respective symbols. Floral diagrams are useful for flower
identification.

Fig.73. Floral diagram

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 The dot represents the main axis, green structure below is the
subtending bract. Calyx (green arcs) consists of 5 free sepals: corolla
(red arcs) consists of 5 fused petals; stamens are joined to petals by
hairy filaments. Ovary is superior (fig. 73).

Microsporogenesis, Microgametogenesis, Megasporogenesis,

Megagametogenesis

Microsporogenesis - is a process called microsporogenesis

which takes place in flower anthers, four haploid microspores are
produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte,
pollen mother cell), after meiotic division. Pollen grains grow in size
and form the outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the
intine.
Microgametogenesis - is the process in plant reproduction
where a microgametophyte develops in a pollen grain to the three-
celled stage of its development. In flowering plants it occurs with a
microspore mother cell inside the anther of the plant. When the
microgametophyte is first formed inside the pollen grain, four sets of
fertile cells called sporogenous cells are apparent. These cells wall-
tapetum, supplies food to the cell and then becomes the cell wall of
pollen grain. The sporogenous cells develop into diploid microspore
mother cells called microsporocytes. They undergo meiosis and
become four microspore haploid cells. These new microspore cells
then undergo mitosis and form a tube cell and a generative cell. The
generative cell then undergoes mitosis one more time to form two
male gametes, also called sperm.
Megasporogenesis - In gymnosperms and flowering plants the
megaspore is produced inside the nucellus of the ovule. During
megasporogenesis, a diploid cell, the megasporocyte mother cell,
undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid cells called megaspores.
Megagametogenesis- After megasporogenesis the megaspore
develops into the female gametophyte (the embryo sac) in a process
called megagametogenesis. If the monosporic pattern occurs, the
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single nucleus undergoes mitosis three times producing an eight-
nucleate cell. These eight nuclei are arranged into two groups of four.
Both groups send a nucleus to the center of the cell; these become the
polar nuclei, which fuse together the central cell. The three nuclei at
the end of the cell near micropolar become the egg apparatus, with an
egg cell in the center and two synergids. At the other end of the cell,
a cell wall forms around the nuclei and forms the antipodal cells.
Therefore, the resulting embryo sac is a seven-celled structure
consisting of one central cell, one egg cell, two synergid cells, and
three antipodal cells.

Pollination and Double Fertilization

Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the

female reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization
to take place. Seed plants have a single major goal: to pass their
genetic information onto the next generation. The reproductive unit
is the seed, and pollination is an essential step in the production of
seeds in all seed plants. For the pollination process a pollen grain
produced by the anther, the male part of the flower, must be
transferred to a stigma, the female part of the flower. It creates a
pollen tube which grows down the style until it reaches the ovary.
Sperm cells form the pollen grain then move along the pollen tube,
one sperm enters the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilizes it,
and the other sperm combines with the two polar nuclei of the large
central cell of the megagametophyte. The haploid sperm and haploid
egg combine to form a diploid zygote, while the other sperm and the
two haploid polar nuclei of the large central cell of the
megagametophyte form a triploid nucleus. This complex process is
called double fertilization. The large cell of the gametophyte will
then develop into the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue which
provides nourishment to the developing embryo. The ovary,
surrounding the ovules, develops into the fruit, which protects the
seeds and may function to disperse them.
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 INFLORESCENCE

Inflorescence is a collection of flowers sharing a common stalk,

the peduncle usually subtended by a bract. Each flower usually arises
in the axil of a small bract, and may or may not be born on its own
individual stalk, called pedicel. The development of an inflorescence
may represent the end of vegetative growth of that apex (definite
growth), or allow it to continue (indefinite growth). There are many
types of inflorescence, determined mainly by the method of
branching. If the stem ends in a flower and growth is then from
lateral buds below the apex, which themselves form flowers and
more lateral shoots, the inflorescence is termed a cymose (cyme)
inflorescence (Tilia). If one shoot develops behind each axis a
monochasial cyme, or monochasium, is formed, as in Avens (Geum).
Variations in the inflorescence arrangement occur, according to
the direction of the lateral branches, for example in Forget-me-not
(Myosotis), all the branches arise on the same side of the parent stem
while in Buttercup (Ranunculus), the branches arise on alternate
sides of the parent stem. If 2 shoots develop below each axis this
gives a dichasial cyme, or dichasium e.g. Catchflies (Silene).
Cymose inflorescence typically opens from the apex downwards; in
flat-topped forms the oldest flowers are in the center. In a raceme
(racemose inflorescence) the apex continues growing, and
subsequent flowers develop in sequence up the stem, e.g. Foxglove
(Digitalis). In a compound raceme each branch of the inflorescence
bears a smaller raceme of flowers, e.g. Fescues (Festuca). If the
lateral branches of a raceme are branched themselves, as in many
grasses, the inflorescence is called a panicle. This term is often
applied to any sort of branched racemose inflorescence, e.g. Horse
chestnut, in which each branch is actually a cyme (Aesculus). A
spike is a type of racemose inflorescence having sessile flowers
(they have no pedicels) borne on an elongated axis, as in Wheat
(Triticum). The catkin and spadix are modifications of the spike. A
catkin is a short, densely packed raceme bearing unisexual flowers
with highly reduced or absent perianth, e.g. Oak (Quercus). A spadix
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is a type of inflorescence found in the family Araceae, e.g.
Cuckoopint (Arum). It is a modified spike with a large fleshy axis on
which are borne small unisexual flowers. The inflorescence is
enclosed by a large bract, the spathe, which may be foliose or
petalloid and has been shown to attract insects in certain species. In a
capitulum as in many Asteraceae, e.g. Daisy (Bellis), the
inflorescence comprises many unstalked florets inserted on the
flattened disc-like end of the peduncle and surrounded by a ring of
sterile bracts. Many species of f. Composite have 2 distinct types of
floret in the capitulum: disc florets in the center are tubular florets
ending in 5 short teeth, while ray florets have a strap-like extension
to the tube and occur around the edge of the capitulum, rather like
petals. Some species, such as Thistles, have only ray florets, others
have only disk florets, e.g. Chichory (Chichorium), and many have
both disk and ray florets, e.g. Sunflower (Helianthus). In racemose
inflorescence the flowers typically open from below upwards. An
umbel is a type of inflorescence in which the stem axis is not
elongated and individually stalked flowers appear to arise from the
same point on the stem. These flowers are massed on one plane,
giving the appearance of an umbrella, with the oldest flowers on the
outside and the youngest in the middle. The umbel is typical of the
Carrot family (Apiaceae). Umbels may be grouped into a compound
umbel, composed of smaller umbels as in Onion (Allium). A corymb
is an inflorescence with flower stalks of different lengths, the lowest
being the longest. This gives a flat-topped cluster of flowers at the
same level that is characteristic of many brassicas, e.g. Iberis.
Umbels, corymbs, and capitula can be grouped into cymose
inflorescences, e.g. Onion, Viburnum, and Scabiosa respectively (fig.
74).

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 Fig.74. Types of inflorescence

FRUITS

A fruit, botanically speaking, is any ovary and its accessory

parts that has developed and matured. It also usually contains seeds.
By this definition, many so-called vegetables, including tomatoes,
beans, cucumbers, and squashes, are really fruits. On the other hand,
vegetables can consist of leaves (e.g. lettuce, cabbage), leaf petioles
(e.g. celery), specialized leaves (e.g. onion), stems (e.g. white
potato), roots (e.g. sweet potato), stems and roots (e.g. beets), flowers
and their peducles (e.g. broccoli), flower buds (e.g. globe artichoke),
or other parts of the plant.
All fruits develop from flower ovaries and accordingly are
found exclusively in the flowering plants. Fertilization usually
indirectly determines whether or not the ovary or ovaries (and
sometimes the receptacle or other tissues) of a flower will develop
into a fruit. If at least a few of the ovules are not fertilized, the flower
normally withers and drops without developing further. Pollen grains
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contain specific stimulants called hormones, that may initiate fruit
development.

Fruit Regions

Fruit has three

regions, which
sometimes can be
difficult to distinguish
from one another. The
skin forms the
exocarp, while the
inner boundary around
the seed(s) forms the
Fig.75. Fruit regions endocarp. The
endocarp may be hard and stony (as in a peach pit around the seed).
It also may be papery (as in apples), or it may not be distinct from
the mesocarp, which is often the fleshy tissue between the exocarp
and the endocarp. The three regions collectively are called the
pericarp. In dry fruits, the pericarp is usually quite thin. Fruits may
be either fleshy or dry. They may be derived from a single ovary or
from more than one (fig. 75).

KINDS OF FRUITS
Fleshy Fruits

Fruits whose mesocarp is at least partly fleshy at maturity are

classified as fleshy fruits. Simple fleshy fruits develop from a flower
with a single pistil.
A drupe is a simple fleshy fruit with a single seed enclosed by a
hard, stony endocarp, or pit. In coconuts, for example, the husk,
which is usually removed before the rest of the fruit is sold in
markets, is very fibrous (the fibers are used in making mats and
brushes). The seed of the coconut is hollow and contains a watery
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endosperm commonly but incorrectly referred to as “milk”. It is
surrounded by the thick, hard endocarp typical for drupes. Other
examples of drupes include the stone fruits (e.g. apricots, cherries,
peaches, plums, olives, and almonds). In almonds, the husk, which
dries somewhat and splits at maturity, is removed before marketing,
and it is the endocarp that we crack to obtain the seed (fig. 76).

Fig.76. Drupe fleshy fruit

Berries usually develop from a compound ovary and commonly
contain more than one seed. The
entire pericap is fleshy, and it is
difficult to distinguish between
the mesocarp and the endocarp.
Three types of berries may be
recognized (fig. 77).

Fig.77. Berries

A true berry is a fruit with a thin skin and a

pericarp that is relatively soft at maturity.
However, most of them contain more than one
seed. Dates and avocados have only one seed.
Typical examples of true berries include tomatoes,
grapes, peppers, and eggplants. Some fruits that
popularly include the word berry in their commonFig.78. True berry

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name (e.g. strawberry, raspberry, blackberry) botanically are not
berries at all.
Some berries are derived from flowers with inferior ovaries so
that other parts of the flower also contribute to the flesh. They can
usually be distinguished by the remnants of flower parts or their scars
that persist at the tip. Examples of such berries include gooseberries,
blueberries, cranberries (fig. 78).
Pepos are modified berries with hard and thick skin usually
called a "rind". Fruits of members of the Pumpkin Family
(Cucurbitaceae), including pumpkins, cucumbers, watermelons,
squashes are pepos.
The hesperidium is also modified berry with a leathery skin
containing oils. Numerous outgrowths from the inner lining of the
ovary wall become saclike and swollen with juice as the fruit
develops. All members of the Citrus Family (Rutaceae) produce this
type of fruit. Examples include oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits,
tangerines.
Pomes are simple fleshy fruits, the
fleshy bulk of whose comes from the
enlarged floral tube or receptacle that
grows up around the ovary. The endocarp
around the seeds is papery or leathery.
Examples include apples, pears (fig. 79).
Fig.79. Pome fleshy fruit

Dry Fruits

Fruits whose mesocarp is definitely dry at maturity are

classified as dry fruits.

Dry Fruits That Split at Maturity (Dehiscent Fruits).

The fruits in this group are distinguished from one another by

the way they split. The follicle splits along one side or seam (suture)

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only, exposing the seeds within. Examples include larkspur,
columbine (fig. 80).

Fig.80. Follicle

The legume splits along two sides or seams. Literally thousands

of members of the Legume Family (Fabaceae) produce this type of
fruit. Examples include peas, beans, lentils. Peanuts are also
legumes, but they are atypical in that the fruits develop and mature
underground (fig. 81).

Fig.81. Legume

Siliques also split along two sides or seams, but the seeds are
borne on a central partition, which is exposed when the two halves of
the fruit separate. Siliques are produced by members of the Mustard
Family (Brassicaceae), which includes broccoli, cabbage, radish,
shepherd’s purse (fig. 82).

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 Fig.82. Siliques

Capsules are the most common of the dry fruits that split. They
consist of at least two carpels and split in a variety of ways.
Examples include irises, orchids, lilies, poppies, violets (fig. 83).

Fig.83. Capsules

Dry fruits that do not split at maturity (Indehiscent fruits).

In this type of dry fruit the single seed is united with the
pericarp.
Only the base of the single seed of the achene is attached to its
surrounding pericarp. Accordingly the pericarp is relatively easily
separated from the seed. Examples include sunflower “seeds”,
buttercup and buckwheat.
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 Nuts are one-seeded fruits similar to achenes, but they are
generally larger, and the pericarp is
much harder and thicker. They develop
with a cup, or cluster of bracts at their
base. Examples include acorns,
hazelnuts. Botanically speaking, many
nuts in the popular sense are not nuts.
We have already seen that peanuts are
typical legumes and that coconuts and
almonds are drupes. Walnuts and
pecans are also drupes, whose “flesh”
part withers and dries after the seed
matures and cashew nuts are the single
seed of a unique drupe. Pistachio nuts
are also the seeds of drupes. Fig.84. Acorn
The pericarp of the grain is tightly united with the seed and
cannot be separated from it. All members of the Grass Family
(Poaceae), including corn, wheat, rice produce grains (fig. 84).

In samaras, the pericarp surrounding

the seed extends out in the form of a wing or
membrane, which aids in dispersal. In
maples, samaras are produced in pairs, but
in ashes, elms, and the tree of heaven, they
are produced singly. The twin fruit called a
schizocarp is unique to the Parsley Family
(Apiaceae). Members of this family include
parsley, carrots, anise, caraway, and dill.
Upon drying, the twin fruits break into two
one-seeded segments (fig. 85). Fig.85.Twin fruit

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 Aggregate Fruits

An aggregate fruit is one that is derived from a single flower

with several to many pistils. The individual pistils develop into tiny
drupes or other fruitlets, but they mature as a clustered unit on a
single receptacle. Examples include
raspberries, blackberries and
strawberries. In a strawberry, the
cone-shaped receptacle becomes
fleshy and red, while each pistil
becomes a little achene on its surface.
In other words, the strawberry, while
being an aggregate fruit, is also partly
composed of accessory tissue (fig. 86).
Fig.86. Aggregate fruit

Accessory Fruits

Sometimes accessory fruits are called false fruits, because in

this fruits some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary, but from
some adjacent tissue exterior to the carpel. Examples of accessory
tissue are the receptacle of the strawberry, calyx of Syzygium
Jambos. Pomes, such as apples and pears are also accessory fruits,
with fruit flesh derived from a hypanthium (fig. 87).

Fig.87. Accessory fruit

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 Multiple Fruits

Multiple fruits are derived from several to many individual

flowers in a single inflorescence. Each flower has its own receptacle,
but as the flowers mature separately into fruitlets, they develop
together into a single larger fruit. Examples of multiple fruits include
mulberries, pineapples and figs. Some figs varieties are pollinated by
tiny wasps that crawl in and out through the opening (fig. 88).

Fig.88. Multiple fruits

Seeds

A seed is the part of a seed plant, which can grow into a new
plant. It is a reproductive structure which disperses, and can survive
for some time. A typical seed includes three basic parts: 1.an
embryo, 2.a supply of nutrients for the embryo and 3. a seed coat.
The formation of the seed is a part of the process of
reproduction in seed plants. Seeds are the product of the ripened
ovule, after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the
mother plant. The embryo is developed from zygote and the seed
coat- from the integuments of the ovule. Ferns, mosses and
liverworts do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to
propagate themselves.
When a seed germinates, it begins to grow into a little plant
called a seedling. It uses the soft fleshy material inside the seed for
nutrients (food), until it is ready to make food on its own, using
sunlight, water and air. The present-day seed plants are the
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Gymnosperms, with naked seeds, and the Angiosperms with covered
seeds, usually fruits.
Once the seed coat is removed, the two halves, called
cotyledons, can be distinguished. The cotyledons, which have a tiny
immature plantlet along one edge between them, are food-storage
organs that also function as the firs “seed leaves” of the seedling
plant. The cotyledons, and the tiny, rudimentary bean plant to which
they are attached, constitute the embryo. Some seeds (e.g.; those of
grasses and all other monocots) have only one cotyledon. The
dicotyledons, also known as dicots, is a group of flowering plants,
where the seed has two embryonic leaves or cotyledons. There are
around 200,000 species within the group. The other group of
flowering plants called monocotyledons or monocots, typically
having one cotyledon. Historically, these two groups formed the two
divisions of the flowering plants.

Fig.89. The structure of dicot seeds

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 The tiny embryo plantlet has undeveloped leaves and a
meristem at the upper end of the embryo axis. This embryo shoot is
called a plumule. The cotyledons are attached below the plumule.
The very short part of the stem above the cotyledons is called the
epicotyl, while the stem below the attachment point is the hypocotyl.

Fig.90. The structure of monocot seeds

The tip that will develop into a root is called a radicle. When a
kidney bean germinates, the hypocotyls lengthen and bend,
becoming hook-shaped. The top of the hook emerges from the
ground, pulling the cotyledons above the ground.
In other seeds, the cotyledon(s) may not play a significant role
in food storage. In corn, for example, the bulk of the food-storage
tissue is endosperm (fig. 89,90).

Germination

Germination, which is the beginning or resumption of the

growth of a seed, depends on the interplay of a number of factors,
both internal and external. In order to germinate, a seed must first be
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viable (capable of germinating). Many seeds for various reasons (e.g.
death of the embryo within) are not viable, and they all lose their
viability after varying periods of time. Many seeds also require a
period of dormancy before they germinate. Dormancy is brought
about by either mechanical or physiological circumstances or both.
In the Legume Family (Fabaceae) and others, the seeds may have
such thick or tough seed coats that they prevent the absorption of
water or oxygen. Some seeds even have a one-way valve that lets
moisture out but prevents its uptake. Dormancy in such seeds may
sometimes be broken artificially by scarification, which involves
nicking or slightly cracking the seed coats or dipping the seeds in a
concentrated acid for a few seconds up to a few minutes. In nature,
such seeds may remain dormant until cracks in the seed coat are
brought about by the mechanical of rock particles in the soil.
Apples, pears, citrus fruits, tomatoes, and other fleshy fruits
contain inhibitors that prevent germination of the seeds within the
fruits. Only the seeds are removed and washed, they germinate
readily. The seeds will not germinate after fruit has dropped until the
embryo has developed fully with the aid of food materials stored in
its endosperm. Such process of development is called after-ripening.
Water and oxygen are essential to the completion of germination, and
light or its absence also plays a role. Many seeds imbibe 10 times or
more their total weight in water before the radicle emerges.
After water has been imbibed, enzymes begin to function in the
cytoplasm, which has now been rehydrated. Seeds of some varieties
of lettuce will not germinate in the dark, while those of other seeds,
such as the California poppy, germinate only in the dark.

Longevity

However, reports of seeds of the aquatic lotus plant germinating

after about 1,200 years and another one documenting the germination
of Arctic tundra lupine seeds that were frozen for an estimated
10,000 years have been confirmed.

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 A few species of both dicots and monocots produce seeds that
have no period of dormancy at all. In some instances, the embryo,
which develops from the zygote, continues to grow without any
pause in a phenomenon known as vivipary.

Fruit and Seed Dispersal

Dispersal by Wind

Fruits and seeds have a

variety of adaptation for wind
dispersal. The samara of a
maple has a curved wing that
causes the fruit to spin as it is
released from the tree. In a
brisk wind, samaras may be
carried up to 10 kilometers
away from their source. In
some members of the
Families Ranunculaceae and
Asteraceae, the fruits have
plumes, and in Family
Salicaceae, the fruits are
surrounded by cotton or
wooly hairs that aid in wind
dispersal.
Seeds themselves may be
so tiny and light that they can
be blown great distances by
the wind. Orchids and heaths,
for example, produce seeds Fig.91. Dispersal by Wind
with no endosperm that can fly as fine as dust and equally are light in
weight. Dandelion fruitlets have plumes that radiate out at the ends
like tiny parachutes; these catch even a slight breeze (fig. 91).
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 Dispersal by Animals

The adaptations of fruits

and seeds for animal dispersal
are legion. Birds, mammals, and
ants all act as disseminating
agents. Shore birds may carry
seeds great distances. Other
birds and mammals eat fruits
whose seeds passed through
their digestive tracts. Some
seeds and fruits are gathered
and stored by squirrels and
mice, and then are abandoned.
Blue jays and other birds carry
away nuts and other fruits,
which they may drop in flight.
Many fruits and seeds catch in
the fur of animals (fig. 92).

Fig.92. Dispersal by Animals

Dispersal by Water

Some fruits contain trapped air, adapting them to water

dispersal. Many seeds have waxy material on the surface, which
temporarily prevents them from absorbing water while they are
floating. Large raindrops themselves may splash seeds out of their
opened capsules.
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 Seeds and fruits of a few plants have thick, spongy pericarps
that absorb water very slowly. Such fruits are adapted to dispersal by
ocean currents, even though salt water eventually may penetrate
enough to kill the delicate embryos.
Humans, both intentionally and unintentionally, are the most
efficient transporters of fruits and seeds. Travelers and explorers
have carried many noxious weeds and plant diseases, as well as
valuable food and medicinal plants from one continent to another.

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 Chapter 7
PLANTS’ GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Plant development is the whole series of qualitative and
quantitative changes such as growth, differentiation and maturation,
which an organism undergoes throughout its life cycle. Plants
constantly produce new tissues and structures throughout their life
from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature
tissues. Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues.
Plant growth occurs in three successive stages:
(I) Cell division- the number of cells increases due to mitosis;
(II) Cell enlargement- the size of individual cell increases after
cell division due to increase in the volume of its protoplasm;
(III) Cell differentiation- structure of the cells changes to
perform specific functions. And similar type of cells having the same
functions form a group, which is known as tissue.
In lower organisms such as bacteria and algae the entire body
grows. But in higher organisms like ferns, pine and flowering plants,
growth is restricted to the cells present only in the growing regions,
like shoot apex and root tip and close to the lateral sides of the stem
and root. Growth at the tips leads to the elongation of body parts and
lateral (sideways) growth leads to an increase in the thickness of
stem and root.

Factors affecting plant growth

Generally plant growth is influenced by a number of factors

both external and internal.

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 External growth factors are:

(I) Light- besides photosynthesis, light is also essential for

seed germination, growth of seedling, differentiation of various
tissues and organs, and reproduction.
(II) Temperature- some plants grow in cold and some in hot
climate. The optimum temperature required for the growth of plants
ranges between 28-30◦C, but it may occur at the temperature ranging
4-45 C. All metabolic activities of plants are directly affected by
temperature variation.
(III) Water- for proper growth of plants a particular quantity
of water is required.
(IV) Mineral Nutrients- all metabolic processes require
inorganic nutrients.

Internal growth factors

In addition to the external factors, there are some substances

produced in the plant body itself, which affects the growth of the
plant. These are called plant hormones or phytohormones. A
phytohormone is an organic substance produced in a small quantity
in one part of plant body and capable of moving to other parts to
influence the growth of that part.
The naturally produced growth hormones are grouped under
five major classes. They are:
(i) Auxin- it is a growth promoter, generally produced by the
growing apex of stem and root of the plants.
Functions of Auxin;
-it promotes cell elongation;
-it suppresses the growth of lateral bud. If the tip of a plant is
removed the lateral branches begin to grow;
-it delays fall of leaves.
(ii) Gibberellin- in plants it is produced in embryos, roots, and
young leaves and it enhances growth.
Functions of Gibberellins;
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 -it helps with elongation of stems in genetically dwarf plants.
The height of the dwarf plants can be increased.
-it breaks dormancy of seeds and buds.
-it helps with the formation of seedless fruits without
fertilization.
(iii) Cytokinins- are synthesized in root apex, endosperm of
seeds, and young fruits, where cell division takes place continuously.
Functions of Cytokinins;
-they stimulate cell division, cell enlargement and
differentiation,
-they prevent aging of plant parts,
-they inhibit apical dominance and help with the growth of
lateral buds into branches.
(iv) Ethylene- it is a gaseous hormone. It is found in ripening
fruits, young flowers and young leaves.
Functions of Ethylene;
-it induces ripening of fruits,
-it promotes senescence and abscission of leaves and flowers,
-in cells it only increases the width not the length.
(v) Abscissic acid- is also known as Dormin. It is synthesized in
leaves.
Functions of Abscissic acid;
-it induces dormancy of buds and seeds,
-fall of leaves happens due to this acid,
-it inhibits seed germination and development,
-it causes closing of stomata.

Plant Reproduction

Plant Reproduction is the production of new individuals,

which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of
gametes, genetically identical to the parent plants. Sexual

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reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting
in offspring genetically different from the parents.
Asexual reproduction: Plant has two main types of asexual
reproduction in which new plants are produced, that are genetically
identical clones of the parent individual. Vegetative reproduction
involves a vegetative piece of the original plant (budding, tillering,
etc.). A rhizome is a modified underground stem serving as an organ
of vegetative reproduction; the growing tips of the rhizome can
separate as new plants, e.g. Iris, Nettles. Plants like onion (Allium
cepa), tulips (Tulipa) reproduce by dividing their underground bulbs
into more bulbs. Other plants like potatoes (Solanum tuberosum)
produce by a similar method involving underground tubers. Gladioli
- similar way with corms. Runners or stolons are also important
vegetative reproduction organs in some species, such as the
strawberry, some ferns, etc. Some types of mould reproduce through
sporulation. They produce reproductive cells- spores, that are stored
in special spore cases. After they are released they develop into new,
individual organisms (e.g. bread mould). Budding- during budding,
a new organism starts growing from the parents’ body. This bud later
develops into a mature organism (yeast).
Sexual reproduction: During sexual reproduction, two gametes
from both parents fuse, forming a zygote. All gametes are haploid
cells, meaning they have only one set of chromosomes (1n). So,
when gametes fuse, they form a diploid organism: 1n+1n=2n. The
simplest sexual reproduction in algae is conjugation, in which two
similar organisms fuse, exchange genetic material and then break
apart. Flowers contain both male (stamens) and female (pistil) parts.
The pistil consists of the ovary, ovule, style and stigma at the tip.
Inside the ovary are the ovules. Each ovule contains an egg cell. The
stamen consists of the filament and the pollen-producing anther. A
new seed is formed when an egg cell joins with a pollen cell in the
process of pollination. Pollination occurs when pollen grains are
carried from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil.

