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/ 61
Kinetics of a Particle:
Force and Acceleration
13.1 Newton's Second Law of Motion
Kinetics is a branch of dynamics that deals with the relationship hetween
the change in motion of a body and the forces that cause this change. The
basis for kineties is Newton's second lav, which states that when an
unbalanced force acts on a particle, the particle will accelerate in the
direction af the force with a magnitude that is proportional to the force.
This law can be verified experimentally by applying a known
unbalanced force F to a particle, and then measuring the acceleration a.
Since the force and acceleration are directly proportional, the constant
Of proportionality, m, may be determined from the ratio m = F/a. This
positive scalar in is called the mass of the particle. Being constant during
any acceleration, m provides @ quantitative measure of the resistance of
the particle o a change in its velocity, that is its inertia, 108
Charren 13
KINETICS OF A PARTICLE: FORCE AND ACCELERATION
If the mass of the particle is m, Newton's second law of motion may
‘be written in mathematical form as
Fema
‘The above equation, which is referred to as the equation of motion, is one
of the most important formulations in mechanics.* As previously stated,
its validity is based solely on experimental evidence. In 1905, however,
Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity and placed limitations
on the use of Newton’s second law for describing general particle motion.
‘Through experiments it was proven that dime is not an absolute quantity
as assumed by Newton; and as a result, the equation of motion fails to
predict the exact behavior of a particle, especially when the particle's
speed approaches the speed of light (0.3 Gm/s). Developments of the
theory of quantum mechanics by Erwin Schriidinger and others indicate
further that conclusions drawn from using this equation are also invalid
when particles are the size of an atom and move elose to one another.
For the most part, however. these requirements regarding particle speed
and size are not encountered in engineering problems, so their effects
will not be considered in this book
Newton's Law of Gravitational Attraction. shortly after
formulating his three laws of motion, Newton postulated a law governing
the mutual attraction between any two particles. In mathematical form
this law can be expressed as
34)
where
F= forse of attraction between the two particles
G= universal constant of gravtation;according to experimental
evidence G = 66.73(10"') m*/(kg-s*)
imysmz=__ mass of each ofthe two particles
distance between the centers of the two particles
*Sinco mis constant, we ean alo write F = dinar, where my isthe particle's linear
some nbalinoed free ating om the particle proportional to the
rate of change ofthe particle's linear momentum, 18.1 Newron’s Secono Law oF Monon
In the ease of « particle located at or near the surface of the earth, the
only gravitational force having any sizable magnitude is that between the
earth and the particle. This force is termed the “weight” and, for our
‘purpose, it will he the only gravitational force considered.
From Eq. 13-1, we can develop a general expression for finding the
weight W of a particle having a mass my = m. Let m = M, be the mass
of the earth and rthe distance between the earth’s center and the particle.
‘Then, if e = GM,/7, we have
W= me
By comparison with F = ma, we term g the acceleration due to gravity.
For most engineering calculations x is measured at a point on the surface
of the earth at sea level, and ata latitude of 45°, which is considered the
“standard location.” Here the values g = 9.81 m/s? = 32.2 fr/s? will be
used for calculations.
In the SI system the mass of the body is specified in kilograms, and the
‘weight must be calculated using the above equation, Fig. 13-La. Thus,
(13-2)
As a result, a body of mass 1 kg has a weight of 9.81 N; a 2-ke body
weighs 19.62 N;and so on,
In the FPS system the weight of the body is specified in pounds. The
‘mass is measured in slugs, a term derived from “sluggish” which refers to
the body’s inertia, It must be ealculated, Fig. 13-1, using
(he)
109
= simi)
W= mg QS)
Stoystem
@
m= ¥ up —
m= cy «= 2a2./e) (13-3)
Therefore, body weighing 32.2 Ib has a mass of 1 slug; 64.4-1b body has
amass of 2 slugs; and so on,
wae)
FPS gstem
©
Fig
s(n) 110 c
apTER 13
@
sia
Freed] ince
agra signa
mae ©
Fara article:
me of reference
Fig 33
KINETICS OF A PARTICLE: FORCE AND ACCELERATION
13.2 The Equation of Motion
When more than one force acts on a particle, the resultant foree is
determined by a vector summation of all the forces;i.e.,Fy = XP. For this
‘more general case, the equation of motion may be written as
[Sram] ay
‘Ty illustrate application of this equation, consider the particle shown
in Fig. 13-24, which has a mass mm and is subjected to the action of two
forces, F, and Fs. We can graphically account for the magnitude and
direction of each force acting on the particle by drawing the particle's
‘free-body diagram, Fig, 13-2b, Since the resultant of these forces produces
the vector ma, its magnitude and direction can be represented graphically.
con the kinetic diagram, shown in Fig, 13-2c.* The equal sign written
between the diagrams symbolizes the graphical equivalency between the
free-body diagram and the kinetic diagram; i.e,8F = ma In particular,
note that if Fy = SF = 0, then the acceleration is also zero, so that the
particle will either remain at rest or move along a straight-line path with
constant velocity. Such are the conditions of siaric equilibrium, Newton's
first law of motion.
