22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (1)
Multistage Separators
Main objective of stage separation is to provide maximum stabilization to the resultant
phases (gas and liquid) leaving the final separator, which means that the considerable
amounts of gas or liquid will not evolve from the final liquid and gas phases, respectively.
To achieve good separation between gas and liquid phases and maximizing hydrocarbon
liquid recovery, sometimes it is necessary to use several separation stages at decreasing
pressures (the highest pressure is found at the first separator and the lowest pressure at
the final separator).
In practice, the number of stages normally ranges between 2-4, which depends on the
gas/oil ratio (GOR) and the well stream pressure, where:
2-stage separation is usually used for low GOR and low well stream pressure
3-stage separation is used for medium to high GOR and intermediate inlet pressure
4-stage separation is used for high GOR and a high pressure well stream.
To recover the gases fractions produced in the separators operating at medium pressure
and low pressure, it is necessary to recompress them to the pressure of the high-pressure
separator. However, for an associated gas, recompression is sometimes considered too
costly; hence the gas produced from the low-pressure separator may be flared.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 130

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (2)
Centrifugal Separators
Centrifugal Separators (sometimes called
gas–liquid cylindrical cyclone (GLCC)) use
centrifugal forces to do the gas-liquid
separation
This centrifugal force can range from 5 times
gravity in large, low-velocity units to 2000
times gravity in small, high-pressure units.
Generally, centrifugal separators are used for
removing droplets greater than 100 μm in
diameter, and a properly sized centrifugal
separator can have a reasonable removal
efficiency of droplet sizes as low as 10 μm.
Typical performance levels from the GLCC
separator are 0.5–2.0 gallons of liquid per
MMscf in the gas outlet and 0–5% gas in the
liquid outlet G Force 1.118 10 5 r RPM2
r : radius of rotation measured in cm

Dr. Tamer Samir © 131

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (3)
Twister Supersonic Separator
Twister Supersonic Separator has
thermodynamics similar to a turbo-
expander, combining the following
process steps
Expansion
Cyclonic gas/liquid separation
Re-compression
Whereas a turbo-expander transforms pressure to shaft power, Twister achieves a similar
temperature drop by transforming pressure to kinetic energy (i.e. supersonic velocity):

Multiple inlet guide vanes generate a high vorticity, concentric swirl (up to 500,000 G)
 A nozzle is used to expand the saturated feed gas to supersonic velocity, which results in
a low temperature and pressure. This results in the formation of a mist of water and
hydrocarbon condensation droplets followed by droplet growth..
The high vorticity swirl centrifuges the droplets to the wall. The liquids are split from the
gas using a cyclonic separator.
The separated streams are slowed down in separate diffusers, typically recovering 70 -
75% of the initial pressure. Dr. Tamer Samir © 132

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (4)
High Efficiency Liquid-Gas Coalescers
Used to remove aerosols in gas streams (< 5 μm)
Coalescers are typically constructed as cartridges that use pleated
glass fiber media supported by a metal core. The coalescer cartridges
are then placed in a housing that controls the inlet/outlet gas
velocities to ensure good separation and prevent any re-entrainment
of liquids.
The inlet gas with liquid aerosol contamination first enters at the
bottom of the housing into a first-stage knockout section. Here any
slugs or larger size droplets (approximately >300 μm) are removed by
gravitational settling.
The gas then travels upward through a tube sheet and flows radially
from the inside of the cartridges through the coalescer medium to the
annulus.
Once the coalesced droplets are formed, they immediately drain
vertically downward
Applications: Include protection of compressors, turbo equipment,
low NOx burner nozzles, amine and glycol contactors, molecular sieve
beds, …,etc Dr. Tamer Samir © 133

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (5)
Slug Catchers

Slug Flow: A multiphase-fluid flow regime characterized by a series of

liquid plugs (slugs) separated by a relatively large gas pockets. The
resulting flow alternates between high-liquid and high-gas
composition. The arrival of a slug at production or equipment is
unwelcome at least. Severe slugging can even cause platforms to
automatically shutdown!!!