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 Plant movements

Except for some unicellular plants, all other higher plants

cannot move from place to place as their roots are fixed in the soil.
Still they show movement by folding the buds, opening and closing
the flowers, and bending towards sun light. These movements in
plants are very slow. There are various types of movements shown
by plants:
(a)Tropic Movements (directional response or growth
movements) - Movement in plants or in any part of the plants
towards or away from some environmental factors is known as tropic
movement. We have observed the movement of plants in the
direction of light, the downward movement of roots in the soil,
drooping of leaves of some sensitive plants by touch, etc. These are
examples of tropic movement.
(I) Phototropism: Induced by light e.g. bending of stems
towards light.
(II) Geotropism: Induced by gravity e.g. growth of roots
towards gravity.
(III) Thigmotropism: Movement caused by contact e.g.
twinning stem and tendrils and the drooping of leaves of sensitive
plant by touch.
(IV) Hydrotropism: Induced by water e.g. growth of roots
towards the source of water.

(b) Nastic Movements (bending movements) are the growth

movements resulting due to the difference in the rate of growth on
opposite sides of an organ e.g., opening of petals, coiling of leaves,
etc. When the upper side of an organ grows faster than the lower
side, the movement is called epinasty (opening of sepals of
goldmohur flower). When the lower side grows more rapidly than the
upper side, it is called as hyponasty (upward curling of leaf blade).

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 (c) Turgor Movements. These movements are due to the
change in the volume of water inside the cell. Some examples of
turgor movements are:
(I) Leaves or leaflets of some plants close on the fall of
darkness (sleep movement). E.g. Acacia.
(II) Closing of leaflets and drooping of leaves in response to a
strong stimulus of blowing wind. E.g. sensitive plant (Mimosa
pudica).
(III) Closing of leaves of Venus Flytrap to catch a landing
insect.
(IV) Seed pods of some plants open on maturity, vigorously
expelling their seeds. E.g. Balsam (Gulmehandi).

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 Chapter 8
PLANT NAMES AND CLASSIFICATION
In Europe, with its many languages, common names can
become very numerous indeed. The widespread weed with the
scientific name Plantago major, for example, is often called broad-
leaved plantation in English, but it also has not less than 45 other
English names, 11 French names, 75 Dutch names, 106 German
names, and possibly as many as several hundred more names in other
languages.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

The use of Latin in schools and universities had become

widespread, and it was then customary to use descriptive Latin
phrase names for both plants and animals. All organisms were
grouped into genera (singular; genus). For example, all known mints
were given phrase names (polynomials) beginning with the word
Mentha.

Linnaeus

At this point, the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-

1778) began improving the way organisms were named and
classified. The system he established worked so well that it has
persisted to the present. In fact, Linnaeus’s system is now used
throughout the entire word.
Linnaeus, who was nicknamed the “Little Botanist” at school,
inherited his passion for plants from his father, who was a minister
and amateur gardener. After a brief tenure as a student at the
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University of Loud, he spent most of his time making excursions to
Lapland, Holland, France, and Germany. Eventually, he became a
professor of botany and medicine at Uppsala, where he inspired large
numbers of students, 23 of whom became professors themselves.
When Linnaeus began his work, he set out to classify all the known
plants and animals according to their genera. In 1753, he published a
two-volume work entitled Species Plantarum, which was later to
become the most important of all the works on plant names and
classification. In this work, he not only included a referenced list of
all the Latin phrase names previously given to the plants, but, when
necessary, he also changed some of the phrases to reflect
relationships, placing one to many specific kinds of organisms called
species in each genus. He limited each Latin phrase to maximum of
12 words, and in the margin next to the phrase, he listed a single
word, which, when combined with the generic name, formed a
convenient abbreviated designation for the species. The word in the
margin for spearmint was spicata, and the word for peppermint was
piperita. Accordingly, the abbreviated name for spearmint was
Mentha spicata and for peppermint, Mentha piperita.
Because of their two parts, these abbreviated names became
known as binomials, and the method of naming became known as the
Binomial System of Nomenclature. Today, all species of organisms
are named according to this system, which also includes the authority
for the name, either in abbreviated from or in full, after the Latin
name. For example, the full scientific name for spearmint is written
Mentha spicata L., the L. standing for Linnaeus; the full scientific
name for the wild dandelion native to Scandinavia is written
Taraxacum officinale Wiggers, after Fredericus Henricus Wiggers,
who was the first to describe the species.
Linnaeus organized all known plants into 24 classes, which
were based mainly on the number of stamens in flowers. All plants
with five stamens per flower, for example, were placed in one class,
while those with six stamens were placed in another class. Plants and
other organisms that don’t produce flowers (e.g. mosses, fungi) were
put in a class of their own. This classification was used in Species
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Plantarum and other works by Linnaeus, and for a short period of
time was adopted by some but not all botanists.

The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature

In 1867, more than 100 years after Species Plantarum had been
published, about 150 European and American botanists met in Paris
to try to standardize rules governing the naming and classifying of
plants. They agreed to use the works of Linnaeus as the starting point
for all the scientific names of plants and decided that his binomials,
or the earliest ones published after him, would have priority over all
the others.

Classification of Major Groups

Since Linnaeus’s time, a number of classification categories

have been added between the levels of kingdom and genus. Genera
are now grouped into families, families into orders, orders into
classes, classes into phyla (divisions), and phyla (division) into
kingdoms.

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 Chapter 9
IMPERIUM – CELLULAR ORGANISMS
(CELLULATA)
SUPERKINGDOM – MONERA (PROCARYOTES)
(PROCARYOTA)

Prokaryotes are the simplest living organisms. They generally

have neither a cell nucleus nor cell organelles. They have only
ribosomes. They have genetic material composed of a naked double-
stranded DNA.

KINGDOM
ARCHAEBACTERIA, EUBACTERIA, BACTERIA

Eubacterias include:
Subkingdom – Oxyphotobacteria
Phylum a) Oxybacteria
b) Cyanobacteria, Cyanophyta

Phylum Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae)

Cyanobacteria can live in both fresh and salty water, when
conditions are optimal, they grow rapidly. All cyanobacteria have
chlorophyll “a” and produce oxygen.

g. Nostoc

- 115 -
 Some species (strains of Nostoc) are able to grow completely
heterotrophycally, in the dark if supplied with sugars and inorganic
salts. Cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc are unique among prokaryotes,
some have truly multicellular bodies that may contain two types of
cells. The large, round cells are called heterocysts, specialized for
nitrogen (N2) fixation, which can be absorbed by plants and
converted into organic compounds. Once fixed, the nitrogen
compounds are transported to surrounding vegetative cells.
The ability of many cyanobacteria to fix nitrogen is important
ecologically.

g. Anabaena

Anabaena is a genus of filamentous cyanobacteria that exist as

plankton. They are known for nitrogen-fixing abilities, and they form
symbiotic relationships with certain plants, such as the mosquito
fern.

g. Oscilatoria

It is a genus of filamentous cyanobacteria, which is named after

the oscillation in its movement. It is found in watering-troughs’
waters. It reproduces by fragmentation.

SUPERKINGDOM EUCKARYOTA
(EUKARYOTES OR NUCLEAR ORGANISMS)
These organisms contain cell nucleus, within which the genetic
material and many other organelles are contained, such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus. Eukaryotes are either
singular- or multiple-celled. There are two types of cell division
processes (mitosis and meiosis) in Eukaryotes.

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 KINGDOMS:
1. Protoctista
2. Fungi
3. Animalia
4. Plantae

SUBKINGDOM MYXOBIONTA

Phylum OOMYCOTA

Oomycota or oomycotes are fungus - like eukaryotic

microorganisms. They are filamentous, microscopic organisms that
reproduce both sexually and asexually. They have saprophytic and
pathogenic lifestyles. The oomycetes are often referred to as water
molds. This group was originally classified among the fungi (the
name “oomycota” means “egg fungus”) and later treated as protists,
based on general morphology and lifestyle.

g. Phytophtora

It is a genus of plant-damaging water molds, it remains the

most destructive pathogen of solanaceous crops, including tomato
and potato.

g. Plasmopara

Plasmopara species are known as plant pathogens, causing

downy mildew on carrot, parsley, grape.

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 Phylum MYXOMYCOTA

There are approximately 900 species of Myxomycetes. They

are called slime molds. They can appear as gelatinous “slime”. Slime
molds are usually found in soil, lawns and on the forest floor, they
also grow in air conditioners, when the drain is blocked.

g. Trichia

The species has worldwide distribution. The slime molds live

on the deadwood of conifers and broadleaf trees year-round.

g. Physarum

Approximately 80 species are known. Plasmodia is colorless or

yellowish.

Phylum Chytridiomycota

Chytrids are zoosporic organisms, it means “little pot”, which

have chitin cell walls, a posterior whiplash flagellum, absorptive
nutrition, use of glycogen as an energy storage compound.
Chytrids are saprobic, degrading refractory materials such as
chitin and keratin.
It has over 750 species distributed among 10 orders. Asexual
reproduction occurs through the release of zoospores derived through
mitosis. In some members, sexual reproduction is achieved through
the fusion of isogametes (gametes of the same size and shape).

g. Synchitrium

The most well-known species is S. endobioticum, a parasite of

Solanaceae, it is the causal agent of black wart in potatoes.

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 g. Olpidium

It is a brassica plant root-infecting fungal pathogen.

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 Chapter 10
KINGDOM ALGAE
Algae, singular alga, definition of numerous groups of
chlorophyll – containing (photosynthetic), mainly aquatic organisms
ranging from microscopic single-celled forms to multicellular forms
60 meter or more long, distinguished from plants by the absence of
true roots, stems, leaves and flowers. In addition to their ecological
roles as oxygen producers and as the food base for almost all aquatic
life, algae are economically important as a source of crude oil and as
sources of food and a number of pharmaceutical and industrial
products for humans.
Algae have no true leaves or flowers. The algae are grouped
into several major phyla based on the form of their reproductive cells
and combinations of pigments and food reserves.

Phylum Chlorophyta – The Green Algae

Phylum Chlorophyta includes about 7.500 species of organisms

commonly known as the green algae. They occur in a rich variety of
forms in very diverse and widespread habitats; they possess some of
the most beautiful chloroplasts of all photosynthetic organisms.
Some are unicellular and microscopic; green algae form thread-like
filaments, plate-like colonies, net-like tubes, or hollow spheres.
Some green algae are seaweeds, resembling lettuce leaves or
long, green ropes. Several unicellular species grow on the bark of
trees, or are found on the backs of turtles. The greatest variety,
however, is found in freshwater ponds, lakes and streams. Ocean
forms are also varied; there they are an important part of the
plankton (free-floating, mostly microscopic organisms) and,
therefore, of food chains.

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 The chlorophylls (a and b) and other pigments of green algae
are similar to those of higher plants. The green algae, like the higher
plants, store their food in the form of starch within the chloroplasts.
Most green algae have a single nucleus in each cell. Green algae
reproduce both asexually and sexually.

There are three classes in this phylum:

1. Isocontae
2. Conjugatae
3. Charae

CLASS ISOCONTAE

g. Chlamydomonas

A small, actively moving little alga,

Chlamydomonas, is a common inhabitant of
quiet freshwater pools. Chlamydomonas is
unicellular, with a slightly oval cell
surrounded by a complex multilayered wall. A
pair of whip-like flagella at one end pull the
cell very rapidly through the water. The
flagella are, however, difficult to see with an
ordinary light microscope. Near the base of
the flagella there are two or more vacuoles.
They apparently regulate the water content of
the cell. Fig.93. Chlamydomonas
A dominant feature of each Chlamydomonas is a single, usually
cup-shaped chloroplast that at least partially hides the centrally
located nucleus. One or two roundish pyrenoids are located in each
chloroplast. Pyrenoids are proteinaceous structures which contain
enzymes associated with the synthesis of starch. Most species also
have a red eyespot on the chloroplast near the base of the flagella.
The eyespot is sensitive to light (fig. 93).

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 Asexual Reproduction

Before a Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually, the cell’s

flagella degenerate and drop off, or are reabsorbed. Then the nucleus
divides by mitosis, and the cell contents become two cells within the
cellulose wall. The two daughter cells develop flagella, escape, and
swim away as the parent cell wall breaks down. Once they have
grown to their full size, they may repeat the process.

Sexual Reproduction
Under certain combinations of light, temperature, many cells in
a population of Chlamydomonas may congregate together. A careful
study of such events has revealed that pairs of cells appear to be
attracted to each other by their flagella and function as gametes that
are sometimes of two types. The cell walls break down as the
protoplasts slowly emerge, fusing together and forming zygotes. The
cell contents, now diploid, undergo meiosis, producing four haploid
zoospores (motile cells that do not unite with other cells). When the
zygote’s wall breaks down, the zoospores swim away and grow to
full-size Chlamydomonas cells.

g. Chlorella

Chlorella is a genus of single-cell green algae. It is spherical in

shape and is without flagella. It
contains green photosynthetic
pigments chlorophyll-a and -b
in its chloroplast. Through
photosynthesis, it multiplies
rapidly. Chlorella is a potential
food source because it is rich in
protein and other essential
nutrients (fig. 94).
Fig.94. Chlorella

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 g. Volvox

Volvox forms spherical colonies

of up to 50,000 flagellate cells. They
live in a variety of freshwater habitats.
An asexual colony includes both
somatic (vegetative) cells, which do not
reproduce, and large, non-motile
gonidia in the interior, which produce
new colonies through repeated division.
In sexual reproduction two types of
gametes are produced (fig. 95).
Fig.95. Volvox

g. Ulothrix

It is a genus of filamentous green algae, generally found in fresh

and marine water. Reproduction is normally vegetative (fig. 96).

Fig.96. Ulothrix

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 g. Ulva

Ulva is also known by the common name sea lettuce, it is

edible thin flat green algae growing from a discoid holdfast (fig. 97).

Fig.97. Ulva

g. Caulerpa

Caulerpas are unusual because they consist of only one cell with
many nuclei, making them among the biggest single cells in the
world. Some Mediterranean species can have a stolon more than 3
meters long. Some species are eaten under the names "green caviar",
or "sea grape" (fig. 98).

Fig.98. Caulerpa

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 CLASS COJUGATAE
g. Spirogyra

Watersilk, as Spirogyra is called, has watery sheaths

surrounding the filaments. These common freshwater algae,
consisting of unbranched filaments of cylindrical cells, frequently
float on the surface of quiet water. Each cell contains ribbon-shaped
chloroplasts that look as though they had been spirally wrapped
around an invisible pole. Every elegant green ribbon has pyrenoids at
regular intervals throughout its length (fig. 99).

Fig. 99. Spirogyra

Asexual Reproduction

Any cell is capable of dividing, but the only asexual

reproduction resulting in new filaments is brought about through the
breakup, or fragmentation of existing filaments. Fragmentation often
occurs as a result of a storm.
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 Sexual Reproduction

In colonies of Spirogyra, the filaments usually are produced so

close to each other that they may actually be touching. When sexual
reproduction begins, the individual cells of adjacent filaments form
little dome-shaped bumps, or papillae, opposite each other. The
papillae fuse at their tips, forming small, cylindrical conjugation
tubes between each pair of cells. The condensed protoplasts then
function as gametes. Usually, those of one filament will seem to flow
or crawl like amoebae through the conjugation tubes to the adjacent
cells, where each fuses with the stationary gamete, forming a zygote.
Each moving protoplast is considered a male gamete, while the
stationary ones function as female gametes.

CLASS CHARAE

g. Chara

Chara is a genus of green algae. They are multicellular and

superficially resemble land plants because of the stem-like and leaf-
like structures. They are found in fresh water attached to the muddy
bottom. The branching system of Chara is complex with branches
derived from apical cells which cut off segments at the base to form
nodal and internodal cells alternately. They are typically anchored to
the substrate by means of branching underground rhizoids. Chara
reproduces vegetatively and sexually. Antheridia (male organs) and
archegonia (female organs) may occur on the same or separate
plants. After fertilization, the zygote develops into an oospore (fig.
100).

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 Fig.100. Chara

Phylum Phaeophyta

Brown Algae

Many brown algae are relatively large, and can be unicellular or

colonial. Only 6 of the 265 known genera occur in fresh water, the
vast majority growing in colder ocean waters.
Many of the brown algae have a thallus (the term for
multicellular bodies that are usually flattened and not organized into
leaves, stems, and roots) that is differentiated into a holdfast, a stipe,
and flattened, leaf-like blades. The holdfast is a tough structure
resembling roots. It holds the seaweed to rocks.
The color of brown algae can vary from light yellow-brown to
almost black, reflecting the presence of varying amounts of the
brown pigment fucoxanthin (fig. 98).

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 Fig.101. Brown algae

g.Laminaria

Commonly Laminaria is called "kelp". It is a type of seaweed.

The sporophyte is the dominant phase. Sporophyte is differentiated
into holdfast, stipe and lamina. Sexual reproduction is oogamous.
Laminaria species are found on rocky shores of the north Atlantic
and the north Pacific oceans. They are rich in iodine, vitamins and
minerals which improve health, including weight loss, lowering
cholesterol levels and healthy for digestive system (fig. 102).

Fig.102.Laminaria

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 g. Fucus

Fucus species are found on the rocky seashores almost

throughout the world. The thallus is perennial with disc-shaped
holdfast. The erect portion of thallus is dichotomous branched. The
base of the thallus is stipe-like and is attached to the rock by a
holdfast (fig. 103).

Fig.103. Fucus

g. Macrocystis

Macrocystis has pneumatocysts at the base of its blades.

Sporophytes are perennial, and they are the major component of kelp
forests. One species, Macrocystis pyrifera has the fastest linear
growth of any organism on earth (fig. 104).

Fig.104. Macrocistis

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 g. Durvillea

It is found on exposed shores, especially in the northern parts. It

attaches itself with a strong holdfast. The blades are golden brown
with a leathery texture (fig. 105).

Fig.105. Durvillea

Phylum Rhodophyta

The Red Algae

Like many brown algae, most of the more than 5,000 species of
red algae are seaweeds. Some grow attached to rocks, others grow at
depths of up to 200 meters where light barely reaches them. In 1984,
a new species of red algae was discovered at a depth of 269 meters,
where the light is only 0.0005 % of peak surface sunlight. A few are
unicellular, but most are filamentous. The plant appears to have
branching segments. Some develop as beautiful feathery structures
that have the appearance of delicate works of art (fig. 106).

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a. b.

c. d.
Fig.106. Representative of red algae.
a) Chondrus. b) Porphyra. c) Rhodimenia. d) Gelidium.

Gametes are produced on separate male and female thalli. All of

the reproductive cells are nonmotile and are carried passively by
water currents. Zygotes may migrate from one cell to another
through special tubes.

g. Gelidium

One of the most important of all algal substances is agar,

produced most by the red alga Gelidium. This substance, which has
the consistency of gelatin, is used around the world in laboratories
and medical institutions as a solidifier of nutrient culture media for
the growth of bacteria.

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 g. Porphyra

Porphyra is a cold-water seaweed. The thallus can reproduce

asexually by forming spores which grow to replicate the original
thallus. It can also reproduce sexually. Both male and female
gametes are formed on the one thallus.

g. Chondrus

It is commonly called Irish moss, which grows along the rocky

parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. It is soft
and cartilaginous, varying in color from red to dark purple or
purplish-brown. Chondrus is small red algae (20 cm in length). It
grows from a discoid holdfast and branches 4 or 5 times in a
dichotomous, fan-like manner.

g. Rhodimenia

It is flattened, fan-shaped, rose-red fronds (100mm high), with

long or short stipes arising from the discoidal base. Fronds are
dichotomously lobed axils wide, margin smooth.

Economic importance of Algae

Beneficial aspects of Algae are:

1. Role as primary producers: Because of their photosynthetic
abilities the algae are the primary producers of the aquatic
environments. They produce oxygen and take up carbon dioxide.
2. Source of food: More than 100 species belonging to green,
brown and red algae are used as food for humans because of the
presence of proteins, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. These
include Monostroma, Ulva, Codium and Chlorella. The most
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important of these are the Chlorella which has all essential amino
acid contents in it, therefore used as substitute food especially in
space flights. The algae also afford as food for animals in coastal
countries. Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus are used as fodder for
animals.
3. Industrial use: Many algae yield certain chemical products
which are used in various industries for various purposes. Some of
the uses of these products are:
a. Agar-agar: It is dried, jelly-like, non-nitrgenous, extracted
from some genera of Rhodophyta like Gelidium, Chondrus,
Gigartina, Furcellaria, etc. The algae are collected, mucilaginous
matter is extracted with water under pressure. The important use
of agar is in microbiology and tissue culture (in the preparation of
culture media for growing fungi and bacteria in the laboratories).
b. Alginates: The alginic acids are extracted from the brown and
red algae. The alginates are used in rubber–tyre industry, paints and
ice-creams and in preparation of flame proof fabrics and plastic
articles.
c. Carrageenin: It is carbohydrate mucilage extracted from red
algae used as clearing agent in beer preparation, in tooth pastes,
cosmetics and in pharmaceutical industries.
4. Antibiotics and medicines: Some species produce
antibacterial substances which are effective against gram-negative
and gram-positive bacteria.
Because of high iodine contents, brown algae are used in
manufacture of various medicines.
5. Nitrogen fixation: The conversion of atmosphere nitrogen
compounds is one of the major roles being played by the algae plants
(Cyanophyta).
6. Fertilizers: Due to presence of potassium chloride in sea
weeds, they are used as fertilizers in many countries.

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 Chapter 11
KINGDOM FUNGI
DISTINCTION BETWEEN KINGDOM PROTISTA AND FUNGI

In the past, the true fungi, slime molds, and bacteria were all
placed in a single division of the Plant Kingdom. Once the
fundamental differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
became known, however, the bacteria were placed in the prokaryotic
Kingdom Monera. Then it became increasingly apparent that the
metabolism, reproduction, and general lines of diversity of fungi
were different from those of members of the Plant Kingdom.
Accordingly, fungi were placed in their own kingdom.
All true fungi are filamentous or unicellular heterotrophs, most
of which absorb their food in solution through their cell walls. Some
are saprobes (organisms that live on dead organic matter); others are
parasitic decomposers; still others (mycorrhizal fungi) have a
mutualistic relationship with plants.
The members of Kingdom Fungi are placed in five phyla.
Filamentous fungi produce hyphae that grow at their tips. The cell
walls of true fungi consist primarily of chitin, a material also found
in the shells of arthropods (e.g., insects, crabs).

KINGDOM FUNGI – THE TRUE FUNGI

1.Phylum Chytridiomycota (The Chytrids)

2.Phylum Zygomycota (The Zygomycotes)
3.Phylum Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)
4.Phylum Basidiomycota (The Club Fungi)
5.Phylum Deuteromycota (The Imperfect Fungi)
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 Phylum Chytridiomycota – ( The Chytrids)

The chytrids are the simplest and most primitive fungi, they
have chitin in cell walls, most are single-celled. Chytrids usually live
in aquatic environments, but some species live on land. Some are
parasites on plants, insects, while others are saprobes. The sp.
Allomyces reproductive cycle includes both asexual and sexual
phases. It produces zoospores in sporangium.

Phylum Zygomycota – (The Zygomycotes)

Black bread molds are probably the best-known members of

Phylum Zygomycota.
Rhizopus, a well-known representative of black bread mold, has
spores that are everywhere. They are found in the air above the North
Pole, over jungles, inside of buildings, in soils, clothing.

Asexual reproduction

When a spore lands in a suitable growing area, it germinates and

soon produces hyphae that may become an extensive mycelium.

Sexual reproduction

Black bread molds reproduce sexually by conjugation.

Phylum Ascomycota – The Ascomycetes (Sac Fungi)

Ascomycota is the largest phylum of the Kingdom Fungi, with

64.000 species. Ascomycetes are fungi, which produce microscopic
spores inside special elongated cells or sacs, known as “asci”, which
give the group its name. Fungi with spores produced inside a sac is
called an ascus. Each ascus usually contains 8 spores (sometimes 4).
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Truffles are gourmet “mushrooms,” which grow mostly between 2.5
and 15 centimeters beneath the surface of the ground, usually near
oak trees. They give off a tantalizing aroma that has been shown to
contain pig sex pheromones (chemicals that produce specific
responses). Pigs can detect truffles a meter below the surface and
more than 15 meters away. The owners dig up the truffles, which are
sold for about $400 a pound.
Truffles are of true fungi called ascomycetes (sac fungi). Most
produce mycelia.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is by means of conidia. Conidia are

spores that are produced externally- outside of sporangium-either
singly or in chains at the tips of hyphae called conidiophores.
Asexual reproduction in yeasts is by budding. As a yeast cell buds,
the nucleus divides, and a small protuberance appears to balloon out
slowly from the cell. One daughter nucleus moves into the bud,
which becomes pinched off as it grows to full size.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves the formation of tiny fingerlike

sacs called asci (singular: ascus). When hyphae of two different
“sexes” become closely associated in a more complex sac fungi,
male antheridia may be formed on one and female ascogonia on the
other, although in many species, antheridia and ascogonia may be
produced on the same mycelium. Hyphae grow and connect an
antheridium and an ascogonium to each other; male nuclei then
migrate into the ascogonium. There, the male nuclei pair with the
female nuclei present but do not unite. New hyphae (ascogenous
hypha) whose cells each contain one male and one female nucleus,
grow from the ascogonium, the cells dividing in a unique way so that
each cell has one of each kind of nucleus.