Inertial Reference Frame. When applying the equation of
motion, it is important that the acceleration of the particle be measured
With respect to a reference frame that is either fixed or ranslaces with a
constant velocity. In this way. the observer will not accelerate and
measurements of the particle's acceleration will be the same from any
reference of this type. Such a frame of reference is commonly known as a
Newtonian or inertial reference frame. Fig, 13-3
‘When studying the motions of rockets and satellites, it is justifiable to
consider the inertial reference frame as fixed to the stars, whereas
dynamics problems concerned with motions on oF near the surface of the
earth may be solved by using an inertial frame which is assumed fixed to
the earth. Even though the earth both rotates about its own axis and
revolves about the sun, the aecelerations ereated by these rotations are
relatively small and so they can be neglected for most applications,
‘Recall the free buly diagram considers te particle fo he fee ofitssurrounding supports
tnd shows all the forges acing on the partele The kinetic diagram pertains othe particle's
ration as eased by the fares.
"The equation of motion can also he rewritten inthe form EF — yea = 0. The vector
as toertod Wo asthe Inertia force veeor. Wits treated in the same way asa “force
vector” then the tate of “eqlibrigm” created is teferted to as dymamicequlisrivm This
method af application, which will ot be used in this LeX, len refered to ab the
DAlenbe principle, aed after tne French mathematician Jean le Road & Alembert, 18.2. The Eauarion oF Monon 1
We are all familiar with the sensation one feels when sitting in a car that is subjected to a forward acceleration. Often
people think this is caused by a “force” which acts on them and tends to push them back in their seats; however, this is
not the ease. Instead, this sensation occurs due (o their inertia or the resistance of their mass to a change in velocity
Consider the passenger who is strapped to the seat of a rocket sled. Provided the sled is at rest or is moving with
constant velocity, then no force is exerted on his back as shown on his free-body diagram.
Ferny |
‘Re j
When the thrust of the racket engine causes the sled to accelerate, then the seat upon which he is sitting exerts a
force F on him which pushes him forward with the sled. In the photo, notice that the inertia of his head resists this
change in motion (acceleration) and so his head moves back against the seat and his face, which is nonrigid, tends
to distort backward, 2 Q
oil
+
Acceleration
Upon deceleration the force of the seatbelt F” tends to pull his body to a stop, but his head leaves contact with the
back of the seat and his face distorts forward, again duc to his inertia or tendency to continue to move forward,
No force is pulling him forward, although this is the sensation he receives.
a
Deceleration 112
Cuarrer 13 KINETICS OF A PARTICLE: FORCE AND ACCELERATION
13.3 Equation of Motion for a System
of Particles
‘The equation of motion will now be extended to include a system
of particles isolated within an enclosed region in space, as shown in
Fig. 13-4a. In particular, there i no restriction in the way the particles
are connected, $0 the following analysis applies equally well to the
motion of a solid, liquid or gas system.
‘At the instant considered, the arbitrary /-th particle, having a mass m,,
is subjected to a system of internal forces and a resultant external force.
The internal force, represented symbolically asf is the resultant ofall
the forces the other particles exert on the ith particle, The resultant
‘external force F, represents, for example, the effect of gravitational,
electrical, magnetic, or contact forces between the ith particle and
adjacent bodies or particles nor included within the system.
‘The free-body and kinetic diagrams for the ith particle are shown in
Fig. 3-40. Applying the equation of motion,
SF = ma; Ft h= ma,
When the equation of motion is applied to each of the other particles of
the system, similar equations will result. And, if all these equations are
added together vectorially, we obtain
SF, + Sf = Sma,
wim
Free-ody Kinctic
Inertial corinate ‘iagram diagram
system
@ o
Fig. 134 19.2 Equation oF MomION For & SystEM oF PasmicLes 113
‘The summation of the internal forces, if earried out, will equal zero, since
internal forces between any two particles occur in equal but opposite
collinear pairs. Consequently, only the sum of the external forces will
remain,and therefore the equation of motion, written for the system of,
particles, becomes
SF, = Sma, (3-5)
If Fe is a position vector which locates the center of mass G of the
particles Fig. 13-4a, then by definition of the center of mass. mr = Xm,
where m = Em, is the total mass of all the particles. Differemtiating this,
equation twiee with respect to time, assuming that no mass is entering or
leaving the system, yields
‘mag, = Ema;
‘Substituting this result into Eg. 13-5, we obtain.
(3-6)
Hence, the sum of the external forces acting on the system of particles is
«equal to the total mass of the particles times the acceleration of its center
of mass G. Since in reality all particles must have a finite size to possess
‘mass, Eq, 13-6 justifies application of the equation of motion to a body
that is represented as a single particle
yeu
‘The equation of motion is based on experimental evidence and is,
valid only when applied within an inertial frame of reference,
The equation of motion states that the unbalanced force on a
particle causes it to accelerate.