Slug catchers are used to catch large slugs of liquid in pipelines. Slug
catchers may be either a inlet vessel or manifolded piping.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 134

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (6)
Inlet Vessel
These slug catchers, commonly called inlet receivers,
are simply gas−liquid separators that combine slug
catching with liquid storage.
They are usually employed where operating pressures
are relatively low or where space is a problem.
Horizontal vessels are preferred, unless area is limited
(as on offshore platforms), because they provide the
highest liquid surface area.
Usually two or three vessels are manifolded together
to permit larger volumes and to allow servicing of one
vessel without plant disruption.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 135

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Phase Separation
Other Separators Types (7)
Manifolded Piping
Pipe-type slug catchers are frequently
less expensive than vessel type slug
catchers of the same capacity due to
thinner wall requirements of smaller pipe
diameter.
The manifold nature of multiple pipe-
type slug catchers also makes possible the
later addition of additional capacity by
laying more parallel pipes.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 136

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
CO2

Sulfur Sulfur Acid

Recovery Unit Gas

Raw Gas Inlet Gas Acid Gas

Phase Separation
Compression Treating

Condensate to
Solids Water LNG
Stabilization Units LNG Plant

Natural Gas Liquids Nitrogen

Dehydration
Recovery Rejection
Water Nitrogen

Helium Outlet Gas Gas to

Recovery Compression Pipeline
Helium
C2
Field Operation Natural Gas Liquids Sweetening C3
Gas Processing Plant Operation Fractionation Units C4s
Not Available in all Gas Processing Plants C5+
Receive from Different Gas Processing Plants
Dr. Tamer Samir © 137

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Introduction
Natural gas being prepared for sales is required to have very low concentration of H2S
and CO2 usually below 6-7 ppm for H2S (actual specifications depend on the use and the
country where the gas is used). In addition, it is desirable to remove other sulfur
components (COS, CS2, & mercaptans) to decrease total sulfur content
- H2S and CO2 are corrosive especially in presence of water
- H2S is very toxic
- CO2 decrease heating value of natural gas
The concentration of the two acid gases has a wide range. Therefore, processes for the
removal of acid gases vary and are subject to choice based on the desired end product.
Several factors must be considered to choose the suitable process for acid gas removal:
1) Types and concentrations of contaminants in the gas
2) Degree of contaminant removal desired
3) Selectivity of acid gas removal required
4) Temperature, pressure, and composition of the gas to be processed
5) CO2/H2S ratio in the gas
6) Desirability of sulfur recovery due to process economics or environmental issues
Dr. Tamer Samir © 138
7) Presence of other sulfur components such as mercaptans and carbonyl sulfide

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Acid Gas Removal Processes
Direct
Solvent Absorption Adsorption Membranes
Conversion
Molecular Stretford
sieves
Chemical Physical Hybrid
Iron
sponge
Selexol Sulfinol
Alkali Zinc oxide
Amine Rectisol Selenfining
Salts
Purisol Amisol
MEA Benfield
DEA Ifpexol
Catacarb
Sepasolv
TEA Flexsorb HP MEA Monoethanolamine
MPE
DGA Giammarco- DEA Diethanolamine
DIPA Vetrocoke TEA Triethanolamine
MDEA DGA Diglycolamine
Hindered DIPA Diisopropanolamine
amines Dr. Tamer Samir ©
MDEA 139
Methyldiethanolamine

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Acid Gas Removal Processes Comparison (1)
Adsorption
Chemical Absorption Physical Absorption Direct Conversion (a) Chemical Adsorption
(b) Physical Adsorption
Loading (a)

Loading

Loading

Loading
(b)

H2S Loading
H2S Conc. H2S Conc. H2S Conc. H2S Conc.
Loading limited Loading propor- Loading limited (a) Stoichiometry
by stoichiometry tional to H2S conc. by stoichiometry (b) Surface Area
Quantity of
H2S to be large Very Large Small Very Small
Removed
Purity (a) Very High
Moderate/High High Moderate/High
Required (b) High
(a) Not Regenerable
Desorption
High Low Moderate (b) Moderate
Energy
(a) Guard Bed (Batch)
Typical -General Purpose -Bulk Removal -Continuous
(b) Cyclic Operation
Application -Continuous -Continuous
Dr. Tamer Samir © 140

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Acid Gas Removal Processes Comparison (2)
Removes
Capable of Selective Solution Subject to
COS, Minimum CO2 Level
Removal of H2S Degradation?
CS2, and Obtainable
H2S < 6 ppm Removal (Degrading Species)
Mercaptans
100 ppmv at low to Yes (COS, CO2, CS2, SO2,
Monoethanolamine Yes Partial No
moderate pressures SO3 and mercaptans)
100 ppmv at moderate
Diglycolamine Yes Partial No Yes (COS, CO2, and CS2)
to high pressures
Some (COS, CO2 CS2,
Diethanolamine Yes Partial No 50 ppmv
HCN and mercaptans)
Min. Partial pressure Slight (COS, CS2 and
Triethanolamine No Slight No
of 0.5 psia mercaptans)
Methyldiethanol -
Yes Slight Some Bulk Removal Only No
amine
Resistant to
Diisopropanolamine Yes COS only Yes N/A
degradation by COS
Yes (only with
Hot Potassium
special design Partial No Variable No
Carbonate
features) Dr. Tamer Samir © 141