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 Thousands of asci may be packed together in an ascoma, which
often is cup shaped (apothecium), but also may be completely
enclosed (cleistothecium) or flask shaped with a little opening at the
top (perithecium) (fig. 107).

a b c
Fig.107. Types of ascomas: a) cleistothecium, b) perithecium,
c) apothecium

g. Saccharomyces
xxxxxxx,
Saccharomyces is a genus of fungi that includes many species
of yeasts. It means sugar fungus. Many members of this genus are
considered very important in food production. It is known as baker's
yeast. They are unicellular and saprophytic fungi. Some species are
used in making wine, bread and beer. Some are used in medicine.
Colonies of Saccharomyces grow rapidly and mature in 3 days. They
are flat, smooth, moist, and creamy in color. They are very small,
unicellular, globose and ellipsoid in shape. Blastoconidia (cell buds)
are observed. Hyphae are absent. Saccharomyces produce acospores,
which are globose and located in asci. Growth in yeast is
synchronised with the growth of the bud, which reaches the size of
the mature cell by the time it separates from the parent cell (fig. 108).

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 Fig.108. Saccharomyces

g. Claviceps

Clavicep is an ergot fungus that grows on the ears of rye and

related cereal and forage plants. The ergot sclerotium can cause
ergotism in humans and other mammals. Alkaloids and lipids
accumulate in the sclerotium. C. purpurea most commonly affects
rye, wheat, barley.
This fungus causes serious damage to the crop, when develops
in the maturing grain. If the infected grain is harvested and milled, a
disease called ergotism may occur in those who eat the contaminated
bread. The disease can affect the central nervous system, often
causing hysteria, convulsion, and sometimes death (fig. 109).

Fig.109. Claviceps

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 Ergotism was common in Europe in the Middle Ages. Known
then as St. Anthony’s Fire, it killed 40.000 people.
In small, controlled doses, ergot drugs are medically useful.
They stimulate contraction of the uterus to
initiate childbirth and have been used in
abortions and in the treatment of migraine
headaches.
Morels, which some people have called
the world’s most delicious mushrooms, and
truffles have been prized as food for
centuries.
Morels are tan in color, and have a
sponge-like, somewhat cone-shaped top on a
stalk that resembles a miniature tree trunk
(fig. 110).
Fig.110. Morel

Phylum Basidiomycota – The Basidiomycetes (Club Fungi)

Members of this phylum include mushrooms, or toadstools (the

only distinction between mushrooms and toadstools is based on
folklore or tradition, with edible species being called mushrooms and
poisonous species being called toadstools - mycologically, there is no
difference). They are called club fungi because in sexual
reproduction, they produce their spores at the tips of swollen hyphae
that often resemble small clubs. These swollen hyphae tips are called
basidia (singular: basidium). The hyphae, like those of sac fungi,
are divided into individual cells (fig. 111).

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 Fig.111. Club fungi

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is much less frequent in club fungi than in

the other phyla of fungi. When it does occur, it is mainly by means of
conidia (spore formation). When a spore lands in a suitable place
often an area with good organic material and humus in the soil, it
germinates and produces mycelium.
Most mushrooms have an expanded umbrella-like cap and a
stalk. Thin, fleshy-looking plates called gills radiate out of the stalk
on the underside of the cap. Microscopic examination of a gill
reveals that it is composed of compacted hyphae, with large numbers
of basidia.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction in many club fungi mushrooms begins in

the same way as it does for the members of the two fungal phyla
previously discussed. Meiotic development of haploid nuclei, their
fusion, and the emerging diploid nuclei or zygote are the key-steps of
sexual reproduction. Both Ascomycota and Basidiomycota have a
special phase in their life cycle, the dikaryotic phase, when two
haploid nuclei are in one hyphal segment. The gametes fusion is
called gametogamy. The gametes can develop in special structures
called a gametangium.

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 Fig.112. Basidium with Fig.113. Gills
basidiospors
Tiny pegs at the tip of the basidium cells are basidiospores. The
tiny pegs, called sterigmata, serve as stalks for the basidiospores.
One large mushroom may produce several billion basidiospores
within a few days (fig. 112).
Shelf or bracket fungi grow out horizontally from the bark or
dead wood from which they have grown, some adding a new layer of
growth each year. Perennial species can become large enough and so
securely attached that they can support the weight of a human adult.
Only one species of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is cultivated
commercially (fig. 113).

g. Agaricus

Agaricus is a genus of mushroom containing both edible and

poisonous species, with possibly over 300 members worldwide.
Members of Agaricus are characterized by having a fleshy cap or
pileus, from the underside of which grow a number of radiating
plates or gills on which are produced the naked spores, which are
chocolate-brown. Members of Agaricus also have a stipe, which

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elevates it above the substrate on which the mushroom grows. One
species reported from Africa, A. aurantioviolaceus, is deadly
poisonous (fig. 114, 115).

Fig.114. A bolete (Suillus sp.) mushroom. The basidiospores are

produced at the margins of pores instead of along gills.

Fig.115. A shelf, also called bracket, fungus growing out from the
trunk of a tree.

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 g. Polyporus

The name of this fungi comes from “poly” meaning many and
“poros” meaning passage. The vegetative body is mycelial and
composed of slender, branched and septate hyphae. Mycelia are
developed from the spore germination . Under the cap there is a tube
layer, which consists of vertical column of tubes lined by basidia
producing basidiospores.
Polyporus reproduces by both asexual and sexual means.
Asexual reproduction is very rare but it is possible, conidia is
reported in them. Sexual reproduction is of somatogamous type.
(Somatogamy is the fusion of two somatic hyphae acting as gametes
for two sexually compatible mycelia. This is the most reduced form
of sexual reproduction.) (fig. 116)

Fig.116. Polyporus

Phylum Deuteromycota – The Deuteromycetes (Imperfect

Fungi)
Any fungus for which a sexual stage has not been observed is
classified as an imperfect fungus. Many fungi are grouped together
in this artificial phylum.
Imperfect fungi most commonly reproduce by means of conidia
(asexual spore).
Many higher plants have mycorrhizal fungi associated with their
roots. These fungi greatly increase the absorptive surface area around
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the roots and may be far more important than root hairs in this
regard, particularly in mature roots.
Among the best known of the medically important fungi are the
Penicillium molds, which secrete penicillin, a well-known and
widely used antibiotic. Species of Penicillium are recognized by
their dense brush-like spore-bearing structures called penicilli. The
spores (conidia) are produced in dry chains from the tip of the
branches, with the youngest spore at the base of the chain, and are
nearly always green.
Penicillium molds are also used in other ways. Some are
introduced into the milk of cows, sheep, and goats at stages in the
production of gourment cheeses, such as blue, Camembert,
Roquefort, Gorgonzola, and Stilton. The molds produce enzymes that
break down proteins and fats in the milk, giving the cheeses their
characteristic flavors (fig. 117).

Fig.117. Penicillium

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 Chapter 12
LICHENS

Lichens traditionally have been referred to as prime examples of

symbiotic relationships. Each consists of a fungus and an alga (or
cyanobacterium) intimately associated in a spongy thallus. The
thallus can range in diameter from less than 1 millimeter to more
than 2 meters. The photosynthetic component supplies food for both
organisms. The fungus protects the photosynthetic organisms from
harmful light intensities, and absorbs water and minerals for both
organisms. It would probably be correct to say that the fungus
parasitizes the photosynthetic component.
There are about 14,500 known species of lichens. The
photosynthetic component is either a green alga or a cyanobacterium.
There are few lichens having two species of algae present. Lichens
have members of the sac fungi for their fungal components. Lichens
species, therefore, are identified according to the fungus present.
Lichens grow very slowly, at a maximum rate of 1 centimeter
and a minimum of 0.1 millimeter per year. They are capable of living
to an age of 4,500 or more years and are tolerant of environmental
conditions that kill most other forms of life. They are found on bare
rocks in the blazing sun or bitter cold in deserts, in both arctic and
antarctic regions, on trees, and just below the permanent snow line of
high mountains, where nothing else will grow (fig. 118).

a) b)

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 c)
Fig.118. Three types of lichen thalli.
a) Crustose lichens on the surface of a rock. b) A fosilose lichen.
c) Fruticose lichens
One species grows completely submerged on ocean rocks. They
even attach themselves to manufactured substances, such as glass,
concrete, and asbestos.

External Structure of Lichens

Based on the external morphology, general growth and nature of

attachment, three main types of lichens (crustose, foliose and
fruticose) have been recognized (fig.118).
1. Crustose:
Here the thallus is inconspicuous, flat and appears as a thin
layer or crust on substrates like barks, stones, rocks. (e.g. Graphis,
Lecanora, Lecidia) (fig. 118 a).
2. Filiose:
They are leaf-like lichens, where thallus is flat, horizontally
spreading and with lobes. They are attached with the substratum by
means of hyphal outgrowth, the rhizomes (e.g. Parmelia, Xanthoria,
Collema) (fig. 118 b).
3. Fruticose (Shruby):
These are shrubby lichens, where thallus is well developed,
shrub-like, either grow erect (Cladonia) or hang from the substratum
(Usnea) (fig. 118 c).

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 Anatomical structure of Lichens

Anatomically the lichens can be homeomerous and

heteromerous.
In heteromerous lichen anatomical structure has both an upper
and a lower cortex. The photobiontic layer is in the upper part of the
medulla, where the algal cells receive enough light, yet are protected
from the full strength of the sun’s rays by the upper cortex. Below
the algal cells there is the layer of fungal hyphae. Below this layer
there is the lower cortex: this is composed of tightly woven hyphae.
Small root-like structures called rhizines project down into the
substrate (rocks, soil or trees) from the lower cortex. Photosynthesis
occurs in the medulla (algal layer). So the four distinct layers in
heteromerous structure are: upper cortex, algal zone, medulla and
lower cortex. This type is found in foliose and fruticose lichens (e.g.
Physcia) (fig. 119 a).
In homeomerous structure the fungal hyphae and the algal cells
are more or less uniformly distributed throughout the thallus. The
algal members belong to Cyanobacteria. This type is found in
crustose lichens (e.g. Leptodium) (fig. b).

a)

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b)
Fig.119. a) heteromerous. b homeomerous)

Reproduction of Lichens

Lichens reproduce by all the three means: vegetative, asexual

and sexual.
1. Vegetative Reproduction.
a) fragmentation
It takes place by accidental injury where the thallus may be
broken into fragments and each part is capable of growing normally
into a thallus.
b) by death of older parts
The older region of the basal part of the thallus dies, causing
separation of some lobes or branches and each one grows normally
into new thallus.

2. Asexual reproduction.
a) Soredium
These are small grayish white, bud-like outgrowths developed
on the upper cortex of the thallus. They are composed of one or few
algal cells enveloped by fungal hyphae. They are detached from the
thallus by rain or wind and on germination they develop new thalli
(fig. 120 a).
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 b) Isidium
These are small stalked simple or branched, grayish-black,
coral-like outgrowths, developed on the upper surface of the thallus.
The isidium has an outer cortical layer continuous with the upper
cortex of the mother thallus which encloses the same algal and fungal
elements as the mother. They are of various shapes (cigar-like, scale-
like, rod-like). It is generally constructed at the base and detached
very easily from the parent thallus. Under favorable condition the
isidium germinates and gives rise to a new thallus (fig. 120 b).

a)

b)

Fig.120. a) Soredium, b) Isidium

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 3.Sexual Reproduction.
Only fungal partner of the lichen reproduces sexually and forms
fruit bodies on the thallus. The nature of sexual reproduction is like
that of members of Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes.
In Ascolichen, the female sex organ is carpogonium and the
male sex organ is called spermogonium (mostly it develops close to
carpogonium). The spermogonium develops spermatia as male
gametes. The spermatium, after liberating from the spermogonium,
gets attached with the trichogyne. The nucleus of spermatium
migrates into the carpogonium and fuses with the egg.
In Basidiolichens the result of sexual reproduction is the
formation of basidiospores that develop on basidium.

Importance of Lichens
Economic Importance

Lichens are useful to mankind in various ways as food and

fodder, as medicine and industrial uses.
Lichens are used as food in many parts of the world and also by
different animals. They contain polysaccharide lichenin, cellulose,
vitamins and enzymes. Lichens are used in the treatment of epilepsy,
diarrhea, skin diseases and for tuberculosis.
g. Cladonia and g. Cetraria islandica are used for the treatment
of intermittent fever. Antibiotic obtained from sp. Cladonia is used
against various bacterial diseases. Cetraria is used in tanning leather.
Some are used in brewing of beer.
Dyes obtained from some lichens may be of different colors like
brown, red, purple, blue (used for dyeing of wool and silk fabrics).
The aromatic compounds available in lichen thallus are
extracted and used in the preparation of cosmetics and perfumes.

Ecological Importance of Lichens

Some ecological importance of Lichens are:

1. Pioneer of Rock Vegetation:
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 Lichens are pioneer colonizers on dry rocks, due to their ability
to grow with minimum nutrients and water.
2. Accumulation of Radioactive Substances:
The fallout of radioactive strontium and caesium from the
atomic research centers are absorbed by lichen. They purify the
atmosphere.
3. Sensitivity to Air Pollutants:
The lichens are absent in cities and industrial areas. So they are
used as “pollution indicators”.

g. Cladonia – Cup lichen

They are moss-like lichens. They are the primary food source
for reindeer. Several Cladonia species grow on sand dunes (fig. 121).

Fig.121. Cladonia

g. Cetraria – Iceland moss

It is a genus of fruticose lichens that associate with green algae

as photobionts. Most species are found at high latitude. Species have
a “strap-like” form, with spiny lobe edges. Iceland moss is a culinary
lichen (fig. 122).

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Fig.122. Cetraria

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 KINGDOM PLANTS ( PLANTAE, VEGETABILIA)

Plants are mainly multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the

kingdom Plantae. This includes the flowering plants, conifers and
other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts,
mosses. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and
alternation of generations, although asexual reproduction is also
common. Multicellular land plants are called embryophytes, which
include vascular plants, such as ferns, conifers and flowering plants.
They also include bryophytes (mosses, liverworts).
Plants have two main types of asexual reproduction: vegetative
and apomixis, in which new plants are produced that are genetically
identical clones of the parent individual. Vegetative reproduction
involves a vegetative piece of original plant (budding, tillering, by
stolons, bulbs, tubers, etc.). Vegetative reproduction helps to
perennialize the plants, allowing them to survive from one season to
the next. Here the new individuals are formed without the production
of seeds or spores.
Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction, where a new
organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Some plants can
produce seeds without fertilization. This method of reproduction is
known as apomixis.
Spore, a reproductive cell capable of developing into a new
individual without fusion with another reproductive cell. Spores thus
differ from gametes, which are reproductive cells that must fuse in
pairs in order to give rise to a new individual. Spores are agents of
asexual reproduction, they are produced by bacteria, fungi, algae and
plants.
In sexual reproduction the plant produces male and female
gametes. After fertilization the ovules grow into seeds within the
fruit.
The main 9 phylums of Kingdom Plantae are:
1. Phylum Ryniophyta – the first and oldest vascular land plants
(Rhynia major, now Aglaophyton, 400 million years old) were found
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in the Rhynie Chert (Scotland). This phylum includes also
nonvascular plants that are intermediate between bryophytes and
vascular plants (e.g. Aglaophyton).
2. Phylum Zosterophyllophyta – Zosterophylls lacked true
leaves and roots, and photosynthesis is probably carried out all over
the stems. They generally showed dichotomous branching (e.g.
Asteroxylon).
3. Phylum Bryophita – Bryophyte is a traditional name used to
refer to all embryophytes that are non-vascular plants: mosses,
hornworts and liverworts. They have life cycles with alternation of
generations.
4. Phylum Lycopodiophyta – The species reproduce by spores,
some are homosporous, while others are heterosporous. They differ
from all other vascular plants in having microphylls, leaves that have
only a single vascular vein.
5. Phylum Psilotophyta – It is a sister-group to all other ferns
(they are called primitive ferns). They have mycorrhizal rhizomes.
The gametophytes of both genera Psilotum and Tmesipteris are non-
photosynthetic and live in association with a fungus.
6. Phylum Equisetophyta – The plants are commonly called
horsetails. The only living genus is Equisetum. The scale-like non-
photosynthetic leaves are joined together to form the whorl that
encircles the stem. The stem contains a ring of vascular bundles,
consisting of xylem and phloem.
7. Phylum Polypodiophyta – They are commonly called ferns.
The ferns are vascular plants with stems, roots and leaves. The small
gametophyte and the large spore-producing sporophyte plants are
quite independent of each other (e.g. Arolla).
8. Phylum Pinophyta or Gymnospermae – They are also
known as conifers, a vascular land plant division. They are cone-
bearing seed plants (e.g. cedars, junipers, pines). The great majority
are trees, a few are shrubs. Most of conifers are evergreens, the
leaves of many conifers are needle-like or scale-like. In conducting
tissue they have elongated tracheids. Conifer seeds develop inside a
protective cone called a strobilus.
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 9. Phylum Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta – Angiosperms or
flowering plants, with 416 families, 13.164 known genera and
approximately 295.000 known species.
They are seed-producing plants and are distinguished from
gymnosperms by producing flowers, endosperm within the seeds,
and fruits. In vascular bundles we can recognize xylem and phloem
(e.g. oaks, lilies).
From 1 to 7 – they are spore-bearing plants, 8 and 9 – are seed-
bearing plants.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, gymnosperms were the only
kind of plant life on Earth. Between 250-200 million years ago,
angiosperms started to evolve. Now angiosperms are considered the
dominant plant life on the planet.

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 Chapter 13
SUBKINGDOM CORMOBIONTA
SPORE – BEARING PLANTS

Vascular plants, also known as higher plants, form a large

group of plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting
water and minerals throughout the plant. Vascular plants include the
clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants.
The scientific name for the group includes Tracheophyta.
Vascular plants are distinguished by two primary
characteristics:
1. Vascular plants have vascular tissues.
2. In vascular plants, the principal generation phase is the
sporophyte, by contrast, the principal generation phase in
non-vascular plants is the gametophyte.
The xylem consists of vessels in flowering plants and tracheids
in other vascular plants, which are dead, hard-walled, hollow cells
that function in water transport.

Phylum Rhyniophyta

These were the earliest true vascular plants on earth. All

members of this group have xylem cells with annular rings.

g. Rhynia

The plants have a branching horizontal rhizome from which

dichotomizing upright photosynthetic axes arise. The upright axes
grow in a wetland area. The xylem, composed of a few S-type
tracheids.

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 g. Cooksonia

Cooksonia appeared in the middle Silurian and was one of the

earliest land plants known. Individuals were small and had a simple
structure. They had a simple stalk that branched dichotomously. Each
branch ended in a sporangium, which is shaped like a kidney bean.

Phylum Zosterophyllophyta

The Zosterophylls are a group of extinct plants. The stems are

covered with small spines, branched dichotomously.

g. Zosterophyllum

The sporangia are kidney-shaped and are borne laterally in a

fertile zone towards the tips of the branches.

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 PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA -MOSSES

About 15,000 species of mosses are currently known.

Botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants. These are divided into
three different classes, commonly called peat mosses, true mosses
and rock mosses. The gametophyte generation is the dominant phase
of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants,
where the sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce
using spores, not seeds and have no flowers.
The “leaves” of moss gametophytes have no mesophyll tissue,
stomata or veins as those of the leaves of more complex plants. The
blades are nearly always only one cell thick, except at the midrib,
which runs lengthwise down the middle, and they are never lobed or
divided, nor do they have a petiole (leaf stalk). The “leaf” cells
usually contain numerous chloroplasts. The “leaves” of peat mosses
have large, transparent cells (without chloroplasts) that absorb and
store water. Small, green photosynthetic cells are sandwiched
between the large cells.
The axis is somewhat stem-like but has no xylem or phloem. At
the base, there are root-like rhizoids consisting of several rows of
colorless cells that anchor the plant. Some water absorbed by
rhizoids rises up the central strand, but most water used by the plant
apparently travels up the outside of the plant by means of capillarity.
The closely packed habit of many mosses, and the fact that they
rarely extend more than a few centimeters into the air, favor such
outside movements of water. Water is absorbed directly through the
plant surfaces.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction in mosses begins with the formation of

multicellular gametangia, usually at the apices of the “leafy” shoots
of gametophytes. Both male and female gametangia are often
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produced on the same plant, but in some species, they occur on
separate plants. The archegonia (female gametangia) are somewhat
cylindrical. A single egg cell is produced in archegonium. The part of
the archegonium is called the neck. The neck contains a narrow
canal. The canal is at first plugged with cells, but these break down
as the archegonium matures, leaving an opening to the outside at the
top.
Male gametangia are sausage-shaped to roundish. These
antheridia are borne on short stalks. A mass of tissue inside each
antheridium develops into numerous sperm cells. This mass of
sperms is forced out of the top of the antheridium when it absorbs
water and swells. After release the sperm mass breaks up into
individual cells, each with a pair of flagella. It is believed the
breakup of the sperm mass is aided, in some cases, by fats produced
by the moss, while in other instances, rain splash is responsible.
Archegonia release sugar, proteins, acids, or other substances
that attract the sperm and, eventually, after swimming down the neck
of an archegonium, the sperm unites with the egg, forming a diploid
zygote. The zygote usually grows rapidly into a spindle-shaped
embryo. The embryo is a developing sporophyte (fig. 123).

Fig.123. Sexual reproduction

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 The cells of the sporophyte become photosynthetic as it
develops. The sporophyte, however, depends to varying degrees on
the gametophyte for some of its carbohydrate needs as well as for at
least a part of its water and minerals.
The mature sporophyte is first green and photosynthetic; it
consists of a capsule and seta. As the capsule matures, sporocytes
inside it undergo meiosis, producing haploid spores. These spores,
often numbering in the millions, are released from the capsule. If
light and other conditions are favorable, tiny “leafy” buds appear at
intervals along the protonemal filaments after about 2 to 4 weeks of
growth. These “leafy” buds develop rhizoids at the base and grow
into new “leafy” gametophytes, completing the cycle.

CLASS HEPATICOPSIDA
g. Marchantia

The thallus shows differentiation into two layers: an upper

photosynthetic and a lower storage. Purple colored scales and
rhizoids are present on the ventral surface of the thallus, Marchantia
can reproduce both sexually and asexually (fig. 124).

Fig. 124. Marchantia

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 CLASS ANTHOCEROTOPSIDA
g. Anthoceros

This genus is global in its distribution. Its name means “flower

horn” and refers to the characteristic horn-shaped sporophytes that all
hornworts produce. It grows in moist clay soils on hills and, in damp
hollows among rocks (fig. 125).

Fig.125. Anthoceros

CLASS MUSCI
SUBCLASS SPHAGNIDAE

g. Sphagnum

Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 380 species of mosses,

commonly known as peat moss. The plant can hold large quantities
of water inside their cells. As sphagnum moss grows, it can slowly
spread into drier conditions, forming larger mires, both raised bogs
and blanket bogs (fig.126).

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 Fig.126. Sphagnum

SUBCLASS ANDREAEIDAE
g. Andreaea

They are small mosses, the capsules are formed at the tips of
vertical branches, they grow on wet rocks in mountainous areas (fig.
127).

Fig.127. Andreaea

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 SUBCLASS BRYIDAE
g. Polytrichum

It is commonly called haircap moss or hair moss. Small leaves

are arranged spirally around the stiff stem. It is generally dark green
in color and doesn’t grow very tall. Even dead the moss remains
intact (fig. 128).

Fig.128. Polytrichum

Phylum Psilotophyta

Psilotopsida (whisk ferns) is a phylum represented by two living

genera Psilotum and Tmesipteris. The green, photosynthetic stem is
as well developed. The spore–producing structures are produced in
clusters at the end of a short lateral branch. The life cycle is very
much like that of ferns.

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 Chapter 14
THE SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

During the early stages of vascular plant evolution, conducting

tissues (xylem and phloem) began to develop, true leaves appeared,
and roots that function in absorption as well as anchorage developed.
Gametophytes became progressively smaller and more dependent on
sporophytes, that became larger.
Unlike conifers and flowering plants, the primitive vascular
plants do not produce seeds. Four phyla of seedless vascular plants
are recognized:
1. Phylum Psilotophyta
2. Phylum Lycopodiophyta – The stems of these plants are
covered with microphylls (leaves with a single vein), which are
photosynthetic.
3. Phylum Equisetophyta – The sporophytes of these plants have
ribbed stems and whorled, scale-like microphylls that lack in
chlorophyll.
4. Phylum Polypodiophyta – The sporophytes of ferns have
megaphylls (leaves with more than one vein) that are often large and
much divided.

Phylum Lycopodiophyta (Lycopods)

This is a tracheophyte subgroup of the Kingdom Plantae. It is

one of the oldest (now living) vascular plants. Some species are
homosporous while others are heterosporous. In most of members
the sporophyte generation is dominant. They differ from all other
vascular plants in having microphylls, leaves that have a single
vascular vein rather than the much more complex megaphylls found
in ferns.
This phylum includes two classes:
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 1.Class Lycopodiopsida ( Clubmosses );
2.Class Isoetopsida ( Spikemosses ).

Class Lycopodiopsida
g. Lycopodium
sp.Lycopodium clavatum L. (Ground Pines)

Lycopodium clavatum often grows on forest floors. They are

sometimes called ground pines, partly because they resemble little
Christmas trees. The stems of ground pine sporophytes are branched.
The plants are less than 30 cm tall. Stems develop from branching
rhizomes (fig. 129).
Needle-like or scale-like leaves cover the stem and branches
thickly. The kidney-shaped spore-cases (sporangia) contain spores of
one kind only (homosporous) and are borne on the upper surface of
the leaf blade of specialized leaves (sporophylls) arranged in a cone-
like strobilus at the end of the stems.

Reproduction

Some species produce kidney bean-shaped sporangia in the

axils of leaves. Such leaves are called sporophylls. In other species,
the sporophylls have no chlorophyll, are smaller than the other leaves
and are in terminal cone-like clusters, called strobili. Sporangias
produce spores that are carried away by air currents. The spores
germinate if they land in a suitable location. After germination,
independent gametophytes develop from the spores. The
gametophytes produce both antheridia and archegonia on the same
gametophyte. Water is essential for fertilization to occur.
Zygotes first become embryos with a root, stem and leave and
then develop into mature sporophytes.

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 Fig.129. Licopodium

Class Isoetopsida
g. Selaginella (Spikemosses)

Selaginella is the sole genus of vascular plants in this class.

These plants are distinguished by having spores of two types. Leaves
are simple, scale-like. The stems are aerial, horizontally creeping on
the substratum sub erect or erect. The microphylls of Selaginella sp.
Contain a branched vascular trace. In Selaginella, each microphyll
and sporophyll has a small scale-like outgrowth called a ligule at the
base of the upper surface. The plants are heterosporous with spores
of two different sizes, known as megaspores and microspores (fig.
130).

Fig.130. Selaginella

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 Phylum Equisetophyta (The Horsetails)
g. Equisetum

About 25 species are scattered in all continents. They grow less

than 1.3 meters tall. Species have tiny, scale-like leaves. They are
green when they first appear, but they soon wither and bleach, and all
photosynthesis occurs in the stems. The stems have obvious nodes
and internodes. The aerial stems develop from horizontal rhizomes,
which also have regular nodes, internodes and ribs (fig. 131).

Fig.131. Equisetum

Reproduction

In the spring some species produce special cream-to shiny-

colored non-photosynthetic stems from rhizomes. Small, cone-like
strobili develop at the tips of these special stems. The spores are
released in sporangias. Spores are carried by an air current.
Germination of spores occurs within a week of their release.
Lobed, green gametophytes (prothalli) develop and seldom grow to 8
mm in diameter. Rhizoids anchor them to the surface. Male
gametophytes produce antheridia with sperm cells, with several
flagellas. Eggs in archegonia, on a female gametophyte, may be
fertilized when water contacts antheridia and sperms swim to the

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archegonia with the help of flagella. The development of more than
one sporophyte is common (fig. 132).

Fig.132. The Horsetail life cycle

Phylum Polypodiophyta (The Ferns)

The ferns are vascular plants which have neither seeds nor
flowers. The small gametophyte and the large spore – producing fern
plant are quite independent of each other. The sporophyte plant
(recognized as a fern) may have an erect or prostrate stem. The
leaves are large and much divided, they unroll as they develop from a
coiled early bud stage called fiddlehead.

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 About 10.560 species are known. Ferns first appear in the fossil
record 360 million years ago in the late Devonian period.

sp. Dryopteris Filix Mas (Male Fern)

This is a common fern of the

temperate Northern Hemisphere. It
favours damp shaded areas. The name
means “male fern”. The green leaves
reach a maximum length of 150cm.
Leaves are bipinnate. This is large,
deciduous male fern with erect, stout
rhizomes (fig. 133).
Fig.133 Male fern

Structure and Form

Fern leaves are megaphylls (leaves have branching veins), and

are feathery.

Reproduction
A fern sporophyte consists of the fronds, a stem in the form of a
rhizome and adventitious roots. When the fronds have expanded,
small, circular, rust-colored patches of powdery-looking material
may appear on the lower surface of some or all of the blades. The
patches are actually clusters of sporangia. The sporangia are called
sori (singular: sorus). Spores are dispersed by wind. Those that
germinate in favorable locations produce little prothalli (sing:
prothallus), a green, heart-shaped gametophytes (5 to 6mm in
diameter) (fig. 134).
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 Prothalli are only one cell thick, except toward the middle,
where they are slightly thicker. Antheridia are produced on the lower
surface of the central area of most prothalli, archegonia – closer to
the notch of the heart-shaped gametophyte. Antheridium produces
sperms. Fertilization of an egg takes place within an archegonium.
Only one zygote develops into a young sporophyte to complete and
continue the cycle. So here we can see the alternating generations
of separate spore producing plants (sporophytes) and gamete
producing plants (gametophytes). Sporophyte is the asexual part of
the life cycle, and gametophyte is the sexual part of the life
cycle.(fig. 135).

Fig.134. Ferns

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 Fig.135. Ferns life cycle

g. Brackens - Pteridium L.

Pteridium also known as eagle fern, occurring in temperate and

subtropical regions in both hemispheres.
This is herbacous perennial plant. The large triangular fronds
arising upwards from an underground rhizome, grow 1-3m tall. The
main stem is up to 1cm in diameter at the base.
The plant contains carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside (fig.
136).

Fig.136. Brackens

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 g. Watermoss – Salvinia L.

This is water fern, heterosporous (producing spores of different

sizes) plant. When the growth is robust, the plants pose a particular
hindrance on certain lakes, having choked off much of the water in
lakes (fig. 137).

Fig.137. Watermoss

g. Duckweed fern - Azolla L.

Azolla is an aquatic fern, it is highly productive plant. It

doubles its biomass in 3-10 days, depending on conditions.
They form a symbiotic relationship with the cyanobacterium,
which fixes atmospheric nitrogen (fig. 138).

Fig.138. Duckweed fern

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 g. Water clover - Marsilea L.

These small aquatic plants have long-stalked leaves, which

have four clover-like lobes and are either held above water or
submerged (fig. 139).

Fig.139. Water clover

Sporogenesis
Sporogenesis (spore formation) is the production of spores.
Reproductive spores are found to be formed in eukaryotic organisms,
such as plants, algae and fungi, during their normal reproductive life
cycle. Most eukaryotic spores are haploid and are formed through
cell division, though some types are diploid and are formed through
cell fusion. Algae and some fungi often use motile zoospores that can
swim to a new location before developing into sessile organisms.
Plant spores are most obvious in the reproduction of ferns and
mosses. However, they also exist in flowering plants, where they
develop hidden inside the flower. For example, the pollen grains of
flowering plants develop out of microspores produced in the anthers
and megaspores produced in ovules.
Reproductive spores grow into multicellular haploid
individuals. In heterosporous organisms, two types of spores exist:
microspores are produced in microsporangia, give rise to males, and
megaspores produced in megasporangia, to females. In homosporous

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organisms, all spores look alike and grow into individuals carrying
reproductive parts of both genders.
Sporogenesis occurs in reproductive structures termed
sporangia. The process involves sporocytes (sporogenous cells)
undergoing cell division to give rise to spores.
In gymnosperms (conifers) microspores are produced from
microsporocytes in male cones (microstrobili). In flowering plants,
microspores are produced in the anthers of flowers.
Megasporogenesis occurs in megastrobili in conifers, and inside the
ovule in the flowering plants.

Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is a process by which diploid or haploid
precursor cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form
mature haploid gametes. Plants produce gametes through mitosis in
gametophytes.
Fungi, algae and primitive plants form specialized structures
called gametangia, where gametes are produced. In some fungi, such
as the Zigomicota, the gametangia are single cells, situated at the
ends of hyphae. More typically, gametangia are multicellular
structures that differentiate into male organs (antheridium) and
female organs (archegonium).
In flowering plants (angiosperms) the male gametes are
produced inside the pollen tube or pollen grains. This can occur
while the pollen forms in the anther. The female gamete is produced
inside the embryo sac of the ovule.

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 Chapter 15
SEED PLANTS
Seeds, when compared to spores, have distinct advantages due
to their hard outer shells and internal structure called endosperms,
which provide essential nutrients for enclosed seedlings. Seeds are
found only in flowering plants and gymnosperms. They contain
embryos deep within their centers.
Seed-bearing plants produce microspores, macrospores.
Gymnosperms include four groups: conifers, cycads, ginkgos and
gnetophytes. These species take the shape of trees and shrubs, while
angiosperms are mostly small flowering plants.
Seed plants are divided into two groups:
1. Gymnosperms
2. Angiosperms

SEED PLANTS: GYMNOSPERMS

The name gymnosperm is derived from two Greek words

gymnos, meaning "naked", and sperma, a "seed". The name refers to
the exposed nature of the seeds, which are produced on the surface of
sporophylls or similar structures instead of being enclosed within a
fruit as they generally are in the flowering plants. The seed-bearing
sporophylls of the sporophyte are often spirally arranged in strobili
(seed cones) that develop at the same time as smaller pollen-bearing
strobili (pollen cones). The pollen cones produce pollen grains.
The female gametophyte is produced inside an ovule that
contains a fleshy, nutritive diploid tissue called the nucellus. The
nucellus is itself enclosed within one or more outer layers of diploid
tissue. These outer layers of tissue constitute an integument that
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becomes a seed coat after the fertilization and development of an
embryo take place.
The sporophytes of gymnosperms are mostly trees and shrubs.
Four phyla of living gymnosperms are recognized. Phylum
Pinophyta includes about 575 species of coniferous woody plants.
Fossils of some conifers extend back 290 million years. Phylum
Ginkgophyta has a single living representative, Ginkgo, which has
fan-shaped leaves, and seeds enclosed in a fleshy covering. The
palm-like cycads are assigned to Phylum Cycadophyta. Phylum
Gnetophyta includes three genera of gnetophytes that have wood
with vessels- a structural element unknown in other gymnosperms.

Class Pteropsida – Pteropsids

A subdivision of vascular plants. It includes all flowering plants

and seed ferns. They have well-developed large leaves with branched
venation.

Class Cycadopsida Cycades

Cycads have a woody trunk with large, evergreen leaves. They
are sometimes mistaken for palms and ferns. The living cycads are
found in subtropical and tropical parts of the world.

Class Benettitopsida

They are considered to be close relatives of the flowering plants

on account of their flower-like structure. But they are more closely
related to cycads, ginkgo and conifers, that to angiosperms.
According to experts, the representatives of this class were ancestry
of seed plants, because the seeds had two cotyledones.

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 Class Ginkgoopsida
The only extant species is Ginkgo biloba.

Sp. Ginkgo - Ginkgo Biloba L.

The only living species native to China. The Chinese name

means “silver fruit”. Ginkgos are large trees (20-35 m), with an
angular crown. The leaves are unique among seed plants, being fan-
shaped, never anastomosing to form a network. Cones are globoid,
seeds are edible. Plant is poisonous (fig. 140).

Fig.140. Ginkgo

Class Gnetopsida
g. Jointfir - Ephedra L.

Ephedra is the only genus of family Ephedraceae. They grow

on shores or in sandy soil. The plant has similarity with horsetails in
the form of the stems (Equisetum). Leaves are scale-like. Ephedra
produce small, cone-like reproductive structures followed by berry-
like fruits, which are bright red or orange in color (fig. 141).

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 Fig.141. Jointfir

g. Tumbo - Welwitschia L.

Sp. Welwitschia mirabilis is endemic to the Namib desert

within Namibia and Angola. Two foliage leaves are produced at the
edge of a woody crown. The leaves grow from basal meristem
reaching lengths up to 4-6 m. The plant has an elongated, shallow
root system, consisting of a taproot. The species is dioecious, with
separate male and female plants (fig. 142).

Fig.142.Tumbo

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 Class Pinopsides - Pinopsida

They are gymnosperms, cone-bearing seed plants with a

secondary growth. They are perennial woody trees or few shrubs.
The world’s tallest, thickest and oldest trees are all conifers. Leaves
of many are long, thin and needle-like or scale-like, dark green. In
some generas the leaves are evergreen, usually remaining on the
plant for several (2-40) years before falling. Tree rings are records of
the influence of environmental changing conditions. Tracheids make
up more than 90% of timber volume.

g. Firs - Abies L.

Firs are a genus of evergreen coniferous trees (10-80m). The

leaves are significantly flattened, even looking like they are pressed.
In most species they are gray-green, bluish to silvery. Firs have erect,
cylindrical cones (5-25cm), green when young and then silver or
brown (fig. 143).

Fig.143. Firs

g. Yew - Taxus L.

They have a reddish bark, lanceolate, flat, dark-green leaves,

arranged spirally on the stem. The seed cones are modified, each
cone containing a single seed, partly surrounded by a modified scale

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which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called aril
(open at the end) (fig. 144).

Fig.144. Yew

g. Spruce - Picea Dietr

Spruce is a coniferous evergreen tree, found in the northern

temperature and boreal (taiga) regions of the world. Leaves are
needles, attached singly in a spiral fashion (fig. 145).

Fig.145. Spruce

g. Cedar - Cedrus Mill

They are native to the mountains of Himalayas and the

Mediterranean region (fig. 146).

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 Fig.146. Cedar

Cypress family - Cupressaceae

The family includes junipers and redwoods. The bark of the
trees are commonly orange- to red-brown, smooth.

g. Juniper - Juniperus L.

Junipers vary in size and shape from tall trees to low spreading
shrubs. They are evergreen with needle-like or scale-like leaves. The
female seed cones are with fleshy, fruit-like coalescing scales, which
fuse together to form a “berry”-like structure. In some species these
berries are brown or orange, but in most they are blue (often
aromatic) (fig. 147).

Fig.147. Juniper
- 181 -
 g. Cypress - Cupressus L.

They are evergreen trees or large shrubs (5-40 m). The leaves
are scale-like, arranged in opposite pairs. The cones are globose or
ovoid. Seeds are small, with 2 narrow wings (fig. 148).

Fig.148. Cypress

g. California redwood - Sequoia L.

It is an evergreen, long-lived tree (1200-1800 years or more).

This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching 115.5
m in height (without the roots), and up to 9m in diameter (fig. 149).

Fig.149. California redwood

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 g. Northern White-Cedar - Thuja L.

It is a small or medium-sized tree. The bark is red-brown,

branches are fan-like. The foliage forms flat sprays with scale-like
leaves. The seed cones are slender, yellow-green, ripening to brown.
The branches may take root if the tree falls. It is native to Canada and
North America (fig. 150).

Fig.150. Northern White-Cedar

Pine family - Pinaceae

The family includes many of the well-known conifers of
commercial importance such as cedars, firs, pines, hemlocks. Trees,
rarely shrubs are evergreen, resinous and aromatic, monoecious.
Leaves are linear to needle-like. Resin canals are present. Cones are
generally lateral.

g. Pine tree - Pinus

sp. Scots Pine - Pinus sylvestris L.

The largest genus of conifers, Pinus (pines) has over 100 living
species. They are the dominant trees in the vast coniferous forests.
They include the world’s oldest known living organisms. Some trees
still standing are about 4,600 years old (fig. 151).

- 183 -
 Fig.151. Pines

Reproduction

Pines produce two kinds of spores. Pollen cones (male strobili)

consist of papery or membranous scales arranged in a spiral or in
whorls around an axis; they are usually produced in the spring. The
pollen cones usually develop toward the tips of the lower branches in
clusters of up to 50 or more and are mostly less than 4cm long.
Microsporangia develop in pairs toward the bases of the scales.
Each of the microsporocytes in the microsporangia undergoes
meiosis, producing 4 microspores. These then develop into pollen
grains; each grain consists of four cells and a pair of external air sacs.
The air sacs look something like tiny wings, which helps with wind
dispersal. Pines produce pollen grains in astronomical numbers.
Within a few weeks after the pollen has been released, the now
shriveled pollen cones fall off the trees (fig. 152, 153).

Fig.152. Reproduction Fig.153. Sugar Pine cone

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 Megaspores are produced in megasporangia located within
ovules at the bases of the seed cone scales. The seed cones (female
strobili) are larger than the pollen cones. They are mostly produced
on the upper branches of the same tree on which the pollen cones
appear. Each ovule has within it a megasporangium containing the
nucellus and a single megasporocyte. This, in turn, is surrounded and
enclosed by a thick, layered integument. The integument has a
somewhat tubular channel or pore called a micropyle. One of the
integument layers later becomes the seed coat of the seed.
A single megasporocyte within the megaspoangium of each
ovule undergoes meiosis, producing four relatively large megaspores.
Three of the megaspores soon degenerate. Over a period of months,
the remaining one slowly develops into a female gametophyte. The
nucellus is used as a food source for the growing gametophyte.
Each archegonium contains a single large egg. During the first spring
pollen grains carried by the wind sift down between the scales. There
they catch in sticky drops of fluid (pollen drops) oozing out of the
micropyles. As the fluid evaporates, the pollen is drawn down
through the micropyle to the top of the nucellus.
After pollination, the scales grow together and close, protecting
the developing ovule. Meanwhile, the pollen grain (male
gametophyte) produces a pollen tube that slowly grows and digests
its way through the nucellus to the area where the archegonia
develop. While the pollen tube is growing, two of the original four
cells in the pollen grain enter it. One of these, called the generative
cell, divides and forms two more cells, called the sterile cell and the
spermatogenous cell. The spermatogenous cell divides again,
producing two male gametes, or sperms. The germinated pollen
grain, with its pollen tube and two sperms, constitutes the mature
male gametophyte. Notice that no antheridium has been formed.
About 15 months after pollination, pollen tube arrives at an
archegonium, unites with it, and discharges the contents. One sperm
unites with the egg, forming a zygote. The other sperm and
remaining cells of the pollen grain degenerate. Zygote begins to
- 185 -
develop into an embryo. While this development is occurring, one of
the layers of the integument hardens, becoming a seed coat (fig.
154).

Fig.154. Pine reproduction

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 Chapter 16
SEED PLANTS: ANGIOSPERMS

The flowering plants are called angiosperms.

The term angiosperm is derived from two Greek words:
angeion, meaning “vessel”, and sperma, meaning “seed”. The
“vessel” is the carpel. Many flowers have pistils composed of either
a single carpel or two more united carpels. A seed develops from an
ovule within a carpel and is part of an ovary that becomes a fruit.
Although the angiosperms generally have organs and tissues to those
of the gymnosperms, the enclosed ovules and seeds of the
angiosperms distinguish them from gymnosperms, which have
exposed ovules and seeds.
All angiosperms are presently considered to be in the Phylum
Magnoliophyta. Phylum Magnoliophyta has been divided into two
large classes: the Magnoliopsida (dicots) and the Liliopsida
(monocots).
Since Darwin’s Origin of Species appeared in 1859, there have
been two major theories concerning the origin of angiosperms. The
older and now more or less disregarded theory was held by the
German botanist Adolph Engler and his followers. It suggested that
flowering plants evolved from conifers and that primitive flowers are
similar in structure to the strobili of conifers.
The most primitive flower is thought to be one with a long
receptacle and many spirally arranged flower parts that are separate
and not differentiated into sepals and petals. In addition, the stamens
and carpels are flattened and numerous. Such flowers are found
among relatives of magnolias and buttercups.

Phylum Magnoliophyta - the Flowering Plants

- 187 -
 The plants of this phylum vary greatly in size, shape, texture
and form. The phylum includes, for example, tiny duckweeds that
may be less than 1 millimeter long, all the grasses and palms, many
aquatic and epiphytic plants, and most shrubs and trees, including the
huge Eucalyptus trees.
A few flowering plants are parasitic. Dodders, for example,
occasionally cause serious crop losses as they twine about their hosts
and, by means of haustoria, intercept food and water in the host
xylem and phloem.
Still others, such as the beautiful snowplant and some of the
orchids, are saprophytes (i.e., their nutrition comes mostly from the
absorption in solution of dead organic matter). The vast majority of
flowering plants, however, produce their food independently through
photosynthesis.
Like the gymnosperms, the angiosperms are heterosporous
(produce two kinds of spores), and the sporophytes are even more
dominant than in the gymnosperms. The female gametophytes are
wholly enclosed within sporophyte tissue and reduced to only a few
cells. At maturity, the male gametophytes consist of a germinated
pollen grain with three nuclei.

Development of Gametophytes

While the flower is developing in the bud, a diploid

megasporocyte cell differentiates from all the other cells in the ovule.
The megasporocyte undergoes meiosis, producing four haploid
megaspores. Soon after they are produced in most flowering plants,
three of these megaspores degenerate and disappear, but the nucleus
of the fourth undergoes mitosis, and the cell enlarges. While the cell
is growing larger, its two haploid nuclei divide once more. The
resulting four nuclei then divide yet another time. Eight haploid
nuclei in all are produced. By the time these three successive mitotic
divisions have been completed, the cell has grown to many times its
original volume. At the same time, two outer layers of cells of the
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ovule differentiate. These layers, called integuments, later become
the seed coat of the seed. As they develop, they leave a pore, or gap,
called the microphyle, at one end (fig. 155).

Fig.155. Gametophytes

At this stage, there are eight haploid nuclei in two groups, four
nuclei toward each end of the large cell. One nucleus from each
group then migrates toward the middle of the cell. These two central
cell nuclei may become a binucleate cell, or they may fuse together,
forming a single diploid nucleus. In the group closest to the
micropyle, one of the cells functions as the female gamete, or egg.
The other two cells, called synergids, either are destroyed or
degenerate. At the other end, the remaining three cells, called
antipodals, have no apparent function, and later they also degenerate.
The large sac constitutes the female gametophyte
(megagametophyte), formerly known as the embryo sac.
Usually while the megagametophyte is developing, a parallel
process that leads to the formation of male gametophytes takes place
in the anthers. As the anther develops, four patches of tissue
differentiate from the main mass of cells. These patches of tissue
contain many diploid microsporocyte cells, each of which undergoes
meiosis, producing a quartet of microspores. As the anther matures,
the walls between adjacent pairs of chambers break down so that
only two larger sacs remain.

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 After meiosis, the haploid microspores in the pollen sacs
undergo several changes. The following three changes are the most
important:
1. the nucleus in each microspore divides once by mitosis;
2. the members of each quartet of microspores separate from
one another;
3. a two layered wall, the outer layer of which is often finely
sculptured, develops around each microspore.

When these events are complete, the microspores become

pollen grains. The outer layer of the pollen grain wall is called the
exine. The cytoplasm of pollen grain is often rich in vitamins, and
pollen is often collected and sold in health-food stores. One of the
pollen grain’s two nuclei, the generative nucleus, later divides,
producing two nuclei that become surrounded by a plasma membrane
and function as sperm cells. The remaining vegetative nucleus (often
referred to as the tube nucleus) is involved in events that take place
after the pollen grain has left the anther.

Classification of Flowering Plants

When the ovary is embedded in the receptacle and other parts, it

is said to be an inferior ovary. A more primitive superior ovary is
produced on top of the receptacle with the other flower parts attached
around its base.
If a flower has a calyx, corolla, stamens, and a pistil, it is
complete. If, however, the corolla or other parts are missing, the
flower is incomplete. If, as the case with most flowers, both stamens
and a pistil are present, it is said to be perfect. In some families,
however, the flowers are not only incomplete but also have become
imperfect (unisexual). Each imperfect flower has either stamens or a
pistil but not both. The Pumpkin Family (Cucurbitaceae) includes
pumpkins, watermelons, cucumbers, and other species with
imperfect flowers. When both male and female imperfect flowers
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occur on the same plant, the species is monoecious. If a plant bears
only male flowers and other plants of the same species bear only
female flowers, the species is said to be dioecious (fig. 156).

Fig.156. Flowering plants

Pollination ecology

Many insects and animals become dusted with pollen, and as

they feed or collect nectar, they unknowingly but effectively bring
about pollination of the plants they visit. Pollinators are honey bees.
Their chief source of food is nectar.
Many bee-pollinated flowers are delicately sweet and fragrant.
In contrast, flowers pollinated by beetles tend to have stronger,
yeasty, spicy or fruity odors. Beetles don’t have keen visual senses,
and flowers pollinated by them are usually white or dull in color.
Flies with longer tongues may also pollinate bee-pollinated flowers.
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 Moth-and butterfly-pollinated flowers often have sweet
frangrances. Night-flying moths visit flowers that tend to be white or
yellow-colors that stand out against dark backgrounds in starlight or
noonlight.
Red flowers are sometimes pollinated by butterflies, some of
which can detect red colors, but these insects are more often found
visiting bright blue, yellow or orange flowers. The birds do not have
a keen sense of smell, but they have excellent vision. The flowers
they visit are often bright red or yellow and typically large.
Bat-pollinated flowers, found primarily in the tropics, tend to
open only at night when the bats are foraging. These flowers are dull
in color, and like flowers pollinated by birds, they either are large
enough for the animal to insert part of its head or consist of ball-like
inflorescences containing large numbers of small flowers that gust
the visitor with pollen.

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 Chapter 17
KINGDOM – PLANTS (PLANTAE)
DIVISION – ANGIOSPERMAE
(MAGNOLIOPHYTA) – ANGIOSPERMS
CLASS – DYCOTYLEDONES (MAGNOLIOPSIDA) –
DICOTYLEDONS
Characteristics of dicots:
1. The dicot embryo has two cotyledons;
2. Leaf veins are reticulated;
3. Flower petals are in multiples of 4 or 5;
4. They have taproot system;
5. Secondary growth is often present;
6. Vascular bundles are in a ring;
7. Presence of herbaceous and woody plants;
8. Two seed leaves.