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Acid Gas Removal Processes Comparison (3)
Removes
Capable of Selective Solution Subject to
COS, Minimum CO2 Level
Removal of H2S H2S Degradation?
CS2, and Obtainable
< 6 ppm Removal (Degrading Species)
Mercaptans
Can be slipped or
Selexol Yes Slight Some No
absorbed

Rectisol Yes Yes No 1 ppmv Not Reported

Sulfinol Yes Partial Yes 50 ppmv Some (CO2 and CS2)

No significant amounts Yes (CO2 at high

Stretford Yes No Yes
of CO2 are removed concentrations)
Can meet cryogenic
Yes (except spec when CO2 feed
Molecular Sieves Yes Some N/A
CS2) content is less than
~ 2%
Feed concentration
Membranes No Slight No N/A
dependent

Dr. Tamer Samir © 142

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Absorption

Dr. Tamer Samir © 143

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Absorption - Acid Gas Removal Processes Selection
Four scenarios are possible for acid gas removal from natural gas:
1. CO2 removal from a gas that contains no H2S
2. H2S removal from a gas that contains no CO2
3. Simultaneous removal of both CO2 and H2S
4. Selective removal of H2S from a gas that contains both CO2 and H2S

Dr. Tamer Samir © 144

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Absorption - Process Selection Chart for CO2 Removal with no H2S Present

Dr. Tamer Samir © 145

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Absorption - Process Selection Chart for H2S Removal with no CO2 Present

Dr. Tamer Samir © 146

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Absorption - Process Selection Chart for Simultaneous H 2S and CO2 Removal

Dr. Tamer Samir © 147

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Absorption - Process Selection Chart for Selective H 2S Removal with CO2 Present

Dr. Tamer Samir © 148

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines (1)
Amines are compounds formed from ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more of the
hydrogen atoms with another hydrocarbon group.
Replacement of a single hydrogen produces a primary amine, replacement of two
hydrogen atoms produces a secondary amine, and replacement of all three of the
hydrogen atoms produces a tertiary amine.
Primary amines are the most reactive, followed by the secondary and tertiary amines.
All commonly used amines are alkanolamines, which are amines with OH groups
attached to the hydrocarbon groups to reduce their volatility.

Primary Amines Secondary Amines Tertiary Amines

Dr. Tamer Samir © 149

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 22-Nov-14

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines (2)
Sterically hindered amines are compounds in which Sterically Hindered Amines
the reactive center (the nitrogen) is partially shielded by
neighboring groups so that larger molecules cannot
easily approach and react with the nitrogen.
The amines are used in water solutions in
concentrations ranging from approximately 10 to 65
wt% amines

Amines remove H2S and CO2 in a two step process:

1. The gas dissolves in the liquid (physical absorption).
2. The dissolved gas, which is a weak acid, reacts with the weakly basic amines.
Absorption from the gas phase is governed by the partial pressure of the H2S and CO2
in the gas, whereas the reactions in the liquid phase are controlled by the reactivity of
the dissolved species.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 150

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Chemistry (1)
Amines are bases, and the important reaction in gas processing is the ability of the
amine to form salts with the weak acids formed by H2S and CO2 in an aqueous solution.
The reaction between the amine and both H2S and CO2 is highly exothermic.
Reaction with H2S to form amine hydrosulfide:

The reaction is same for primary, secondary, or tertiary amines as well (Two Rs will be
H in the last equation for primary amines and one R will be H for secondary amines)
The reaction between the amine and the CO2 is more complex because CO2 reacts via
two different mechanisms:
First Mechanism: When dissolved in water, CO2 hydrolyzes to form carbonic acid, which, in
turn, slowly dissociates to bicarbonate. The bicarbonate then undertakes an acid−base
reaction with the amine to yield a salt. This acid−base reaction occurs with any of the
alkanolamines, regardless of the amine structure, but the reaction is not as rapid as that of
H2S, because the carbonic acid dissociation step to the bicarbonate is relatively slow.
Overall Reaction:

Dr. Tamer Samir © 151

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Chemistry (2)
Second Mechanism: Called the carbamate formation reaction and occurs only with the
primary and secondary amines requires the presence of labile (reactive) hydrogen in the
molecular structure of the amine.
The CO2 reacts with one primary or secondary amine molecule to form the carbamate
intermediate, which in turn reacts with a second amine molecule to form the amine salt.