MAGNOLIA FAMILY – MAGNOLIACEAE

The Magnoliaceae consist of species of trees or shrubs. The

leaves are simple, spiral, pinnate-netted, and stipulate. The
inflorescence is a terminal solitary flower. Flowers are large,
bisexual, actinomorphic. The perianth is multiwhorled or spiral.
Stamens are numerous, spiral. The gynoecium is superior, spirally
arranged ovaries. The fruit is an aggregate of follicles, berries, or
samaras; seeds are endospermous, rich in oils and protein.
The members of this family are distributed in tropical to warm
temperate regions.

g. Magnolia – Magnolia L.

Height is up to 90ft (27 m), type-evergreen.

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 The bark is brown to gray, thin, smooth, later developing scales.
The leaves are alternate, pinnately veined, leathery, dark glossy
above, with a velvety underside. The flower is fragrant, with white
petals, 20-30 cm wide. It has bright red fruits. The seeds are kidney-
shaped that hang from a red-brown cone-like structure, that is 5-
10cm long (fig. 157).

Fig.157. Magnolia Fig.158.Magnolia vine

g. Magnolia vine – Schisandra Baill.

Schisandra is native to China. Given a structure to climb, the

vines can reach up to 8m during one growing season. The plants are
deciduous, losing their leaves in the fall and winter to expose the
woody stems. The vine produces small white flowers in the spring
and fruits as red berries (fig. 158).

LAUREL FAMILY - LAURACEAE

The Lauraceae consist of mostly trees or shrubs with aromatic

oil glands. The leaves are evergreen, simple, spiral, whorled or

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opposite, undivided or lobed pinnate-netted. The inflorescence is
cyme or raceme, rarely a solitary flower. The flowers are small,
bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic.
The Lauraceae are distributed in tropical to warm temperate
regions. Economic importance includes several timber trees, spice
and other flavoring plants (including the bark of Cinnamomum cassia
and the leaves of Laurus nobilis, laurel or bay), and food plants,
especially avocado.

g. Bay – Laurus L.

It is a large shrub or small tree bearing simple, leathery leaves

with wavy margins. Male and female flowers are usually borne on
separate trees. Yellowish-white flowers occur in small clusters and
develop, in the case of female trees, into black fruits resembling
small olives (fig. 159).

Fig.159. Bay

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 g. Cinnamon - Cinnamomum L.

G. Cinnamomum is a large evergreen tree of up to 10m in

height with simple, alternate leaves that are three-nerved from the
base. The flowers are yellowish-white and are followed by round
drupes of about 8mm in diameter. The fruit is small and round (fig.
160).

Fig.160. Cinnamon

Camphor tree – Cinnamomum Camphora L. Nees Eberm.

Camphor tree is a large evergreen tree that grows up 20-30m

tall. The leaves have a glossy, waxy appearance and smell of
camphor when crushed. Flowers are small, white. It produces
clusters of black berry-like fruits around 1cm in diameter. The bark
is pale and very rough.

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 g. Avocado – Persea Mill.

An evergreen tree up to 10m with

large, simple, bright green leaves that are
paler green below. Small, yellowish
flowers are borne near the branch tips and
they are followed by large, usually pear-
shaped, green or purple fruits. The fruit
has a thin leathery skin with a thick layer
of greenish yellow, butter-textured flesh
around a very large seed. Avocado’s fruit
is berry (fig. 161).
Fig.161. Avocado

WATER –LILY FAMILY -

NYMPHAEACEAE

The Nymphaeaceae consist of aquatic,

annual or perennial herbs, with a milky
latex often present. The underground stems
are rhizomatous or tuberous. The leaves are
simple, floating. The inflorescence consists
of floating or emergent flowers. Flowers
are bisexual, actinomorphic, arising from
the underground stem. The fruit is a berry
or capsule. Fig.162. Water Lily
g. Water Lily - Nymphaea L.

These are tropical, aquatic perennials. Water Lilies produce

handsome, floating foliage. Rhizomes are thin, horizontal growth
with rapidly growing eyes along their length. Leaves and flowers are

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produced along the rhizomes rather than from a specific growing tip
or eye.
Water Lilies usually hold their flowers above the surface of the
water. There are day-blooming and night-blooming varieties. The
flowers are dark raspberry pink with greenish based sepals veined
with purple. The green leaves have wavy borders and pointed
projections. Fruit is dehiscent fleshy capsule (fig. 162).

SUBDIVISION RANUNCULIDAE
BARBERRY FAMILY -
BERBERIDACEAE

The Berberidaceae consist of

perennial trees, shrubs or herbs. The
leaves are whorled or spiral (rarely
opposite), petiolate. The inflorescence
is a raceme, spike, panicle, cyme. The
flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic.
The gynoecium is with a superior
ovary. The fruit is a berry.

Fig.163. Common barberry

g. Common barberry - Berberis L.

Barberry is a thorny shrub up to 3m high with small leathery

leaves in clusters along the stem, small yellow flowers and with
edible, bright red berries (fig. 163).

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 BUTTERCUP FAMILY (meaning ‘little frog’) -
RANUNCULACEAE

The Ranunculaceae consist of terrestrial or aquatic, perennial or

annual shrubs, herbs, or lianas. The leaves are spiral, simple to
compound, stipulate. The inflorescence is raceme or solitary flower.
The flowers are bisexual, rarely unisexual, actinomorphic or
zygomorphic. The ovaries are superior.

g. Spring Adonis - Adonis L.

A small perennial herb with divided, feathery leaves and large,

bright yellow or red actinomorphic flowers produced in early spring.
They have thick dark grey rhizomes. These plants are toxic. Fruit is
achene (fig. 164).

Fig.164. Spring Adonis Fig. 165. Larkspur

g. Larkspur - Delphinium L.
Delphinium is a genus of about 300 species of perennial
flowering plants in the Ranunculaceae family.

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 The leaves are deeply lobed with 3-7 toothed, in palmate shape.
The main flowering stem is erect, it is topped with a raceme of many
flowers, varying in color from purple and blue to red, yellow or
white. The flower has 5 petal-like sepals, which grow together to
form a hollow pocket with a spur at the end, which gives the plant its
name. There is only one true petal. The seeds are small and shiny
black. Most species are toxic. Fruit is follicle (fig. 165).

g. Aconite, Monkshood - Aconitum L.

Aconite is a perennial herb with erect flowering stems that grow

from a tuberous root. The stems bear deeply dissected, toothed leaves
and clusters of purple to blue flowers. Enlarged sepals (calyx lobes)
from the conspicuous part of the flower – the upper one is
characteristically hood-shaped and gives the flowers their distinctive
appearance. The fruit is an aggregate of follicles with many-seeded
structure. The roots of A. ferox contain large quantities of deadly
poison (alcaloids) (fig. 166).

Fig.166. Aconite, Monkshood

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 POPPY FAMILY – PAPAVERACEAE

The Papaveraceae consist of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs

or small trees, with milky latex. The leaves are spiral to subopposite,
usually lobed or divided. The
inflorescence is a solitary flower or
cyme. The flowers are bisexual,
actinomorphic, zygomorphic. The
gynoecium is with a superior
ovary. The fruit is a dehiscent or
capsule. The seeds are oily
endospermous.
Papaver somniferum, opium
poppy, is an addictive narcotic
plant, the source of heroin and very
important medicinally, e.g., as the
source of the analgesic morphine
and other alkaloids. Fig.167. Celandine

g. Celandine - Chelidonium L.

A perennial herb with yellow-green, deeply lobed or feathery

leaves, which are alternate. The flowers are orange-yellow,
inflorescence is an umbel. All parts of the plant contain yellow to
orange colored latex (fig. 167).

g. Yellow hornpoppy – Glaucium Grantz

Glaucium is a summer flowering plant in the Papaveraceae

family. All parts of the plant, including the seeds, are toxic and can
produce a range of symptoms including respiratory failure resulting
in death.
The thick, leathery deeply segmented, wavy, bluish-grey leaves
are coated in a layer of wax. The sepals, petals and stamens have a

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similar structure as a Red Poppy, except that the sepals are not hairy.
Large quantities of seeds are held in siliqua-like capsules (fig. 168).

g. Poppy - Papaver L.

An erect annual herb (up to 1.5m), bearing hairy, grey-green

feathery or lobed leaves, with attractive white, red or purple, dark in
the base flowers and characteristic spherical or oval fruit capsules,
containing numerous greyish to black seeds (fig. 169).

Fig.168. Yellow hornpoppy Fig. 169. Poppy

SUBDIVISION CARYOPHYLLIDAE
PINK FAMILY - CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Family Caryophyllaceae, commonly called the pink family, is a

family of flowering plants. This cosmopolitan family of mostly
herbaceous plants consists of annuals and perennials, a few species
are shrubs or small trees. The leaves are almost opposite, rarely
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whorled. The flowers are terminal, single or branched in cymes. The
inflorescence is dichasial. Petals are 4 or 5, sepals 5. The fruit is a
capsule containing a single seed.

g. Soapwort - Saponaria L.

Soapwort is a perennial herb with leafy stems arising from thin,

underground rhizomes. The bright green leaves are borne in opposite
pairs and the attractive, tubular pink flowers occur in clusters at the
tips of the stems (fig. 170).

Fig.170. Soapwort

BUCKWHEAT FAMILY – POLYGONACEAE

The Polygonaceae consist of annual or perennial herbs, shrubs,

lianas, vines, or trees. The stems often have nodes. The leaves are
usually spiral, simple. The flowers are small, bisexual or unisexual,
actinomorphic. The gynoecium is with a superior ovary. Nectaries
are often present. The fruit is usually a 3-sided achene. The seeds are
endospermous, oily and starchy.

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 g. Knotweed – Polygonum L.
sp. Water pepper - Polygonum hydropiper L.

It grows in damp places and shallow water. It has some use as a

spice because of its punget flavour. This is an annual plant, with a
simple or branched, erect stem, of reddish or greenish color. The
leaves are lanceolate. The flowers are borne in a panicled raceme.
The green calyx is usually 4-parted, stamens 4. Fruit is a triangular
achene (fig. 171).

sp. Knotweed, Knotgrass - Polygonum aviculare L.

A spreading, wiry annual weed with sparse, slender stems and

small, narrow, almost stalkless elipsoid alternate leaves. Minute
white or reddish flowers are borne in the leaf axils. Fruit is a
triangular achene (fig. 172).

Fig.171. Water pepper Fig. 172. Knotgrass

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 sp. European bistort, Snakeweed – Polygonum bistorta L.

It is a herbaceous flowering plant. The Latin name “bistorta”

refers to the twisted appearance of the root (snake root). They
produce tall stems ending in single terminal racemes with pink-rose
coloured flowers. The foliage is normally basal with a few smaller
leaves produced near the lower end of the flowering stems. The
leaves are oblong ovate or triangular ovate in shape and narrow at the
base. The petioles are winged. The flowers consist of 5 coloured
sepals. The fruit is 3-seeded (triangular achene) (fig. 173).

Fig.173. Snakeweed Fig. 174. Yellow dock

g. Yellow dock - Rumex L.

Yellow dock is a robust, leafy herb of up to 1.5m in height,

bearing large leaves with distinctive sheathing leaf bases. Numerous
small greenish flowers are produced on an extensive panicle,
followed by small, reddish brown, winged achene fruit (fig. 175).

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 g. Rhubarb - Rheum L.

It is a genus of about 60 perennial plants. The species have large

triangular shaped leaves with long fleshy petioles. The flowers are
small, greenish-white to rose-red. While the leaves are toxic, the
stalks are used as food. The fruits are three-sided achene with winged
sides.

Fig. 175. Rhubarb

SUBDIVISION HAMAMELIDIDAE
OAK FAMILY – FAGACEAE

The Fagaceae consist of trees or shrubs. The leaves are simple,

undivided to divided, usually spiral, rarely opposite or whorled. The
inflorescence is usually unisexual, the male inflorescence is a catkin
or head. The flowers are small, unisexual, actinomorphic. Fruit is
acorn.

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 Economically important are Quercus (oak), Fagus (beech), and
Castanea (chestnut).

g. Oak – Quercus L.

A large tree (up to 50m), easily recognized by leaves, lobed wavy

leaf margins, long flowering stalks and the characteristic fruits -
acorns. In Europe the oak bark is used as a source of tannins for wine
taste improvement (fig. 176).

Fig.176. Oak Fig. 177. Birch

BIRCH FAMILY - BETULACEAE

The Betulaceae consist of trees or shrubs. The leaves are simple,

usually spiral, with toothed margin. The inflorescences are unisexual,
the male inflorescence is a catkin, the female - a short, erect catkin.

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The gynoecium is with superior ovary. The fruit is a nut or 2-winged
samara. The seeds are with or without endosperm.

g. Birch - Betula Roth.

Birch is an erect tree (up to 30m in height), with a characteristic

white papery bark. Flowers appear in catkins. Betula pubescens
(white birch) and Betula pendula are commonly hybridised. Birch
has toothed leaves with short, soft hairs on both surfaces (fig. 177).

g. Alder – Alnus (L.) Gaertn

Alnus grows to a height of 20-30m. It has short-stalked rounded

leaves, with toothed margin. When young they are glutinous, later
become glossy dark green.
Flowers are catkins: cylindrical male catkins are reddish in
color; the female flowers are smaller and dark brown in color, hard,
woody, and similar to some conifer cones. When the small winged
seeds appear, woody, blackish cones remain (fig. 178).

WALNUT FAMILY - JUGLANDACEAE

The Juglandaceae, also known as the Walnut Family, is a family

of trees, or sometimes shrubs. Members of the walnut family have
large aromatic leaves, which are usually alternate, or opposite. The
leaves are pinnately compound.
The trees are wind-pollinated, and the flowers are usually
arranged in catkins.
The Persian walnut, Juglans regia, is one of the major nut crops
in the world.

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 g. Walnut – Juglans L.

Walnut is a tree of up to 25m in height, with large compound

leaves bearing five to nine leaflets. The fruit is a drupe with a fleshy
outer pericarp and a bony endocarp that encloses the two edible
cotyledons (known as walnuts). Another source of nuts is the black
walnut or American walnut (J. nigra) (fig. 179).

Fig.178. Alder Fig. 179. Walnut

SUBDIVISION DILLENIIDAE
CAMELLIA FAMILY - THEACEAE

The Theaceae is a family of flowering plants, composed of

shrubs and trees. Plants in this family are characterized by simple
leaves that are alternate and usually glossy. Most of the genera have
evergreen foliage. The flowers are usually pink or white and large,
often with a strong scent.
The fruits are capsules. The seeds are few, sometimes winged.

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 g. Tea plant – Camellia L.

Tea plant is a large shrub with glossy and attractive white

flowers. The leaves are evergreen, short stalked leathery, ellipsoid,
the upper surface is dark green. The flowers are white, borne in the
leaf’s axils. Fruit is a capsule (fig. 180).

VIOLET FAMILY - VIOLACEAE

The Violaceae consist of herbs, shrubs, trees or lianas. The

leaves are simple, undivided to divided, usually spiral and stipulate.
The inflorescence is in heads, panicles, or racemes. The flowers are
usually bisexual, zygomorphic. The fruit is a berry or a capsule,
rarely a nut. The seeds are endospermous.

g. Violet – Viola L.

Violet is an annual or short-lived perennial herb with rounded to

heart-shaped leaves which can be in rosette, and characteristic three-
colored flowers. Fruit is a capsule (fig. 181).

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Fig.180.Tea plant Fig. 181. Violet
 PASSION FLOWER FAMILY - PASSIFLORACEAE

The Passifloraceae consist of lianas, shrubs, or trees. The stems

have tendrils in lianous species. The leaves are simple, rarely
compound. The inflorescence is a cyme or a solitary flower. The
flowers are bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic. The gynoecium is
with a superior ovary. The fruit is a berry or a capsule. The seeds are
endospermous.

g. Passion flower – Passiflora L.

A woody perennial vine climbs with tendrils. It has hairless,

lobed leaves, large solitary, very characteristic, white and violet
flowers. The origin is said to be a “Calvary Lesson” by Catholic
missionaries in South America. The numerous petaloid corona
threads are seen as a symbol for the Crown of Thorns, the five
stamens for the Wounds, the three stigmas for the Nails on the Cross
and the five sepals and five petals as the ten Apostles (excluding
Judas and Peter). The fruit is a characteristic many-seeded berry (fig.
182).

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 Fig.182. Passion flower Fig. 183. Saint-John’s wort

ST. JOHN’S WORT FAMILY - HYPERICACEAE

These are perennial herbs with simple, opposite leaves. The

leaves are often covered with dark glands or clean dots. The petals
are usually yellow. The flowers are regular and bisexual with 4 to 5
sepals, and 10 or more stamens. The ovary is superior and consists of
3 or 5 united carpels. The fruit is a capsule.

g. Saint-John’s wort – Hypericum L.

The most famous sp. is Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s-

wort). They vary from annual or perennial herbaceous herbs 5-10 cm
tall to shrubs and small trees. The leaves are opposite, simple, oval,
1-8cm long. The flowers vary from pale to dark yellow with 5 (or 4)
petals. The fruit is usually a dry capsule (fig. 183).

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 CUCUMBER FAMILY - CUCURBITACEAE

The Cucurbitaceae consist of vines. The leaves are simple,

palmately lobed, spiral. The flowers are usually unisexual,
actinomorphic.
The Cucurbitaceae have largely worldwide distributions. The
economic importance includes important food crops such as Citrullus
lanatus (watermelon), Cucumis melo (melons), Cucumis sativa
(cucumber, squashes, pumpkins), those of Luffa (luffa) are used as a
sponge.

g. Bryony - Bryonia L.

Bryony is a perennial plant with creeping branches growing

from a large, tuberous rootstock. Leaves are palmately lobed and
flowers are in axillary clusters. The fruit is a smooth, globular berry
(fig. 184).

CABBAGE FAMILY - BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE)

The Brassicaceae consist of usually herbs, rarely shrubs. The

leaves are simple, often lobed to divided, spiral. The inflorescence is
a raceme. The flowers are bisexual, usually actinomorphic. The fruit
is a silique. The Brassicaceae as vegetable plants have a worldwide
distribution. The economic importance includes broccoli, brussels
sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage.

g. Wallflower - Erysimum L.

Wallflowers are small, annual, short-lived perennial herbs or

sub-shrubs. Most species have erect stems with T-shaped trichomes.
The leaves are narrow and sessile. The lower leaves are linear. The

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inflorescence is in raceme, with bright yellow to red or pink flowers.
The fruit is multiseeded silique (fig. 185).

Fig.184. Bryony Fig. 185. Wallflower

g. Capsella (Shepherd’s - purse) – Capsella L. Medic.

This well-known weed is a small annual or biennial herb with a

rosette of deeply lobed leaves directly on the ground. Small, white
flowers are borne on a single central stalk. The characteristic heart-
shaped fruit resembles a traditional shepherd’s purse (fig. 186).

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 Fig.186. Capsella Fig. 187. Cabbage
g. Cabbage - Brassica L.

An erect leafy annual herb with lobed leaves, yellow flowers

and oblong, smooth seeds capsules. White mustard (Sinapis alba) is
quite similar but has distinctive hairy fruit capsules (fig.187).

g. Mustard - Sinapis L.

The stems are erect, branched, with spreading hairs especially

near the base. The leaves are petiolate, the basal leaves are oval,
lanceolate. The inflorescence is a raceme made up of yellow flowers
having 4 petals. The fruit is a silique that is flattened-quadrangular
(fig. 188).

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 Fig.188. Mustard Fig.189. Bearberry

HEATH FAMILY - ERICACEAE

The Ericaceae consist of shrubs and small trees, rarely lianas.

Some taxa are mycotrophic (‘fungus feeding’, obtaining nutrition
from mycchorizal fungi in the soil). The leaves are simple, spiral,
opposite, evergreen. The inflorescence is a raceme, head-like cluster,
or of solitary flowers. The flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic. The
fruit is a capsule, berry, or drupe. The seeds are endospermous.

g. Bearberry - Arctostaphylos L. Spreng.

Bearberry is a variable evergreen shrub with small bright green

leaves. The branches grow flat along the ground and are smooth,
with reddish brown, flaking bark. Delicate, white or pinkish un-
shaped flowers are followed by bright red berries (fig. 189).

g. Bilberry - Vaccinum L.
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 Vaccinum is a genus of shrubs. The fruit of many species are
eaten by humans and some have commercial importance, including
the cranberry, bilberry, cowberry, and huckleberry. The fruit
develops from an inferior ovary, and is a berry; it is usually brightly
colored, often being red or bluish with purple juice (fig.190).

PRIMROSE FAMILY – PRIMULACEAE

The Primulaceae are herbaceous plants, usually perennial but

some are annual. The family has leaves that are basal, opposite, or
alternate, but usually entirely covered with glandular hairs. The
flowers grow in clusters of different shapes. They are symmetric,
bisexual and usually consist of 5 parts. The fruit is a capsule with
many seeds.
Some members of the family are poisonous, and a few have
useful medicinal properties.

g. Cowslip – Primula Jaeq.

It is an attractive perennial herb with a basal rosette of wrinkled

leaves arising each spring from a fleshy rhizome. Golden yellow,
strongly scented flowers are borne in multi-flowered clusters on
slender stalks. The fruit is a capsule (fig. 191).

- 217 -
 Fig.190. Bilberry Fig.191. Cowslip

LINDEN FAMILY - TILIACEAE

They are trees, shrubs, or herbs. The leaves are simple, alternate
or rarely opposite, basally veined, entire or serrate, sometimes lobed.
The inflorescence is a cymose. The flowers are bisexual or unisexual,
actinomorphic. The fruit usually is a capsule, sometimes samara.

g. Lime, Linden – Tilia L.

Lime or linden is a deciduous tree of up to 30m in height

bearing large, heart-shaped leaves with serrate margins and brown
hairs along the veins on the lower sides. Groups of five to ten
greenish yellow flowers with numerous stamens are characteristically
borne on a slender stalk hanging down from a large, oblong, leaf-like
bract. The fruit is samara (fig. 192).

- 218 -
 MALLOW FAMILY - MALVACEAE

The Malvaceae consist of shrubs, or herbs, often with either

stellate trichomes or peltate scales. The leaves are simple or
palmately compound, sometimes lobed to divided, usually spiral. The
inflorescence is of solitary or paired flowers. The flowers are
bisexual, actinomorphic. The fruit is a capsule or samara.
Economical importance includes medicinal plants, several fiber
plants, especially Gossypium spp. (cotton, the world’s most
important fiber plant); food and flavoring plants, such as Theobroma
cacao (cacao, the source of chocolate).

Fig.192. Linden Fig. 193 Mallow

g. Mallow - Malva L.

Mallow is a biennial herb or shrub (up to 1m) with rounded,

lobed and dentate leaves. The attractive pink flowers have five petals
with characteristic dark veins at their bases. The fruit is a samara
(fig. 193).

- 219 -
 g. Marshmallow – Althaea L.

It is an erect perennial plant reaching 1.5m in height. The leaves

are shallowly 3-5 lobed, the petals are pale pink, or rarely white in
color. The fruit is a samara (fig. 194).

Fig. 194. .Marshmallow Fig. 195. Stinging nettle

THE NETTLE FAMILY - URTICACEAE

The Urticaceae are monoecious or dioecious herbs, shrubs or

small trees, often with specialized stinging hairs. The leaves are
alternate or opposite, simple, and almost always stipulate. The
minute, unisexual flowers are in cymose clusters.
The fruit is an achene.

g. Stinging nettle – Urtica L.

The perennial stinging nettle (U. dioica) is an erect herb (up to

1.5 m) with drooping, somewhat grey leaves. The slender flower
clusters are longer than the leaf stalks in both male and female plants
(fig. 195).
- 220 -
 SUBDIVISION ROSIDAE
SAXIFRAGE FAMILY (LATIN FOR ‘ROCK
BREAKING’) - SAXIFRAGACEAE

The Saxifragaceae consist of perennial herbs or subshrubs. The

leaves are usually spiral, simple, pinnate, or palmate. The
inflorescence is a cyme, raceme, or of solitary flowers. The flowers
are bisexual, actinomorphic. The gynoecium is with a superior ovary.
The fruit is a berry or a capsule.

g. Elephant’s ears - Bergenia L.

They are rhizomatous, evergreen perennials with a spirally

arranged rosette of leaves and pink flowers produced in a cyme. The
leaves are large, leathery, ovate or cordate with wavy edges. They
have cone-shaped pink flowers. The fruit is a capsule (fig. 196).

g. Blackcurrant - Ribes L.

Blackcurrant is a shrub of about 2m in height, with deeply

lobed, doubly dentate leaves. The white flowers are borne in short
clusters, and develop into brownish black, shiny fruits. The fruit is
berry, used to make jam and jelly (fig. 197).

- 221 -
 Fig.196. Elephant’s ears Fig.197. Blackcurrant

ROSE FAMILY - ROSACEAE

The Rosaceae consist of trees, shrubs, or herbs. The leaves are

spiral (rarely opposite), simple or compound, undivided to divided.
The inflorescence is variable. The flowers are bisexual,
actinomorphic. The gynoecium is with a superior or inferior ovary.
The fruit is a drupe, pome, achene, or capsule.
The family is economically very important as the source of
many cultivated fruits, including apple, plum, almond, apricot,
cherry, peach, pear, as well as essential oils (e.g., Rosa).

g. Raspberry (Blackberry) - Rubus L.

Blackberry is a prickly shrub bearing compound leaves with

prickles along the midrib, and hairs on the lower surface. The flowers
are white to pale pink and are followed by clusters of black berries.
Raspberry (R. idaeus) is less prickly but has a dense layer of white
- 222 -
hairs on the lower surface of the leaves and the fruit is pinkish red
when ripe. Raspberries are aggregate fruits (fig. 198).

Fig.198. Ruspberry Fig. 199. Strawberry

g. Strawberry - Fragaria L.