Overall Reaction:

The stoichiometry of the carbamate reaction indicates that the capacity of the amine
solution for CO2 is limited to 0.5 moles of CO2 per mole of amine if the only reaction product
is the amine carbamate. However, the carbamate undergoes partial hydrolysis to form
bicarbonate, which regenerates free amine. Hence, CO2 loadings greater than 0.5 are
possible through the hydrolysis of the carbamate intermediate to bicarbonate.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 152

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Chemistry (3)
The fact that CO2 absorption occurs by two reaction mechanisms with different kinetic
characteristics, significantly affects the relative absorption rates of H2S and CO2 among the
different alkanolamines.
For primary and secondary amines, little difference exists between the H2S and CO2
reaction rates because of the availability of the rapid carbamate formation for CO2
absorption. Therefore, the primary and secondary amines achieve essentially complete
removal of H2S and CO2.
 However, because the tertiary amines have no labile hydrogen, they cannot form the
carbamate. Tertiary amines must react with CO2 via the slow hydrolysis mechanism. For
example, with only the slow acid−base reaction available for CO2 absorption,
methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) yields significant selectivity toward H2S relative to CO2,
and, consequently, all of the H2S is removed while some of the CO2 “slips” through with
the gas (This is sometimes desirable to decrease the cost of acid treating if the amount of
CO2 is large in the gas and we only need the removal of the more dangerous H2S)

Dr. Tamer Samir © 153

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Processes (1)
Monoethanolamine:
Monoethanolamine (MEA) is the most basic of the amines used in acid treating and thus
the most reactive for acid gas removal.
It has the advantage of a high solution capacity at moderate concentrations, and it is
generally used for gas streams with moderate levels of CO2 and H2S when complete
removal of both impurities is required.
A slow production of “heat stable salts” form in all alkanol amine solutions, primarily
from reaction with CO2. Oxygen enhances the formation of these salts. One “advantage”
of MEA (and DGA) over other amines is that “reclaimers” are installed in-line for
intermittently removing these salts, along with the irreversible reaction products formed
from COS and CS2 (more on this later)
Monoethanolamine has a number of disadvantages, including:
• A relatively high vapor pressure that results in high vaporization losses
• The formation of irreversible reaction products with COS and CS2
• A high heat of reaction with the acid gases that results in high energy requirements
• The inability to selectively remove H2S in the presence of CO2
• Higher corrosion rates than most other amines if the MEA concentration exceeds 20% at
high levels of acid gas loading
• The formation of corrosive thiosulfatesDr.when reacted with oxygen
Tamer Samir © 154

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Processes (2)
Diglycolamine:
Compared with MEA, low vapor pressure allows Diglycolamine (DGA) to be used in
relatively high concentrations (50 to 70%), which results in lower circulation rates. It is
reclaimed onsite to remove heat stable salts and reaction products with COS and CS2
Diethanolamine:
Diethanolamine (DEA), a secondary amine, is less basic and reactive than MEA.
Compared with MEA, it has a lower vapor pressure and thus, lower evaporation losses; it
can operate at higher acid gas loadings, typically 0.35 to 0.8 mole acid gas/mole of amine
versus 0.3 to 0.4 mole acid-gas/mole for MEA; it also has a lower energy requirement for
reactivation.
Concentration ranges for DEA are 30 to 50 wt% and are primarily limited by corrosion.
DEA forms regenerable compounds with COS and CS2 and, thus, can be used for their
partial removal without significant solution loss.
DEA has the disadvantage of undergoing irreversible side reactions with CO2 and forming
corrosive degradation products; thus, it may not be the best choice for high CO2 gases.
Removal of these degradation products along with the heat stable salts must be done by
use of either vacuum distillation or ion exchange. The reclaiming may be done offsite or in
portable equipment brought onsite.
Dr. Tamer Samir © 155

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Processes (3)
Methyldiethanolamine:
Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), a tertiary amine, selectively removes H2S to pipeline
specifications while “slipping” some of the CO2.
MDEA has a low vapor pressure and thus, can be used at concentrations up to 60 wt%
without appreciable vaporization losses. Even with its relatively slow kinetics with CO2,
MDEA is used for bulk removal of CO2 from high-concentration gases because energy
requirements for regeneration are lower than those for the other amines.
Sterically Hindered Amines:
Steric hindrance involves alteration of the reactivity of a primary or secondary amine by
a change in the alkanol structure of the amine. A large hydrocarbon group attached to the
nitrogen shields the nitrogen atom and hinders the carbamate reaction.
The H2S reaction is not significantly affected by amine structure, because the proton is
small and can reach the nitrogen. However, CO2 removal can be significantly affected if the
amine structure hinders the fast carbamate formation reaction and allows only the much
slower bicarbonate formation.
Mixed Amines:
Selectivity of MDEA can be reduced by addition of MEA, DEA, or proprietary additives.
Thus, it can be tailored to meet the desired amount of CO2 slippage and still have lower
energy requirements than do primary and secondary amines.
Dr. Tamer Samir © 156