Wild strawberry is a perennial herb that spreads along the

ground by numerous runners (stolons), a root at the nodes to produce
new plants. The leaves are divided into three broad leaflet faces. The
small white flowers are borne on slender stalks, followed by small,
red edible fruits (technically a fleshy receptacle with numerous
achenes on the surface) (fig. 199).

g. Tormentil - Potentilla L.

Tormentil is a small, much-branched herb. The sparsely hairy

leaves are dissected into four or five dentate leaflets which are borne
directly on the stems (leaf stalks are absent). The flowers are solitary,
relatively small and yellow (fig. 200).

- 223 -
 g. Burnet – Sanguisorba L.

Burnet is an erect perennial herb of up to 1m in height, with

feathery compound leaves and slender, branched flowering stalks
bearing dense, oblong heads of purple flowers. The plant was
previously known as Poterium officinalis (fig. 201).

Fig.200. Tormentil Fig. 201. Burnet

g. Hawthorn - Crataegus C. Koch.

Crataegus species are shrubs or small trees (up to 10m), with

lobed leaves, thorny branches and white flowers, followed by red
fruits. Two species (that readily hybridise) are mostly used for
medicine, namely C. monogyna and C. laevigata. The fruit, known as
a “haw”, is berry-like but structurally is a pome containing from 1 to
5 pyrenes (fig. 202).
- 224 -
 g. Rose - Rosa L.

The dog rose is a woody creeper (up to 5m), with curved thorns
on the stem, leaves with about three pairs of toothed leaflets,
attractive pink flowers and fleshy red fruits known as rose hips.
Various species are acceptable sources of rose hips and seeds (fig.
203).

Fig.202. Hawthorn Fig. 203. Rose

BEAN/PEA FAMILY - FABACEAE (LEGUMINOSAE,

PAPILIONACEAE)

The Fabaceae consist of herbs, shrubs, trees, or vines, with

spines sometimes present. The roots of many members have a
- 225 -
symbiotic association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which induce the
formation of root nodules. The leaves are usually compound
(pinnate, bipinnate, trifoliate, or palmate), sometimes simple, usually
spiral. The flowers are usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual,
zygomorphic. The upper-most petal is the largest (the banner). The
petals on two sides of the banner are called wings. The lower-most
two petals are fused, forming the boat, called the keel. Stamens are
10, fused, or not (or only 9 are fused). The fruit is generally a
legume.
Economically, the legumes are one of the important plant
groups, being the source of numerous pulses such as peanut,
soybeans, lentils, peas.

g. Thermopsis - Thermopsis R. BR.

This is a genus of the family Leguminosae. The plants are

perennial herbs with long, spreading rhizomes. The leaves are
alternate, stipulate; the flowers are usually yellow and gathered in
apical racemose inflorescences. The fruit is a two-seeded or many-
seeded legume (fig. 204).

g. Sweet clover - Melilotus L.

It is an erect herb with trifoliolate dentate leaves, small yellow

flowers in dense oblong clusters and small, almost spherical,
indehiscent pods (fig. 205).

- 226 -
 Fig.204. Thermopsis Fig. 205. Sweet clover

g. Goat’s rue - Galega L.

Goat’s rue is a perennial herb of up to 1 m in height, with

pinnately compound leaves and attractive white or pink legume
flowers arranged in dense, many-flowered clusters (fig. 206).

Fig.206. Goat’s rue Fig. 207. Milkvetch

- 227 -
 g. Milkvetch- Astragalus L.

Astragalus is a perennial herb. It has pinnately compound leaves

and 10 to 15 yellowish flowers arranged in short, oblong clusters.
The roots are fibrous and yellowish brown (fig. 207).

g. Trefoil - Trifolium L.

The clover or trefoil has a cosmopolitan distribution. They are

small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants.
The leaves are trifoliate (rarely 5 or 7-foliate), and heads of small
red, purple, white or yellow flowers, the small, few-seeded pods are
enclosed in a calyx (fig. 208).

Fig.208. Trefoil Fig. 209.Lequorice

g. Liquorice - Glycyrrhiza L.

Liquorice is a perennial herb of up to 1m high, with branched

rhizomes and woody stems bearing compound leaves and pale purple

- 228 -
or white flowers. The fruits are pods, each pod contains 2-5 brown to
blackish seeds (fig. 209).

g. Cassia - Cassia L. (Senna)

This perennial subshrub has thin, paired, pale green leaflets,

yellow flowers, and distinctive, oblong, fruit pods in early summer.
The bark is used in tropical Asia for leather tanning. The fruit is a
long legume with pungent odor (fig. 210).

Fig. 210.Cassia

MYRTLE FAMILY - MYRTACEAE

The Myrtaceae consist of trees and shrubs. The roots possess

mycorrhizae. The leaves are opposite or spiral, simple. The flowers
are bisexual, actinomorphic. The fruit is a berry or a capsule.
The members of this family have distributions in warm tropics.
The economic importance includes important timber trees, especially

- 229 -
Eucalyptus, edible fruits (Psidium guajava, guava), spices (Syzygium
aromaticum, cloves), oils (Eucalyptus).

Sp. Clove tree –Syzygium aromaticum L. (Eugenia

caryophylata L.)

The clove tree (fig. 211) is an evergreen tropical plant that may
reach 12m, bearing simple, glossy green leaves and small white
flowers with numerous stamens. The dried flower buds are used as a
spice. Another species of Syzygium that is well known for its
medicinal properties is the jambolan (S. cumini). The fruit is a berry.

g. Eucalyptus - Eucalyptus Her.

The eucalyptus is a very large tree (up to 60m) with a

characteristic shedding bark, grey foliage and white flowers. The
leaves are rounded and opposite when young and narrow, lanceolate
on the elder branches. Also distinctive are the woody capsules (fig.
212).

Fig.211. Clove tree Fig. 212. Eucalyptus

- 230 -
 CITRUS FAMILY - RUTACEAE

The Rutaceae consist of trees, shrubs, lianas or rarely herbs. The

stems of some taxa have thorns. The leaves are simple, trifoliate, to
pinnate. The inflorescence is a cyme or raceme, rarely of solitary
flowers. The flowers are usually bisexual and actinomorphic. The
fruit is a drupe, or hesperidium. The economic importance includes
many important fruits, among them Citrus (oranges, grapefruits,
lemons, limes, etc.).

g. Lemon tree - Citrus Burm.

Lemon is a small, evergreen tree (up to 6m), easily recognized

by the scarcely winged leaf stalks and the flowers, which are not pure
white but tinged purple. The fruits are hesperidiums (fig. 213).

THE FLAX FAMILY - LINACEAE

The Linaceae is a family of flowering plants. The family is

cosmopolitan. The leaves are always simple; the arrangement varies
from alternate to opposite or whorled. The flowers are pentameric or
tetrameric. The fruits are capsules or drupe-like.

g. Flax, Linseed – Linum L.

An erect annual herb of up to 1m in height with slender stems

bearing small, hairless leaves and attractive blue flowers. The fruit
capsules contain reddish-brown, smooth seeds. Some cultivars are
grown for stem fibers (flax); others for the seeds or seed oil (fig.
214).

- 231 -
 Fig.213. Lemon tree Fig. 214. Flax, Linseed

BUCKTHORN FAMILY - RHAMNACEAE

The Rhamnaceae consist of trees, shrubs, lianas, or rarely herbs.

The roots of some taxa are associated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
The stems are sometimes modified as thorns, tendrils. The leaves are
simple, pinnately or palmately veined, spiral or opposite, with spines.
The inflorescence is racyme. The flowers are unisexual or bisexual,
actinomorphic. The fruit is a drupe.

g. Buckthorn – Rhamnus L.

Buckthorn is a woody shrub of 3m in height, with opposite,

finely toothed leaves borne on spiny branches. The yellowish green
flowers are borne in clusters in the leaf axils. These are followed by
spherical, shiny fruits (drupes) that are initially red but black when
they ripen (fig. 215).

- 232 -
 Fig.215. Buckthorn Fig. 216. Glossy buckthorn

g. Glossy buckthorn - Frangula L.

Frangula is a genus of shrubs or small trees of the family

Rhamnaceae. The branches are not spiny, and the buds are without
scales. The leaves are alternate and simple. The flowers are small and
bisexual. The fruit is drupe, juicy and globular (fig. 216).

OLEASTER FAMILY - ELAEAGNACEAE

The Elaeagnaceae is a plant family with small trees and shrubs.

They are commonly thorny, with simple leaves often coated with tiny
scales or hairs. Most of the species are xerophytes (found in dry
habitats). The fruit is an achene or a flashy drupe containing a single
seed.

- 233 -
 The Elaeagnaceae often harbor nitrogen-fixing actinomycetes of
the genus Frankia in their roots, making them useful for soil
reclamation.

g. Sea buckthorn –
Hippophae L.

They are commonly thorny,

with simple leaves often coated
with tiny scales or hairs. Most of
the species are xerophytes (found
in dry habitats). The flowers are
in racemes, they are odorless. The
fruit is an achene, enclosed in a
fleshy hypanthium (often drupe-
like- fleshy outside, bony within)
(fig. 217).
Fig. 217. Sea buckthorn

GINSENG FAMILY - ARALIACEAE

The Araliaceae consist of trees, shrubs, lianas, or herbs. The

leaves are palmate, pinnate, or simple, usually spiral, rarely opposite
or whorled. The inflorescence is usually terminal umbel, head. The
flowers are usually bisexual, actinomorphic. The fruit is a drupe or
berry. The plant tissues usually have secretary canals.

g. Ginseng - Panax C. A. Mey

A small perennial geophyte with a single stem emerging every

year from a short rhizome attached to a fleshy root. One to four
palmately compound leaves are formed at a single node which also
bears a single cluster of small white flowers, that each develops into
- 234 -
a fleshy, bright red fruit. The plant root’s characteristic shape
resembles a person’s legs (fig. 218).

g. Siberian Ginseng - Eleutherococcus

Siberian ginseng is a woody shrub with erect stems, compound

leaves and flowers produced in multi-flowered umbels. The roots and
rhizomes of spikenard (Aralia racemosa) are traditional panacea
(cure all) (fig. 219).

Fig.218. Ginseng Fig. 219.Siberian Ginseng

g. Spikenard - Aralia Rup. Et Max.

Aralia is a genus of evergreen trees, shrubs, and rhizomatous

herbaceous perennials. Aralia plants vary in size, with some
herbaceous species only reaching 50cm in height, while some are
trees growing up to 20m tall.
Aralia plants have large bipinnate (doubly compound) leaves
clustered at the ends of the stems. The flowers are whitish or

- 235 -
greenish, occur in terminal panicles, and the spherical purple berry-
like fruits (fig. 220).

Fig. 220. Spikenard

CARROT FAMILY - APIACEAE (UMBELLIFERAE)

The Apiaceae consist of herbs, less often shrubs or trees. The

leaves are usually pinnate, spiral, with a broad sheathing base. The
inflorescence is a compound umbel. The flowers are small, bisexual,
actinomorphic. The fruit is a schizocarp, composed of two
mericarps. The seeds are oily.
Economically important members include food, herb and spice
plants, such as Anethum (dill); Apium (celery); Carum (caraway);
Coriandrum (coriander); Cuminum (cumin); Daucus (carrot);
Foeniculum (fennel); and Petroselinum (parsley). Some species are
poisonous, such as Conium maculatum, poison hemlock (an extract
of which Socrates drank in execution).

- 236 -
 g. Coriander - Coriandrum L.

An annual herb with aromatic leaves and pale pink flowers

arranged in umbels. The upper leaves are much dissected and
feathery in appearance; the lower ones are undivided and quite
different in shape. The small, dry, spherical fruits (schizocarp) split
into two mericarps (fig. 221).

Fig.221. Coriander Fig. 222. Poison hemlock

g. Poison hemlock – Conium L.

This is a genus of highly poisonous perennial herbaceous

flowering plants. The stems are smooth green, usually spotted with
red or purple on the lower half of the stem. The leaves are divided.
The flowers are small, white, in umbels. When crushed, the leaves
and root have unpleasant odor (fig. 222).

- 237 -
 g. Fennel - Foeniculum L.

It is an erect, perennial herb of up to 1.5 m in height. The leaf

stalks form sheaths around the thick stems and the leaves are finely
divided, giving them a feathery appearance. The small yellow
flowers are borne in umbels (fig. 223).

Fig.223. Fennel Fig. 224. Dill

g. Dill - Anethum L.

Dill is an annual herb with bright green leaves that are pinnately
divided into numerous thin segments, giving them a feathery
appearance. The typical flower heads are borne at the tips of hollow
stems and the small, dry fruits are flattened, with pale brown, narrow
marginal wings (fig. 224).

- 238 -
 g. Caraway - Carum L.

Caraway is a biennial herb with compound, feathery leaves and

small white flowers arranged in umbels. The small dry fruits are dark
brown (fig. 225).

g. Anise - Pimpinella L., Anisum L.

An erect annual, bearing variable leaves on slender stalks. The

basal leaves are more or less round and undivided, while the upper
ones become more divided. Numerous small white flowers are borne
in a typical umbel, and are followed by small grey green fruits (fig.
226).

Fig.225. Caraway Fig. 226. Anise

g. Celery - Apium L.

Apium is a genus of flowering plants. They are medium to tall

biennial or perennial plants growing on the wet ground. They grow
up to 1m high and have pinnate to bipinnate leaves and small white
flowers in compound umbels (fig. 227).
- 239 -
 Fig.227. Celery
g. Wild carrot - Daucus L.

Wild carrot is a biennial herb with a single, erect stem, feathery

leaves, small white flowers and small dry fruits in characteristic
umbels, surrounded by finely branched bracts. Wild carrot - D.
carota subsp. – has a thin, white inedible root, while the common
cultivated carrot is edible (fig. 228).

g. Parsley - Petroselinum Hoffm.

Parsley is a biennial herb with a fleshy root and finely divided,

compound and curly leaves in basal rosette. The greenish yellow
flowers and small dry fruits are formed on erect double umbels in the
second growing season (fig. 229).

- 240 -
 Fig.228. Wild carrot Fig. 229. Parsley

HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY – CAPRIFOLIACEAE

(VIBURNACEAE)

The Caprifoliaceae consist of shrubs, trees, lianas or herbs. The

leaves are simple, opposite. The inflorescence is usually a cyme. The
flowers are bisexual. Nectaries are often present on the inner corolla
tube. The fruit is a capsule, berry, or drupe. The seeds are oily, with
endosperm.

g. Black haw – Viburnum L.

Black haw is a woody, deciduous shrub of up to 4m in height,

with lobed leaves, clusters of small, white flowers. The fruit is a
spherical, oval, flattened drupe, red to purple, blue or black,
containing a single seed (fig. 230).

- 241 -
 VALERIAN FAMILY - VALERIANACEAE

The Valerianaceae consist of herbs, rarely shrubs. The leaves

are simple or pinnate, opposite. The inflorescence is compound of
cyme units. The flowers are usually bisexual. The fruit is an achene,
sometimes winged. The seeds have an oily endosperm.

g. Valerian – Valeriana L.

Valerian represents a species complex; it is an erect perennial

herb with creeping, aromatically smelly rhizomes, somewhat fleshy
roots, hollow stems, compound leaves and small white or pinkish
flowers, arranged in flat- topped terminal clusters (fig. 231).

Fig.230. Black haw Fig. 231. Valerian

- 242 -
 SUBDIVISION LAMIIDAE
COFFEE FAMILY - RUBIACEAE

The Rubiaceae consist of trees, shrubs, lianas or herbs. The

leaves are simple, undivided and entire, whorled or spiral. The
inflorescence is a cyme, rarely of solitary flowers. The flowers are
usually bisexual. The fruit is a berry, capsule, drupe. The seeds are
usually with endosperm.
The economic importance includes Cinchona, the source of
quinine used to treat malaria, Coffea arabica and other species, the
source of coffee.

g. Madder - Rubia L.

This climbing or rambling herb has whorls of leathery, pointed

leaves, and clusters of yellowish-green flowers from summer to
autumn, followed by small, fleshy, purple-brown berries (fig. 232).

g. Cinchona tree – Cinchona L.

They are large shrubs or small trees with evergreen foliage. The
leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate. The flowers are white,
pink or red, produced in terminal panicles. The fruit is a small
capsule containing numerous seeds.
The bark of the tree is medicinally active, containing a variety
of alkaloids, including the anti-malarial compound quinine (fig. 233).

- 243 -
 Fig.232. Madder Fig. 233. Cinchona tree

g. Coffee tree - Coffea L.

Coffee is a shrub or small tree with dark green leaves, clusters

of small, white, fragrant flowers and small, rounded berries that turn
yellow, red or purple when they ripen (fig. 234).

MILKWEED FAMILY - APOCYNACEAE

The Apocynaceae consist of lianas, trees, shrubs or herbs, with

latex present in tissues. The stems are succulent in some taxa. The
leaves are simple, undivided, sometimes opposite, whorled or rarely
spiral. The inflorescence is a cyme (often umbelliform), raceme, or
of solitary flowers. The flowers are usually bisexual, actinomorphic.
The fruit can be a berry, drupe, or follicle. The plants typically
contain various glycosides and alkaloids.

- 244 -
 g. Strophanthus – Strophanthus Kombe.

Strophanthus is a woody climber that can grow up to 10m in

height. It has robust stems, simple glossy leaves and large, attractive,
bright pink or purple flowers. The name (“strophos- anthos”,
“twisted cord flower”) derives from the long, twisted, threadlike
segments of the corolla, which attain a length of 30-35cm (S.
preussii). The seeds are borne in long narrow pods (fig. 235).

Fig.234. Coffee tree Fig. 235. Strophanthus

NIGHTSHADE FAMILY - SOLANACEAE

The Solanaceae consist of herbs, shrubs, trees or lianas, with

trichomes. The leaves are simple, pinnate, usually spiral. The
inflorescence is of solitary flowers or cyme units. The flowers are
bisexual, actinomorphic, rarely zygomorphic. The fruit is a berry,
drupe, or capsule. Alkaloids are present in many family members.

- 245 -
 The economic importance includes many edible plants, such as
Capsicum (peppers), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Solanum
tuberosum (potato), and Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco). Alkaloids
from various taxa have medicinal properties (e.g. atropine from
Atropa Belladona), hallucinogenic properties (e.g. Datura, Jimson
weed), or deadly poisons (e.g. Datura, Solanum spp.) or known
carcinogens (e.g. Nicotiana tabacum).

g. Bittersweet - Solanum L.

A deciduous woody climber (up to 5m), bearing simple or lobed

leaves, dark purple flowers and attractive berries that are bright red
when mature (fig. 236).

g. Henbane - Hyoscyamus L.

Henbane is an annual or biennial herb of up to 0.5m in height,

with soft hairy stems bearing pale green, lobed and hairy leaves. The
calyx is bell-like and toothed, and the petals are grey- yellow, with
dark purple veins towards their bases. The fruits are capsules (fig.
237).

- 246 -
 Fig.236. Bittersweet Fig. 237. Henbane

g. Deadly nightshade - Atropa L.

A perennial herb with a soft stem, large simple leaves and

brown tubular flowers. Typical are the attractive, shiny black berries
(fig. 238).

g. Thorn apple, Jimson weed - Datura L.

A robust annual of up to 1.5m in height, with unpleasantly

scented leaves, large, white or purplish tubular flowers and
characteristic fruit capsules containing blackish, kidney-shaped seeds
(fig. 239).

- 247 -
 Fig.238. Deadly nightshade Fig. 239. Thorn apple, Jimson weed

FIGWORT FAMILY - SCROPHULARIACEAE S.L.

The Scrophulariaceae is characterized as shrubs or herbs with

opposite leaves, zygomorphic flowers. The plants are annual or
perennial. The leaves have entire or toothed margins. In the flowers
there are 4-5 sepals that are usually fused together at the base, and 4-
5 petals are also fused to form a bell or a tube. The stamens are 4-5.
The fruit is a capsule or berry.

g. Mullein – Verbascum Schrad.

Mullein is a leafy biennial herb with a rosette of woolly leaves.

The flowers have 5 symmetrical petals. In different species the petals
can be yellow, orange, red-brown, purple, blue or white. The fruit is
a capsule containing numerous minute seeds. Mostly used are

- 248 -
orange mullein (V. phlomoides) and large-flowered mullein (V.
densiflorum). They are distinguished mainly by the size of the
flowers and the hairiness of the stamens. The fruit is a capsule (fig.
240).

g. Foxglove – Digitalis L.

A perennial plant, with smooth, pointed leaves and long

flowering stalks bearing numerous pale yellow or cream-colored
flowers. D. purpurea (common or purple foxglove) forms a dense
rosette of leaves in the first year, and slender flowering stem of up to
2m in height in the second year. The fruit is a capsule (fig. 241).

Fig.240. Mullein Fig. 241. Foxglove

PLANTAIN FAMILY - PLANTAGINACEAE

A family of flowering plants consisting of 3 genera. It is a

cosmopolitan family. It consists of herbs, shrubs and also a few
aquatic plants. The leaves are spiral to opposite, simple to compound.
- 249 -
The flowers are symmetric, corolla is often 2-lipped. The fruit is a
capsule.

g. Plantain – Plantago L.

A rosette-forming perennial herb bearing narrowly oblong,

hairy and parallel-veined leaves, distinctly ridged flowering stalks
and numerous white or pale pink flowers in a dense solitary cluster
(fig. 242).

Fig.242. Plantain

MINT FAMILY - LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

The Lamiaceae consist of herbs, shrubs or rarely trees, often

with short glandular trichomes producing aromatic ethereal oils. The
stems are usually 4-sided (square in cross-section), at least when
young. The leaves are simple, opposite, sometimes whorled. The
inflorescence is a lateral cyme, or solitary flowers. The flowers are
bisexual, mostly zygomorphic. The original family name Labiatae

- 250 -
refers to the fact that the flowers have petals fused into the upper lip
and the lower lip. The fruit is a schizocarp of usually four nutlets, a
drupe, or a berry. The plants often have ethereal oils.

g. Motherwort – Leonurus Gilib.

Motherwort is an erect perennial herb of up to 1.5m in height,

with distinctive toothed leaves and small pink flowers arranged in
axillary clusters on the elongated flowering branches (fig. 243).

g. Dead nettle - Lamium L.

White dead nettle is a perennial herb with branched rhizomes

and erect branches bearing heart-shaped, toothed leaves in opposite
pairs. The white, tubular and two-lipped flowers form small clusters
in the axils of the upper leaves. When not in flower, it resembles a
nettle (Urtica dioica) (fig. 244).

Fig.243. Motherwort Fig. 244. Dead nettle

- 251 -
 g. Germander – Teucrium L.

Germander is a small perennial herb with small opposite leaves

and clusters of pink or purple flowers borne on the branch tips.
Several other species are used in folk medicine (fig. 245).

Fig.245.Germander

g. Mint - Mentha L.

Mints are aromatic, exclusively perennial, rarely annual herbs.

They have erect, square, branched stems. The leaves are arranged in
opposite pairs, from oblong to lanceolate, with serrated margins. The
flowers are white to purple. The corolla is two-lipped. The fruit is a
nutlet, containing one to four seeds (fig. 246).

- 252 -
 g. Sage - Salvia L.

Sage is a perennial shrub with square stems bearing opposite

pairs of grey leaves and attractive purplish blue flowers (fig. 247).

Fig.246.Mint Fig. 247.Sage

g. Oregano – Origanum L.

Oregano is an aromatic perennial herb with hairy, opposite

leaves and white or pink flowers. It is very similar to marjoram (O.
majorana) and the two species (both popular culinary herbs) are
often confused (fig. 248).

g. Thyme - Thymus L.

A small perennial herb or shrub with thin stems bearing small,

grey green leaves in opposite pairs and minute violet flowers (fig.
249).

- 253 -
 Fig.248.Oregano Fig. 249.Thyme

g. Basil - Ocimum L.

Sweet basil is a robust, aromatic annual, with soft, hairless

leaves and broad spikes of white flowers (fig. 250).

g. Orthosiphon – Orthosiphon Benth.

Orthosiphon is a medicinal plant. It is an herbaceous shrub.

Orthosiphon is a popular garden plant because of its unique flower,
which is white and bluish with filaments resembling a cat’s whiskers
(fig. 251).

- 254 -
 Fig.250.Basil Fig. 251.Orthosiphon

SUNFLOWER FAMILY - ASTERACEAE

(COMPOSITAE)

The Asteraceae consist of herbs, shrubs, trees or vines, with

laticifers or resin ducts. The leaves are simple or compound, spiral or
opposite. The inflorescence consist of one or more heads arranged in
various secondary inflorescences, each head consisting of a flat to
conical compound receptacle that bears one to many flowers. The
heads can be of five general types:
1. discoid, with only disk flowers, all bisexual;
2. disciform, with only disk flowers, a mixture of pistillate and
sterile flowers, with bisexual and staminate, in the same or different
heads;
3. radiate, with central (bisexual or male) disk flowers and
peripheral (female) ray flowers;

- 255 -
 4. ligulate, with all ray flowers (typically with 5-toothed corolla
apices);
5. bilabiate (two lipped flowers). The flowers are bisexual or
unisexual.
The fruit is an achene.

g. Sandy everlasting - Helichrysum (L.) Moench.

A small perennial herb with narrow, silver-hairy leaves and

small, yellow flower heads arranged in cymes. Also well known is
the curry plant, H. italicum- a shrubby species with narrow leaves
and small, yellow flower heads used mainly as a culinary herb (fig.
252).

g. Cudweed - Gnaphalium L.

Gnaphalium is a genus of flowering plants in the daisy family,

Asteraceae. It contains about 120 species, which are commonly
called cudweeds (fig. 253). It is a small annual herb up to 25cm tall.
The stems and leaves are covered with a dense coat of wooly hairs,
giving the plant a whitish appearance. The leaves are narrowly linear
(4.5 cm long). The flower heads contain numerous florets, mostly
yellowish, but sometimes with purple tips.

- 256 -
 Fig.252.Sandy everlasting Fig. 253.Cudweed

g. Elfdock - Inula L.

A large, leafy perennial herb with erect stems, which are very
stout and near the top, branched. The whole plant is downy. It
produces a radical rosette of enormous, ovate, pointed leaves with
toothed margins and borne on long foot-stalks. The flowers are bright
yellow, in large, terminal heads. The broad bracts under the head are
velvety. The fruit is quadrangular and crowned by a ring of pale-
reddish hairs, bearing toothed leaves and large, yellow flower heads
(fig. 254).

g. Chamomile - Matricaria L.

It is an annual plant with branched, erect and smooth stem,

which grow to a height of 15cm. The long and narrow leaves are
bipinnate or tripinnate. The flowers are borne in paniculate flower
- 257 -
heads (capitula). The white ray florets are furnished with a ligula,
while the disc florets are yellow. The receptacle is characteristically
hollow. The flowers have a strong, aromatic smell (fig. 255).

Fig.254.Elfdock Fig. 255.Chamomile

g. Bur-marigold – Bidens L.

The name means “two-tooth” from Latin bis “two”+ dens

“tooth”. The plants are “zoochorous”- their seeds can stick to
clothing, fur or feathers, and be carried to a new habitat. Annuals or
perennials, the stems are erect, the leaves are opposite, rarely
whorled or alternate. The heads are discoid, yellow, white or pink.
The fruits have 2 or 4 barbed bristles (fig. 256).

g. Tansy – Tanacetum L.

These herbs are annual, perennial subshrubs. Their leaves are

aromatic. The button-shaped flowers are showy in shades including

- 258 -
pinks, whites and yellows. The flower heads consist of both ray and
disk flowers, disk flowers only, or ray flowers only (fig. 257).

Fig.256.Bur-marigold Fig. 257.Tansy

g. Yarrow - Achillea L.

A perennial herb with several erect stems, arising from multiple

rhizomes below the ground. The compound leaves are bright green
and feathery. The inflorescence contains ray and disc flowers which
are white and pink. The ray flowers are ovate to round. The flowers
are produced in a flat-topped capitulum and are visited by many
insects. The fruits are small, achene-like (fig. 258).

g. Coltsfoot – Tussilago L.

Coltsfoot is a small perennial herb with distinctive heart-shaped

leaves, that are bright green above and silvery below, due to a felt-
like layer of white hairs. The bright yellow flower heads are

- 259 -
produced on stalks in early spring, before the leaves emerge (fig.
259).

Fig.258. Yarrow Fig. 259. Coltsfoot

g. Wormwood – Artemisia L.

It is a perennial herb. The leaves are pinnately compound and

silvery in color. Numerous small pale yellow flower heads are borne
along the branch ends (fig. 260).

g. Ragworth – Senecio L.

It is an erect perennial herb with narrow, toothed leaves and a

large number of flower heads borne in loose clusters. Each flower
head is tubular in shape. The flower heads are usually completely
yellow, but green, purple, white and blue flowers are known as well.
Several Senecio species have been traditionally used as medicinal
plants (fig. 261).

- 260 -
 Fig.260. Wormwood Fig. 261. Ragworth

g. Burdock – Arctium L.

Burdock is a robust biennial weed with large leaves and

rounded purple flower heads surrounded by bristly, hooked bracts
(fig. 262).

g. Globe-thistle - Echinops L.

This is a glandular, woolly perennial herbaceous plant. The

erect, gray and hairy stems bear sharply toothed green leaves. They
are sticky, hairy above and white, woolly below.
At the top of each stem there is a spherical inflorescence,
packed with white or blue-gray disc florets.
The fruits are hairy, cylindrical achenes (fig. 263).

- 261 -
 Fig.262. Burdock Fig. 263. Globe-thistle

g. Blue cornflower - Centaurea L.

It is an annual, widely branched herb. The lower leaves are

lobed and stalked; the upper ones simple, oblong to linear and
sessile. The attractive flower heads are usually bright blue, but white,
purple or pink forms also occur (fig. 264).

g. Dandelion – Taraxacum Weber

Dandelion is a leafy perennial herb with a fleshy taproot and a

rosette of toothed leaves. The solitary yellow flower heads are borne
on hollow, unbranched stalks. The small brown fruits (achenes) have
a hairy “parachute” for wind dispersal. All parts of the plant exude a
bitter, milky juice when cut or broken (fig. 265).

- 262 -
 Fig.264. Blue cornflower Fig. 265. Dandelion

g. Chicory – Cichorium L.

It is an erect perennial herb with a thick root, large dentate

leaves and attractive, pale blue, sessile flower heads (fig. 266).

g. Marigold - Calendula L.

Marigold is an annual or biennial aromatic herb, with soft

glandular leaves and attractive yellow or orange flower heads (fig.
267).

- 263 -
 Fig.266. Chicory Fig. 267.Marigold

g. Sunflower - Helianthus L.

Sunflower is an annual plant. The

sunflower has a rough, hairy stem,
coarsely toothed, rough leaves and
circular heads of flowers. The heads
consist of 1,000- 2,000 individual
flowers joined together by a receptacle
base.
The sunflower seeds were brought
to Europe from America in the 16th
century (fig. 268).

Fig.268. Sunflower

- 264 -
 g. Arnica – Arnica L.

It is a perennial herb with hairy leaves and large, deep yellow

flower heads. Mainly the flower heads are used, rarely- the roots or
the whole plant (fig. 269).

Fig.269. Arnica Fig. 270.Milk thistle

g. Milk thistle - Silybum L.

They contain a milky sap. The seeds of the milk thistle have
been used for 2000 years to treat chronic liver disease. The members
of this genus grow as annual or biannial plants. The erect stem is tall,
branched. The large, alternate leaves are toothed and thorny. They
have large, disc-shaped pink-to-purple, rarely white, solitary flower
heads at the end of the stem. The fruit is a black achene (fig. 270).

- 265 -
 CLASS MONOCOT PLANTS –
MONOCOTILEDONES (LILIOPSIDA)
Characteristics of monocot plants:
1. They have one cotyledon in the embryo;
2. Leaf veins are parallel;
3. Petals are in multiples of 3;
4. They have fibrous root systems;
5. Secondary growth is absent;
6. Vascular bundles scattered throughout the stem;
7. Usually herbaceous plants;
8. One seed leaf.

BUNCHFLOWER FAMILY - MELANTHIACEAE

It is a family of flowering perennial herbs, trees and shrubs. The

plants usually arise from horizontal roots, some species may grow
from bulbs or tubers. They are perennial herbs that usually have
leaves clustered at the base of the plant, but sometimes have leaves
that grow on the stem. The stem leaves are arranged alternately, or
they may be whorled. The leaves have parallel or pinnately branched
veins, and have untoothed edges. The flowers are actinomorphic. The
fruit is a berry or capsule.

g. Hellebore - Veratrum L.

It is an extremely toxic plant. It is a herbaceous perennial plant

with green stems. The leaves are spirally arranged, elliptic,
lanceolate, hairy on the underside. The flowers are numerous,
produced in a large branched inflorescence. The fruit is a capsule
(fig. 271).

- 266 -
 g. Meadow saffron - Colchicum L.
Colchicum is a perennial herb forming a fleshy corm in spring.
In autumn, several long, tubular pink flowers are produced from the
leafless plant. The fruit is a capsule, it contains numerous small,
hard, black seeds (fig. 272).

Fig.271. Hellebore Fig. 272.Meadow saffron

ALOE FAMILY - ASPHODELACEAE

They are stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plants. The

leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some white
flecks on the upper and lower stem surfaces. The margins of the
leaves are serrated. The flowers are on a spike, with yellow tubular
corolla. These plants like to have mycorrhiza. The fruit is a non-
fleshy capsule.

- 267 -
 g. Aloe – Aloe Mill.

This succulent plant grows as an evergreen perennial. The

leaves are thick and fleshy. The gray-green or pale green upper
surface sometimes have small white dots. Aloe leaves have soft teeth
along the edges. The flowers appear on spikes. They are yellowish-
orange and tubular. They are stemless or have a short stem. The fruit
of the plant is a capsule with dark brown winged seeds (fig. 273).

ONION FAMILY - ALLIACEAE

The Alliaceae consist of biennial or perennial herbs, usually

with onion-like odor. The stems are usually a bulb, rarely a short
rhizome. The leaves are simple, basal, linear, or lanceolate, parallel
veined. The inflorescence is a terminal umbel. The flowers are
bisexual, actinomorphic. The fruit is a capsule. The seeds are black.
Economic importance includes important food and flavoring
plants, including onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum).

sp. Onion - Allium cepa L.

A bulbous perennial with hollow green leaves arising from a

bulb. The hollow flowering stem bears a rounded cluster of white or
purple flowers (fig. 274).

- 268 -
 Fig.273. Aloe Fig. 274.Onion

sp. Garlic - Allium sativum L.

Garlic is a perennial herb with fleshy grey leaves, rounded

flower heads and numerous small bulbs (cloves) borne in a group and
surrounded by a white papery sheets. The flowers are placed at the
end of a stalk, rising directly from the bulb and are whitish, grouped
together in a globular head or umbel (fig. 275).

LILY FAMILY - LILIACEAE

The Liliaceae consist of perennial herbs. The stems are usually

bulbous, rhizomatous in some. The leaves are basal, spiral or
whorled, usually sheathing and parallel veined. The inflorescence is a
terminal raceme. The flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic or
zygomorphic. The fruit may be a dry capsule or a fleshy berry.
- 269 -
 g. Lily - Lilium L.

Lilium is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from

bulbs, all with large flowers. The bulbs are their overwintering
organs. Some species develop stolons. A few species bear a basal
rosette of leaves. The large flowers are often fragrant, they can be
white, pink, red, purple, yellow and orange. The flowers are borne in
racemes or umbels at the tip of the stem, they have nectaries at the
base of each flower. The ovary is superior. The fruit is a capsule (fig.
276).

Fig.275. Garlik Fig. 276.Lily

- 270 -
 LILY OF THE VALLEY FAMILY -
CONVALLARIACEAE

This family contains perennial or annual rhizomatous herbs. The

roots are fibrous or tuber-like. The leaves are spiral, opposite or
whorled on the stem or in basal rosettes. The inflorescence is
racemes, or spikes, or borne in axillary clusters on a leafy stem. The
flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic. The fruit is usually a berry or a
capsule.

g. Lily-of-the-valley - Convallaria L.

An attractive perennial herb with a pair of broad leaves arising

from the ground that grows in large clumps. It produces an elegant
cluster of small, bell-shaped, white, fragrant flowers, all arranged on
one side of the stalk. The fruits are small, red berries (fig. 277).

ASPARAGUS FAMILY - ASPARAGACEAE

This family contains shrubs, lianas or herbs. The leaves are

reduced to small bracket-like structures. The herbs are perennial. The
leaves are alternate; simple; parallel-veined. Floral nectaries are
present. The flowers are aggregated in cymes, racemes, or in umbels.
The flowers are small; regular; 3-merous. The fruit is a fleshy berry.

g. Asparagus – Asparagus L.

It is a perennial herb with green stems and minute white, or

yellowish flowers. The small green berries turn bright red when they
- 271 -
ripen. Young stems are white (when grown underground) or green
(above the ground) and are a popular vegetable (fig. 278).

Fig.277. Lily-of-the-valley Fig. 278.Asparagus

ORCHID FAMILY - ORCHIDACEAE

The Orchidaceae consist of perennial (rarely annual) herbs

(rarely vines). The leaves are spiral or whorled, usually sheathing,
simple, and parallel veined. The inflorescence is a raceme, panicle,
spike, or a solitary flower. The flowers are bisexual, rarely unisexual,
zygomorphic. The fruit is a capsule or a berry.

g. Orchids – Orchis L.

The Orchid has narrow leaves, often spotted purple-black, and a

spike of purple flowers. It has glossy leaves, a dense spike of flowers
that smell unpleasant). The stamens and carpels are fused and the
seeds are extremely small (fig. 279).

- 272 -
 Fig. 279.Orchis

GRASS FAMILY - POACEAE (GRAMINEAE)

The Poaceae consist of perennial or annual herbs. The roots are

adventitious, often mycorrhizal. The erect stems are hollow, strawy
woody-textured in some. The leaves are simple, the leaf blade is
parallel-veined. The inflorescence consists of terminal spikelets. The
flowers are bisexual or unisexual. The fruit is a caryopsis (grain).
The grasses are perhaps the most economically important group
of plants, including barley (Hordeum), corn (Zea mays), oats
(Avena), rice (Oryza), wheat (Triticum) and others.

g. Barley - Hordeum L.

This annual grass has straight stems, long, sheathed leaves, and
grouped spikelets that produce husk-covered seeds with a
characteristic upward “bristle” (fig. 280).
- 273 -
 g. Wheat - Triticum L.

Wheat is the most important food grain of the temperate zones.

It is an annual grass. The common wheat has a long, slender spike.
The spikelets are 2 to 5 flowered. The stem centers are generally
hollow. The leaves are narrower. The grains may be red or white,
hard or soft (fig. 281).

Fig.280 . Barley Fig.281 . Wheat

g. Corn – Zea mays L.

Corn is an annual grass with thick stems and broad, sheeting

leaves. The male flowers are borne in clusters at the tips of the
branches, while the female flowers are arranged in thick spikes in the
leaf axils (fig. 282).

- 274 -
 Fig. 282.Corn Fig. 283. Oats

g. Oats - Avena L.

Oats is an annual grass with hollow stems and characteristically

nodding spikelets, each protected by two large, leafy, persistent
glumes (fig. 283).

g. Rice - Oryza L.

The genus includes both annual and perennial species. They

have fibrous root systems, cylindrical stems, sheeting leaves with
parallel veined blades and an inflorescence with spikelets (fig. 284).

g. Pheasant tail grass – Stipa

Stipa is a genus of perennial grasses known as feather grass.

The leaves are linear, the flowers are feathery (fig. 285).

- 275 -
 Fig. 284. Rice Fig. 285. Pheasant tail grass

SUBCLASS ARECIDAE
PALM FAMILY - ARECACEAE (PALMAE)

The Arecaceae family consist of perennial trees, large

rhizomatous herbs or lianas. The roots are mycorrhizal, lacking root
hairs. The stem is usually an unbranched trunk. The leaves are
typically quite large, spiral, simple, pinnate, bipinnate or palmate.
The inflorescence is panicle or spike. The flowers are unisexual or
bisexual, actinomorphic. The fruit is a fleshy or fibrous drupe.

g. Coconut - Cocos L.

Cocos is a large palm with pinnate leaves of 4-6 meters long;

the old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. The
coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Botanically the

- 276 -
coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits it has three
layers: exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. Within the shell is a single
seed. The palm tree has a fibrous root system. On the same
inflorescence, the palm produces both female and male flowers. The
female flower is much larger than the male flower (fig. 286).

g. Date Palm - Phoenix L.

The generic name derives from “phoinikos”, the Greek word for
the date palm. The leaves have short or absent petioles. The plants
are dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants. The
flowers are yellowish-brown, grouped on large multi-branched
panicles. The inflorescence forms large clusters. Phoenix fruit
develops from one carpel as a drupe (fig. 287).

Fig. 236.Coconut Fig.287 Date palm

- 277 -
 ARUM (SWEET FLAG) FAMILY - ARACEAE

They are mostly small perennial herbs. Many of the species are
aquatic, but a few grow in uplands. The leaves are simple, undivided,
parallel - veined. The flowers are characteristically borne on a
distinctive inflorescence known as a spadix and are usually
surrounded by a single leaf-like bract, known as a spathe. Species are
often rhizomatous or tuberous. The fruit is a berry. Many plants of
this family are thermogenic (heat-producing). Their flowers can
reach up to 45°C even when the surrounding air temperature is much
lower.
Acorus calamus is used medicinally and as a perfume.

g. Sweet flag - Acorus L.

A perennial, aquatic plant with bright green, sword-shaped

leaves growing from rhizomes. The leaves are aromatic with distinct
midrib. The minute flowers are grouped together in small oblong
spikes. The flowers are greenish-yellow arranged in a diamond-
shaped pattern. The flowers are sweetly fragrant. The fruit is a berry
(fig. 288).

- 278 -
 Fig. 288. Sweet flag

GINGER FAMILY - ZINGIBERACEAE

The Zingiberaceae consist of perennial herbs. The stems are

rhizomatous. The leaves are simple, sheething, petiolate, parallel -
veined. The inflorescence is a spike or raceme. The flowers are
bisexual, zygomorphic. The fruit is a dry or fleshy capsule.

g. Ginger - Zingiber L.

A herbaceous perennial herb with large leaves, developing from

branched rhizomes. The flowers occur in a spike. Each flower has
three yellowish-orange petals with an additional purplish, lip-like
structure (fig. 289).

g. Turmeric - Curcuma (L.)

Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the

ginger family (Zingiberaceae). Highly branched, yellow to orange,
cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes are found. The leaves are alternate,

- 279 -
elliptic, narrowing at the tip. The hermaphrodite flowers are
zygomorphic. The sepals are fused, white, have fluffy hairs. The
three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube. The fruit
capsule opens with three compartments.
Extracts from turmeric have antifungal and antibacterial
properties (fig. 290).

Fig.289.Ginger Fig. 290.Turmeric

- 280 -
 Chapter 18
HERBARIA AND PLANT PRESERVATION
The botanical resources of many universities and other
institutions include herbaria (singular: herbarium). Herbaria are
essential libraries of dried, pressed plants, algae, and fungi arranged
and labeled so that specific specimens can be easily retrieved.

Methods

Fungi and bryophytes are usually dried and stored in small

boxes or packets. The moisture content of flowers and other plant
parts to be preserved, should be reduced as quickly as possible, with
a minimum of distortion. This is usually done with the aid of a plant
press. This simple device consists of two pieces of polywood (or
other wood materials or thin metal plates) with dimensions of
approximately 30×46 centimeters and a pair of webbing or leather
straps to go around the boards. A number of felts (sheets of heavy
blotting paper) are placed between the boards. A folded page of
newspaper is placed between each blotter.
Any soil clinging to the roots of a specimen to be pressed is
washed off, and the plant is laid out on one of the newspaper sheets.
Leaves are carefully straightened out, as are petals and other plant
parts, so that they are not folded during pressing. Notes on where,
when, and by whom the specimen was collected are penciled on the
newspaper. The newspaper is then folded over the specimen and
placed between two blotters (felts).
Many specimens may be placed in a press at one time or, if
there is space, between the same sheets of newspaper. Only one
species should be placed in a single fold of newspaper. If the plant is
small, press the entire plant, and try to have both upper and lower
leaf or flower surfaces visible. If, however, the plant is large (e.g. a

- 281 -
tree), press representative parts, especially flowers and/or fruits and it
is left to dry in the sun or near a heater for 3 or 4 days. Unless the
leaves were succulent or wet at the time they were placed in the
press, they should be dry enough to mount on paper at this time. If a
press is not available, plants may be pressed between newspapers and
blotters by placing heavy weights on top of them. Herbarium paper
normally measures 29×42 centimeters. The bottom right-hand corner
of the paper should be kept clear for a label indicating the scientific
name of the plant, collection information, the collector’s name, and
the collection date.
Flowers can also be dried in a shoe box without pressing. The
bottom of the box is covered with about 2 centimeters of sand. The
fresh flower is gently laid on the surface. After this, more sand is
slowly drizzled by hand into the box, until the entire flower is buried,
with care being taken not to create air pockets around any parts. Sand
must be thoroughly washed several times to be certain it is perfectly
clean before use. The sand also needs to be completely dry. It takes
about 2 weeks to dry most flowers with sand.

- 282 -
 Chapter 19
PLANT ECOLOGY

Plants and the environment

The interaction between organisms and their environment

determines whether or not a species, or an individual member of a
species, can survive and reproduce in a particular habitat. The
environment of each habitat is determined by both living and
nonliving factors. Living, or biotic factors include all the other
organisms in the habitat with which the organism interacts. If we
consider a maple tree in a forest, the biotic factors include the other
maple trees that might provide pollen for reproduction, or the
animals that might eat its leaves, or the fungi and other
microorganisms, that are associated with its roots. The nonliving or
abiotic factors in the environment include the wind, rain, sunlight,
soil, and temperature, to which the maple tree is exposed during its
lifetime. Each habitat in the world has a different combination of
biotic and abiotic factors, with different habitats favoring different
kinds of plants and animals. Thus, maples might grow well in places
where there are freezing winters, while palm trees would not.
The fact that a particular species of plant can flourish in one
habitat, but not another suggests that plants reflect and respond to
their environment. For example, when a seed germinates, it must be
capable of growing into a mature plant and also must reproduce in
the same environment. When the plant reproduces, its genes pass
along to the next generation; these genes allow it to grow in its
environment. In other words, the plant is adapted to its environment,
its seeds might germinate, but the plants would die before
reproduction could occur.

- 283 -
 Populations, Communities, and Ecosystems

We recognize that plants, animals, and other organisms tend to

be associated in various ways with one another and also with their
physical environment. For example, forests consist of populations
(groups of individuals of the same species) of trees or other plants,
that form a plant community (unit composed of all the populations of
plants occurring in a given area). The lichen and moss flora on a rock
also constitute a community. However, these communities also
invariably have animals and other living organisms associated with
them. It is preferable, therefore, to refer to the unit composed of all
the populations of living organisms in a given area, as a biotic
community. Considered together, the communities and their
physical, chemical, and biological processes constitute ecosystems.

Population

Populations may vary in numbers, in density, in genetic

diversity, and in the total mass of individuals. Depending on
circumstances, a field biologist may investigate a population in
various ways. If, for example, a conservation organization is
concerned about the preservation of a rare or threatened species, the
organization may simply count the number of individuals, although
this may not always be feasible. If such a count is not feasible, the
organization may estimate population density (number of individuals
per unit volume-e.g. five blueberry bushes per square meter). If the
individuals in a population vary greatly in size, or are unevenly
scattered, a better estimate of the population’s importance to the
ecosystem may be calculated by determining the biomass (total mass
of the living individuals present).

- 284 -
 Communities

Communities are composed of populations of one to many

species of organisms living together in the same location. Similar
communities occur under similar environmental conditions, although
actual species composition can vary considerably from one location
to another. A community is difficult to define precisely, because
species of one community may also occur in other communities. If
individuals are transplanted to a second different community, where
the same species occurs, the transplanted individuals may not
necessarily be able to survive alongside their counterparts, that are
adapted to this second community.
Analysis and classification of communities are important in the
preparation of maps.

Ecosystems

Living organisms interacting with one another and with factors

of the nonliving environment constitute an ecosystem. The nonliving
factors of the environment (abiotic factors) include light,
temperature, concentration of oxygen and other gases, air circulation,
fire, precipitation, rocks, and soil type. The distribution of a plant
species in an ecosystem is controlled mostly by temperature,
precipitation soil type, and the effects of other living organisms
(biotic factors). Biotic interactions, such as competition for light and
grazing by the animal members of the biotic community, and abiotic
factors, such as mineral nutrients and available water, also influence
the distribution of plant species.
The leaves and other parts of plant species that occur
naturally in the area of low precipitation and high temperature
(xerophytes) generally are adapted to their particular environment
through modifications that reduce transpiration. Similarly, plants that
grow in water (hydrophytes) are modified for aquatic environments.
Ecosystems may sustain entirely through photosynthetic
activity, energy flow through food chains and the recycling of
- 285 -
nutrients. The organisms, called producers, are capable of carrying
on photosynthesis (e.g. plants, algae) and store energy that may be
released by other organisms. Animals such as cows, that feed directly
on producers are called primary consumers. Secondary consumers,
such as tigers, toads feed on primary consumers. Decomposers break
down organic materials to forms that can be reassimilated by the
producers in most ecosystems - bacteria and fungi.

Interactions Among Plants and Other Organisms

Some of the species of the Family Scrophulariaceae have no

chlorophyll and depend entirely on their flowering plant hosts for
their energy and other nutritional needs.
Mycorrhizal fungi are intimately associated with the roots of
most woody and many other plants in such a way, that both
organisms derive benefit (such associations, called mutualisms), are
a major part of life in general. The fungi greatly increase the
absorptive surface of the root, usually playing a major role in the
absorption of phosphorus and other nutrients, while obtaining energy
from root cells.
Thomas Belt, a naturalist of more than 100 years ago, first
called attention to an association between tropical ants and thorny,
rapidly growing species of Acacia. The Acacia has large, hollow
thorns at the base of each leaf and is host to ants that feed on sugar,
fats, and proteins produced by petiolar nectarines and special bodies
at the tip of each leaflet. Ants live within the hollow thorns and
vigorously attack any other organism, from insects to large animals,
that come in contact with the plant. They also kill, by girdling, any
plant that touches the Acacia cussed under “bridge grafting”.
Experiments have shown that when ants are removed from these
Acacia species, the plants grow very slowly and usually soon die
from insect attacks or from shading by other plants.

- 286 -
 Life Histories

Plants can be divided into three groups based on their

reproductive strategies. Annuals, biennials, and perennials differ in
their seasonal growth cycles. During the growing season, annuals
grow vegetatively, with a reproductive growth occurring toward the
end of the season. Once seeds have been produced, the plants die.
Many weeds, wildflowers, and garden plants exhibit this type of
growth. Biennials put all their energy into vegetative growth for one
year. Then, during the second year, most energy is put into the
production of reproductive structures. The plants include parsley,
carrots, celery, foxglove. Perennial plants produce vegetative
structures that survive for many years. Herbaceous perennials grow
actively during periods of adequate temperature and moisture, but die
back during unfavorable growing conditions such as a cold winter or
a dry season. They survive through underground structures such as
roots, rhizomes, bulbs, or tubers, which remain dormant until
conditions are favorable for growth again. Examples of herbaceous
perennials include coneflowers, tulips, and most grasses. Woody
perennials do not die back during unfavorable periods in the growing
season, but they do become dormant. Examples include trees, shrubs,
and vines.