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Flow Sheet (1)
The sour gas feed enters the bottom of the
contactor at pressures to 1,000 psi (70 bar)
and temperatures in the range of 90°F (32°C).
The sour gas flows upward, countercurrent
to the lean amine solution which flows down
from the top. The lean amine that returns to
the contactor is maintained at a temperature
above the vapor that exits the contactor to
prevent any condensation of heavier liquid
hydrocarbons. MEA Flow Sheet
The contactor operates above ambient
temperature because of the combined exothermic heat of absorption and reaction. The
maximum temperature is in the lower portion of the tower because the majority of the
absorption and reaction occurs near the bottom of the unit.
The treated gas leaves the top of the tower water saturated and at a temperature
controlled by the temperature of the lean amine that enters, usually around 100°F (38°C)
and the rich amine leaves the bottom of the unit at temperatures near 140°F (60°C) and
enters a flash tank, where its pressure is reduced to 75 to 100 psig (5 to 7 barg) to remove
(flash) any dissolved hydrocarbons. Dr. Tamer Samir © 157

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Flow Sheet (2)
The rich amine then passes through a heat
exchanger and enters the solvent regenerator
(stripper) at temperatures in the range of 180
to 200°F (80 to 95°C).
The vapor generated at the bottom flows
upward through either trays or packing, where
it contacts the rich amine and strips the acid
gases from the liquid that flows down.
A stream of lean amine is removed from the
stripper, cooled to about 110°F (45°C), and MEA Flow Sheet
reenters the stripper at the top to cool and
condenses the upward-flowing vapor stream.
The vapor, which consists mostly of acid gases and water vapor, exits the top of the stripper
and is generally processed for sulfur recovery.
The lean amine exits the bottom of the stripper at about 260°F (130°C) and is pumped to
the contactor pressure, exchanges heat with the rich amine stream, and is further cooled
before it enters the top of the contactor.

Dr. Tamer Samir © 158

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Flow Sheet (3)
Amines react with CO2 and contaminants,
including oxygen, to form organic acids. These
acids then react with the basic amine to form
heat stable salts. As their name implies, these
salts are heat stable, accumulate in the amine
solution, and must be removed. A reclaimer is
used for this purpose.
The reclaimer is filled with lean amine, and a
strong base, such as sodium carbonate or
sodium hydroxide, is added to the solution to MEA Flow Sheet
neutralize the heat stable salts. A slipstream
of 1 to 3% of the circulating amine is then continuously added to the reclaimer while the
mixture is heated. Water and amine vapor are taken off the top, which leaves the
contaminants in the liquid bottoms. Heating is continued until the temperature is
approximately 300°F (150°C) for MEA or 375 to 385°F (190 to 195°C) for DGA. The cycle is
then stopped and the bottoms that contain the contaminants (dissolved salts, suspended
solids) are removed. DEA does not form a significant amount of nonregenerable degradation
products, and it requires more difficult reclaiming through vacuum distillation or ion
exchange. Dr. Tamer Samir © 159

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Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Heat of Reactions
The magnitude of the exothermic heats of reaction, which includes the heat of solution, of
the amines with the acid gases is important because the heat liberated in the reaction
must be added back in the regeneration step. Thus, a low heat of reaction translates into
smaller energy regeneration requirements

Dr. Tamer Samir © 160

Natural Gas Processing and Liquefaction

Acid Gas Treating
Chemical Absorption – Amines Operating Issues
Corrosion:
Some of the major factors that affect corrosion in amines systems are:
• Amine concentration (higher concentrations favor corrosion)
• Rich amine acid gas loading (higher gas loadings in the amine favor corrosion)
• Oxygen concentration
• Heat stable salts (higher concentrations promote corrosion and foaming)
In addition to destroying vessels and piping, the corrosion products can cause
foaming.

Solution Foaming:
Foaming of the liquid amine solution is a major problem because it results in poor
vapor−liquid contact, poor solution distribution, and solution holdup with resulting
carryover and off spec gas.
Among the causes of foaming are suspended solids, liquid hydrocarbons, surface active
agents, such as those contained in inhibitors and compressor oils, and amine degradation
products, including heat stable salts.
One obvious cure is to remove the offending materials; the other is to add antifoaming
agents.
Dr. Tamer Samir © 161

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