Natural Cycles

Water and elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus

are constantly cycling throughout nature. Such cycling involves
transformation between organic and inorganic forms.

The water cycle

Most of living cells consist of water. In fact, life as we know

can’t exist without water. The earth’s water is constantly being
recycled, and the total amount remains stable. However, as we can
see, the distribution of water across the globe can change over time.
- 287 -
Ninety-eight percent of the water is in oceans, rivers, lakes, and
puddles that make up about two- thirds of the earth’s surface. Most
of the remaining water is in living organisms, glaciers, polar ice,
water vapor, and the soil.
Some water that falls on land penetrates until it reaches an area
of saturation known as the water table. Water in the water table may
emerge from beneath the surface in the form of springs and artesian
wells. Below the water table, porous rocks collect water and, when
these rocks transmit water to wells and springs, they are called
aquifers.
The water vapor rises into the atmosphere, condenses, and falls
back to earth in the form of rain, snow, and hail in a constant cycle-
the water cycle.

The carbon cycle

Photosynthesis, first by marine cyanobacteria, then by marine

algae and finally by green land plants, has dramatically changed the
carbon cycle and ultimately the earth. Plants have run the biological
carbon cycle for 3 billion years in the ocean, and for the past 400
million years on land, using the process of photosynthesis to convert
atmospheric CO2 into carbon-rich carbohydrates and sugars, to feed
themselves. And they are very good at it. They not only feed
themselves, but also produce oxygen as a byproduct of
photosynthesis, an element essential for animal life.
As land plants grow, they accumulate more and more carbon.
Woody plants, such as trees, can sequester – pull carbon out of
circulation – for dozens to hundreds of years. The CO2 given off by
decay of organic matter in the soil is released to the atmosphere,
where it is consumed by plants in the continuing cycle. Plants have
helped keep CO2 levels from rising excessively because they keep
using it to feed themselves. The carbon cycle has a number of self-
regulating mechanisms that can compensate for small temporary
increases in atmospheric CO2. For example, plants initially tend to
- 288 -
grow faster under higher CO2 levels and their consumption of CO2
rises accordingly.

The nitrogen cycle

Most of the nitrogen in living organisms is in the protoplasmic

proteins of their cells. Nitrogen gas makes up about 78% of our
atmosphere but constitutes only about 18% of the protein in living
cells. Most of the nitrogen supply of plants is derived from the soil in
the form of inorganic compounds and ions, taken in by the roots.
Some nitrogen from the air is also fixed by various nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. Some of these organisms gain access to various plants,
particularly legumes (e.g. peas, beans, clover), through the root hairs,
with the plant producing root nodules in which the bacteria multiply.
Others live free in the soil. Bacteria and fungi can break down
enormous quantities of dead leaves and other tissues within a few
days to a few months. The activities of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
volcanoes also contribute to the natural replenishment of nitrogen by
converting it to forms that can be utilized by plants.

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 Chapter 20
PLANT GEOGRAPHY

Plant geography is also known as phytogeography, geobotany,

phytochorology, geographical botany, or vegetation science.
A flora is the collection of all plant species in an area, or in a
period of time, independent of their relationships to one another. The
species can be grouped into various kinds of floral elements, based
on some common evolutionary origin; a migration element has a
common route of entry into the territory; an ecological element is
related to an environmental preference. An endemic species is
restricted to a particular area, which is usually small and of some
special interest. The collection of all interacting individuals of a
given species in an area is called a population.
An area is the entire region of distribution of any species,
element, or even an entire flora. The description of areas is the
subject of areography, while chorology studies their development.
On the basis of areas and their floristic relationships, the Earth’s
surface is divided into floristic regions, each with a distinctive flora.
Floras and their distribution have been interpreted mainly in terms of
their history and ecology. Basic plant growth forms (such as broad-
leaved trees, stem-succulents, or forbs) have long represented
convenient groups of species, based on obvious similarities, when
these forms are interpreted as ecologically significant adaptation to
environmental factors. They are generally called forms and may be
interpreted as basic ecological types. Basic plant types may be seen
as groups of plant taxa with similar form and ecological
requirements, resulting from similar morphological responses to
similar environmental conditions.

- 290 -
 GEOBOTANY
Geobotany is a science concerned with the earth’s vegetation as
an aggregate of plant communities, or phytocoenoses. General
geobotany mainly studies the structural patterns of plant
communities reflected in species composition, the quantitative
relations between species in vertical (layer structure) and horizontal
(mosaic structure) divisions, the existence of ecologically similar
specialized and relatively isolated plant groups, the relative position
of individuals of different species, and the age composition of the
species populations.
Geobotany is closely linked to some earth sciences - physical
geography, meteorology, hydrology, climatology and soil science.
Geobotany focuses on five main issues:
 Floristic Geobotany;
 Historical Geobotany;
 Sociological Geobotany;
 Ecological Geobotany;
 Applied Geobotany.

Ecological Factors that Affect the Growth of plants

The ecological factors, that effect the growth of plants and

determine the nature of plant communities, are divided into three
types.
1. Climatic factors which include rainfall, atmospheric
humidity, wind, atmospheric gases, temperature and light.
2. Physiographic factors (altitude, effect of steepness and
sunlight on vegetation and direction of slopes).
3. Biotic factors (relationship between different plants of a
particular area, interrelationship between plants and animals,
between plants and soil microorganisms).
Biotic factors have their origin in the activities of living
organisms, such as green and non-green plants, and all animals,
- 291 -
including man. The activities of these living organisms have
profound direct and indirect effects upon growth, structure,
reproduction and distribution of plants on earth. There are some
examples of plants to show mutual relationship between individual
plants, growing in the same area:
1. Lianas
They are woody plants, rooted on ground, but climb up with the
support of other trees and reach almost the top of the plant canopy.
They are autotrophs and commonly found in tropical or dense forests
(e.g. Entada gigas, Tinospora).
2. Epiphytes
They grow on other plants and are not attached to the soil. They
are autotrophs and do not obtain food from the supporting plant, e.g.
members of the family Orchidaceae, many mosses and ferns. They
obtain water and minerals through their absorbing roots from the soil
present in the cracks, on the surface of the supporting trees. Orchids
absorb water from the saturated atmosphere with the help of special
hanging roots.
3. Parasites
These plants exist on other autotrophic plants, called host, from
where they (parasites) obtain their food. They have no contact with
the soil. They have special sucking roots called haustoria.
4. Symbiotic plants
Lichens are the example of perfect symbiotic relationship
between two plants – the algae (called phycobiont) and fungi (called
mycobiont), live together and mutually provide benefits to each
other. Here, the alga synthesizes organic food, whereas the fungus
provides moisture and mineral elements. The abiotic factors that
affect plant growth and development include topography, soil and
climatic factors.

- 292 -
 Floristic Kingdom

Floristic Kingdom or Region, any of six areas of the world,

recognized by plant geographers. The chief difference is the
recognition by plant geographers of the Cape region of South Africa
because of Sots rich flora.
The six kingdoms (Boreal, Neotropical, Paleotropical, South
African, Australian and Antarctic) are subdivided into more
restricted units. The Paleotropical consists of three subkingdoms,
each of which is subdivided into provinces. The other five kingdoms
are also subdivided into provinces. There are 37 floristic provinces in
total, almost all the provinces are further subdivided into floristic
regions.

- 293 -
 REFERENCES
1. Kingsley R. Stern, James E. Bidlack, Shelley H. Jansky
“Introductory Plant Biology”, (Eleventh Edition), 2008.
2. Hopkins W. G., N. P. A. Hüner “Introduction to plant
physiology” (3-rd edition), 2004.
3. Davies P. J. “Plant hormones” (Kl. Academic Publ.), 1995.
4. Raven P. H., Evert R. F. and Eichhorn S. E. “Biology of
plants” (7-th ed.), New York, 2005.
5. Southater Staff. “Foliage color”, Summit, PA: National Book
Network, 2002.
6. Ziegler E. G., Farquhar and Cowan I (Eds.) “Stomatal
function”, Pale Alto, 1987.
7. Dickison W. C. “Integrative plant anatomy”, San Diego, CA,
2000.
8. Romberger J. A. “Plant structure: Functions and
development”, New York, 1993.
9. Molles M. C. “Ecology: Concepts and applications” (3-rd
edition), 2005.
10. Jill Bailey “The facts on file dictionary of Botany”, 2002.
11. Janice Glimn-Lacy, Peter B. Kaufman “Botany Illustrated:
Introduction to plants, major groups, flowering plant families” (2-nd
edition), 2006.
12. Pandey S. N., Ajanta Chadha “A textbook of Botany” (vol.
I, II, III), 1996.
13. Ben – Erik van Wyk, Michael Wink “Medicinal plants of
the world”, 2005.
14. James D. Mauseth “Botany” (an introduction to plant
biology) (3-rd ed.), 2003.
15. Brown R. G. “Dictionary of Medicinal Plants” Ivy
Publishing House, Raleigh, 2002.
16. Chevallier A. “Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants” (new ed.),
Dorling Kindersley, London, 2001.

- 294 -
 17. Duke J. A. “Handbook of Medicinal Herbs” (2-nd ed.) Boca
Raton, 2002.
18. Foster S., Hobbs C. “Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs”,
N.Y., 2002.
19. Michael G. Simpson “Plant Systematics” (2-nd ed.), 2010.
20. James G. Harris “Plant Identification Terminology: An
illustrated glossary” (2-nd ed.), 2001.
21. Thomas J. Elpel “Botany in a day: The Patterns method of
Plant identification”, 2013.
22. Margaret McKenny, Roger Tory Peterson “A field guide to
wildflowers” (Peterson Fienld Guide), 1998.
23. Joan Compton “House plants”, 1972.
24. David Potterton, E. J. Shellard “Culpeper`s color herbal”,
1996.
25. Roger Phillips, Nicky Foy “The Random house book of
herbs”, 1990.
26. David Burnie “Plant” (Eyewitness books).
27. Sue Minter “The healing garden”, 1995.
28. David E. Allen, Gabrielle Hatfield “Medicinal plants in folk
tradition”, 2004.
29. James Mason “Awesome facts about plants”, 2004.
30. Carol Usher, John White, Colin Ridsdale “Trees”, 2005.
31. Lesley Bremness “Herbs” (Smithsonian handbooks), 1994.

- 295 -
 Acknowledgements
The author expresses her deep gratitude to the following
members of the Pharmacognosy Department staff for their active
participation in the creation of this handbook: Naira Chichoyan (head
of the Department of Parmacognosy, PhD), Karine Dumanyan
(associate professor, PhD), Marselina Arshakyan, Naira Shaboyan
(ass.), Armida Harutyunyan (computer operator).

- 296 -
 Index in English

A
Aloe
Asparagus
Astragalus
Alder
Avocado
Aconite, Monkshood
Anise
Arnica

B
Barberry common
Birch
Bearberry
Bilberry
Bryony
Blackcurrant
Blackberry
Burnet
Bay
Bur-marigold
Buckthorn
Basil
Barley
Burdock
Blue cornflower
Bittersweet
Black haw

- 297 -
C
Cinnamon

Celandine
Cucumber family
Capsella
Cabbage
Cowslip
Corn
Chicory
Chamomile
Coltsfoot
Cudweed
Cinchona tree
Coffee tree
Caraway
Celery
Coriander
Clove tree

D
Dill
Deadly nightshade
Dead nettle
Dandelion
Date Palm

E
Elfdock
Eucalyptus
European bistort, Snakeweed

F
Flax, Linseed
- 298 -
Frangula
Fennel
Foxglove

G
Goat’s rue
Ginseng
Germander
Globe-thistle
Garlic
Ginger

H
Hawthorn
Henbane
Hellebore

K
Knotweed
Knotweed, Knotgrass

L
Lily
Lily-of-the-valley
Lime, Linden
Liquorice
Legume
Lemon tree
Larkspur

M
Magnolia
Magnolia vine
Mustard
- 299 -
Mallow
Marshmallow
Madder
Mullein
Motherwort
Mint
Milk thistle
Meadow saffron
Marigold

O
Oak
Oregano
Orthosiphon
Oats
Onion
Orchid

P
Plantain
Passion flower
Poison hemlock
Parsley
Pyrethrum
Poppy

R
Rice
Ragworth
Rose

S
Spring Adonis
Soapwort
- 300 -
Saint-John’s wort
Stinging nettle
Strawberry
Sweet clover
Sea buckthorn
Siberian Ginseng
Spikenard
Strophanthus
Sage
Sandy everlasting
Sunflower
Stipa
Sweet flag

T
Tea plant
Thermopsis
Tormentil
Trefoil
Thorn apple, Jimson weed
Thyme
Turmeric

V
Violet
Valerian

W
Water Lily
Walnut
Wallflower
Woundwort
Wild carrot
Wheat
- 301 -
Water pepper

Y
Yellow hornpoppy
Yellow dock

- 302 -
 Index in Latin

A
Achillea
Aconitum
Acorus
Adonis
Allium cepa
Allium sativum
Alnus
Aloe
Althaea
Anethum
Anisum
Apium
Aralia
Arctium
Arctostaphylos
Arnica
Artemisia
Asparagus
Astragalus
Atropa
Avena

B
Berberis
Betula
Bidens
Brassica
Bryonia

- 303 -
C
Calendula
Camellia
Capsella
Carum
Cassia
Centaurea
Chelidonium
Cichorium
Cinchona
Cinnamomum
Citrus
Cocos
Coffea
Colchicum
Conium
Convallaria
Coriandrum
Crataegus
Curcuma

D
Datura
Daucus
Delphinium
Digitalis

E
Echinops
Eleutherococcus
Erysimum
Eucalyptus
Eugenia caryophylata

- 304 -
F
Foeniculum
Fragaria
Frangula

G
Galega
Glaucium
Glycyrrhiza
Gnaphalium

H
Helianthus
Helichrysum
Hippophae
Hordeum
Hyoscyamus
Hypericum

I
Inula

J
Juglans

L
Lamium
Laurus
Leonurus
Lilium
Linum

M
Magnolia
- 305 -
Malva
Matricaria
Melilotus
Mentha

N
Nymphaea

O
Ocimum
Orchis
Origanum
Orthosiphon
Oryza

P
Panax
Papaver
Passiflora
Persea
Petroselinum
Phoenix
Pimpinella
Plantago
Polygonum aviculare
Polygonum bistorta
Polygonum hydropiper
Potentilla
Primula

Q
Quercus

R
- 306 -
Ribes
Rhamnus
Rosa
Rubia
Rubus
Rumex

S
Salvia
Sanguisorba
Saponaria
Schisandra
Senecio
Senna
Silybum
Sinapis
Solanum
Stipa
Strophanthus
Syzygium aromaticum

T
Tanacetum
Taraxacum
Teucrium
Thermopsis
Thymus
Tilia
Trifolium
Triticum
Tussilago

U
Urtica
- 307 -
V
Vaccinum
Valeriana 242
Veratrum 266
Verbascum 248
Viburnum 241
Viola 210

Z
Zea mays 274
Zingiber 279

- 308 -
Contents
The main branches of Botany are:............................................................ - 3 -
Human and Animal Dependence on Plants .............................................. - 4 -
Evolutionary History of Plants .................................................................. - 5 -
Chapter 1 .................................................................................................. - 8 -
PLANT CELLS ............................................................................................ - 8 -
INORGANIC (MINERAL) MATERIALS ................................................... - 16 -
Chapter 2 ................................................................................................ - 18 -
PLANT TISSUES ....................................................................................... - 18 -
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES ..................................................................... - 18 -
Apical Meristems ............................................................................ - 18 -
Lateral Meristems ........................................................................... - 19 -
Intercalary Meristems .................................................................... - 19 -
Simple Tissues ................................................................................. - 20 -
Parenchyma .................................................................................... - 20 -
Collenchyma ................................................................................... - 21 -
Sclerenchyma.................................................................................. - 21 -
CONDUCTING (VASCULAR) TISSUES................................................ - 22 -
Xylem .............................................................................................. - 22 -
Phloem ............................................................................................ - 23 -
COVERING TISSUES ......................................................................... - 25 -
Epidermis ........................................................................................ - 25 -
Periderm ......................................................................................... - 26 -
SECRETORY CELLS AND TISSUES ..................................................... - 28 -
- 309 -
Homologous and Analogous organs ....................................................... - 32 -
Embryogenesis and Organogenesis .................................................... - 32 -
Chapter 3 ................................................................................................ - 34 -
PLANT ORGANS ...................................................................................... - 34 -
ROOTS ................................................................................................. - 34 -
Root systems................................................................................... - 34 -
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLANT ROOT ................................................... - 35 -
ROOT STRUCTURE............................................................................... - 36 -
The Root Cap .................................................................................. - 37 -
The Region of Cell Division ............................................................. - 37 -
The Region of Elongation ................................................................ - 38 -
The Region of Maturation .............................................................. - 38 -
ROOT ANATOMY ............................................................................... - 39 -
ANATOMY OF A TYPICAL MONOCOT ROOT ................................... - 39 -
ANATOMY OF TYPICAL DICOT ROOT ........................................... - 41 -
SPECIALIZED ROOTS ........................................................................ - 43 -
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................ - 48 -
PLANT ORGANS: THE PLANT STEM ......................................................... - 48 -
STEM SHAPES ............................................................................... - 48 -
STEM FUNCTIONS ........................................................................... - 49 -
ANATOMY OF STEM ................................................................... - 50 -
BUDS ............................................................................................... - 53 -
TREE RINGS .................................................................................. - 55 -
Chapter 5 ................................................................................................ - 63 -
PLANT ORGANS: LEAVES......................................................................... - 63 -

- 310 -
Chapter 6 ................................................................................................ - 83 -
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS ................................................................ - 83 -
KINDS OF FRUITS................................................................................. - 92 -
Chapter 7 .............................................................................................. - 106 -
PLANTS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT................................................ - 106 -
Chapter 8 .............................................................................................. - 112 -
PLANT NAMES AND CLASSIFICATION................................................. - 112 -
DEVELOPMENT OF THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE . - 112
-
Chapter 9 .............................................................................................. - 115 -
IMPERIUM – CELLULAR ORGANISMS (CELLULATA) .............................. - 115 -
SUPERKINGDOM – MONERA (PROCARYOTES) (PROCARYOTA) ....... - 115 -
KINGDOM ..................................................................................... - 115 -
SUPERKINGDOM EUCKARYOTA .................................................... - 116 -
(EUKARYOTES OR NUCLEAR ORGANISMS) ................................... - 116 -
KINGDOMS:................................................................................... - 117 -
SUBKINGDOM MYXOBIONTA ....................................................... - 117 -
Phylum OOMYCOTA ..................................................................... - 117 -
Phylum MYXOMYCOTA................................................................. - 118 -
Chapter 10 ............................................................................................ - 120 -
KINGDOM ALGAE .................................................................................. - 120 -
Chapter 11 ............................................................................................ - 134 -
KINGDOM FUNGI ................................................................................. - 134 -
DISTINCTION BETWEEN KINGDOM PROTISTA AND FUNGI .......... - 134 -
KINGDOM FUNGI – THE TRUE FUNGI ........................................... - 134 -

- 311 -
Chapter 12 ............................................................................................ - 145 -
LICHENS ............................................................................................. - 145 -
Chapter 13 ............................................................................................ - 156 -
SUBKINGDOM CORMOBIONTA ............................................................ - 156 -
SPORE – BEARING PLANTS .............................................................. - 156 -
PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA -MOSSES .................................................. - 158 -
Chapter 14 ............................................................................................ - 164 -
THE SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS............................................ - 164 -
Chapter 15 ............................................................................................ - 175 -
SEED PLANTS......................................................................................... - 175 -
SEED PLANTS: GYMNOSPERMS................................................... - 175 -
Class Cycadopsida Cycades ................................................................. - 176 -
Class Benettitopsida ............................................................................. - 176 -
Class Ginkgoopsida .............................................................................. - 177 -
Class Gnetopsida .................................................................................. - 177 -
Class Pinopsides - Pinopsida ................................................................ - 179 -
Chapter 16 ............................................................................................ - 187 -
SEED PLANTS: ANGIOSPERMS ...................................................... - 187 -
Chapter 17 ............................................................................................ - 193 -
KINGDOM – PLANTS (PLANTAE) ........................................................... - 193 -
MAGNOLIA FAMILY – MAGNOLIACEAE ............................ - 193 -
LAUREL FAMILY - LAURACEAE ........................................... - 194 -
WATER –LILY FAMILY - NYMPHAEACEAE ....................... - 197 -
BARBERRY FAMILY - BERBERIDACEAE ............................ - 198 -

- 312 -
BUTTERCUP FAMILY (meaning ‘little frog’) -
RANUNCULACEAE ................................................................... - 199 -
POPPY FAMILY – PAPAVERACEAE ...................................... - 201 -
SUBDIVISION CARYOPHYLLIDAE ....................................... - 202 -
PINK FAMILY - CARYOPHYLLACEAE ................................. - 202 -
BUCKWHEAT FAMILY – POLYGONACEAE ........................ - 203 -
OAK FAMILY – FAGACEAE .................................................... - 206 -
BIRCH FAMILY - BETULACEAE ............................................ - 207 -
WALNUT FAMILY - JUGLANDACEAE .................................. - 208 -
SUBDIVISION DILLENIIDAE .................................................. - 209 -
CAMELLIA FAMILY - THEACEAE ......................................... - 209 -
PASSION FLOWER FAMILY - PASSIFLORACEAE .............. - 211 -
ST. JOHN’S WORT FAMILY - HYPERICACEAE .................. - 212 -
CABBAGE FAMILY - BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE) ..... - 213 -
HEATH FAMILY - ERICACEAE ............................................... - 216 -
PRIMROSE FAMILY – PRIMULACEAE.................................. - 217 -
LINDEN FAMILY - TILIACEAE ............................................... - 218 -
MALLOW FAMILY - MALVACEAE........................................ - 219 -
THE NETTLE FAMILY - URTICACEAE ................................. - 220 -
SUBDIVISION ROSIDAE .......................................................... - 221 -
SAXIFRAGE FAMILY (LATIN FOR ‘ROCK BREAKING’) -
SAXIFRAGACEAE ..................................................................... - 221 -
ROSE FAMILY - ROSACEAE ................................................... - 222 -
BEAN/PEA FAMILY - FABACEAE (LEGUMINOSAE,
PAPILIONACEAE) ..................................................................... - 225 -
MYRTLE FAMILY - MYRTACEAE ......................................... - 229 -
- 313 -
CITRUS FAMILY - RUTACEAE ............................................... - 231 -
THE FLAX FAMILY - LINACEAE ........................................... - 231 -
BUCKTHORN FAMILY - RHAMNACEAE .............................. - 232 -
OLEASTER FAMILY - ELAEAGNACEAE .............................. - 233 -
GINSENG FAMILY - ARALIACEAE ........................................ - 234 -
CARROT FAMILY - APIACEAE (UMBELLIFERAE) ............. - 236 -
HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY – CAPRIFOLIACEAE
(VIBURNACEAE) ....................................................................... - 241 -
VALERIAN FAMILY - VALERIANACEAE............................. - 242 -
SUBDIVISION LAMIIDAE ........................................................ - 243 -
COFFEE FAMILY - RUBIACEAE ............................................. - 243 -
MILKWEED FAMILY - APOCYNACEAE ............................... - 244 -
NIGHTSHADE FAMILY - SOLANACEAE .............................. - 245 -
FIGWORT FAMILY - SCROPHULARIACEAE S.L. ................ - 248 -
PLANTAIN FAMILY - PLANTAGINACEAE....................... - 249 -
MINT FAMILY - LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE) ......................... - 250 -
SUNFLOWER FAMILY - ASTERACEAE (COMPOSITAE) ... - 255 -
BUNCHFLOWER FAMILY - MELANTHIACEAE .................. - 266 -
ALOE FAMILY - ASPHODELACEAE ...................................... - 267 -
ONION FAMILY - ALLIACEAE ............................................... - 268 -
LILY FAMILY - LILIACEAE ..................................................... - 269 -
LILY OF THE VALLEY FAMILY - CONVALLARIACEAE .. - 271 -
ASPARAGUS FAMILY - ASPARAGACEAE ........................... - 271 -
ORCHID FAMILY - ORCHIDACEAE ....................................... - 272 -
GRASS FAMILY - POACEAE (GRAMINEAE) ........................ - 273 -

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 SUBCLASS ARECIDAE ............................................................. - 276 -
PALM FAMILY - ARECACEAE (PALMAE)............................ - 276 -
ARUM (SWEET FLAG) FAMILY - ARACEAE ....................... - 278 -
GINGER FAMILY - ZINGIBERACEAE .................................... - 279 -
Chapter 18 ............................................................................................ - 281 -
HERBARIA AND PLANT PRESERVATION ................................................ - 281 -
Chapter 19 ............................................................................................ - 283 -
PLANT ECOLOGY ............................................................................. - 283 -
Chapter 20 ............................................................................................ - 290 -
PLANT GEOGRAPHY ........................................................................ - 290 -
GEOBOTANY ..................................................................................... - 291 -
REFERENCES ..................................................................................... - 294 -
Acknowledgements .............................................................................. - 296 -
Index in English ..................................................................................... - 297 -
Index in Latin ........................................................................................ - 303 -

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