‘An inertial frame of reference does not rotate, rather its axes
cither translate with constant velocity or are at rest
‘Mass is a property of matter that provides a quantitative measure
of its resistance to a change in velocity. It is an absolute quantity
and so it does not change from one location to another.
‘Weight is a force that is eaused by the earth’s gravitation, Itis not
absolute; rather it depends on the altitude of the mass from the
‘earth's surtace. 14 Charree 13 KINETICS OF A PARTICLE: FORCE AND ACCELERATION
Fig. 13-5
13.4 Equations of Motion: Rectangular
Coordinates
When a particle moves relative to an inertial x,y,z frame of reference, the
forces acting on the particle, as well as its acceleration, can be expressed
in terms of their i,j, k components, Fig. 13-5. Applying the equation of
motion, we have
SF = ma; RA + SF + SEK = lad + 0,5 + 04k)
For this equation to be satisfied, the respective ij k components on the
left side must equal the corresponding components on the right side
Consequently, we may write the following three scalar equations:
(37)
In particular, ifthe particle is constrained to move only in the x-y plane,
then the first two of these equations are used to specify the motion,
ee tin cuue ne
‘The equations of motion are used to solve problems which require
a relationship between the forces acting on a particle and the
accelerated motion they cause.
Free-Body Diagram
'* Select the inertial coordinate system, Most often, rectangular or
4% J, Z coordinates are chosen to analyze problems for which the
particle has rectilinear notion,
Once the coordinates are established, draw the particle's free-
body diagram. Drawing this diageam is very important since it
provides a graphical representation that accounts for all the forces
(2F) which act on the particle, and thereby makes it possible to
resolve these forces into their x, y, z components,
‘The direction and sense of the particle’s acceleration a should also
be established. If the sense is unknown, for mathematical
‘convenience assume that the sense of each acceleration component
‘acts in the same direction as its positive inertial coordinate axis,
The acceleration may be represented as the ma vector on the
kinetie diagram.*
Identify the unknowns in the problem.
“1s convention in this text always tose the kinetic diagram asa grapnical aid when
eseloping the proofs and theory. The particle's aceteration or its components wll be
‘shown as ue colored westors near the fre-body diagram in the examples 18.4 Equarions oF Morion: RECTANGULAR CooRoNares 115
Equations of Motion.
* It the forces can he resolved directly from the free-body diagram.
apply the equations of motion in their scalar component form,
' Ifthe geometry of the problem appears complicated, which often
‘occurs in three dimensions, Cartesian vector analysis ean be used.
for the solution
* Friction. If moving particle contacts a rough surface, it may be
necessary to use the frictional equation, which relates. the
frictional and normal forces F, and N acting at the surface of
contact by using the coetficient of kinetic friction, ie., Fy = sa.
Remember that F; always acts on the free-body diagram such
that it opposes the motion of the particle relative tothe surface it
contacts Ifthe particle is on the verge of relative motion, then the
coefficient of state friction should he used.
‘© Spring. If the particle is connected to an elastic spring having
negligible mass, the spring force F, can be related to the
deformation of the spring by the equation F, = ks, Here k is
the spring's stiffness measured as a force per unit length, and s is
the stretch or compression defined as the difference between the
deformed length / and the undeformed length iy, ie.,8 = 1 = fy,
Kinematics.
‘© If the velocity or position of the particle is to be found, it will be
necessary (0 apply the necessary kinematic equations once the
pparticle’s acceleration is determined from 3F = ma,
‘* Iacceleration is a function of time, use a = de/dt and.» = ds/dt
which, when integrated, yield the particle’s velocity and position,
respectively,
IF acceleration isa function of displacement, integrate a ds = v do
{o obtain the velocity as a function of position.
If acceleration is constant, use 0 = Up + agts = Sq + ot + ha.F,
v? = U9 + 2as — 50) to determine the velocity or position of the
particle.
If the problem involves the dependent motion of several particles,
use the method outlined in See. 12.9 to relate their acceler
In all cases, make sure the positive inertial coordinate directions
used for writing the kinematic equations are the same as those
used for writing the equations of motion; otherwise, simultaneous
solution of the equations will result in errors
It the solution for an unknown vector component yields a
negative scalar, it indicates that the component acts in the
direction opposite to that which was assumed 116
‘Chapter 13. KINETICS OF A PARTICLE: FORCE AND ACCELERATION
as
@
‘The 50-kg erate shown in Fig. 13-64 rests on a horizontal surface for
‘which the coefficient of kinetic friction is jz = 0.3. Ifthe erate is
subjected to 2 400-N towing force as shown, determine the velocity of
the crate in3 s starting from rest
SOLUTION
Using the equations of motion, we ean relate the erate’s acceleration
to the force causing the motion, The crate’s velocity can then be
determined using kinematics,
Free-Body Diagram. The weight of the crate is W= mg =
50 kg (9.81 m/s") = 490.5 N. As shown in Fig, 13-6, the frictional
force has a magnitude F = jz.Ne and acts to the left, since it opposes
‘the motion of the crate. The acceleration ais assumed to act horizontally,
in the positive x direction. There are two unknowns, namely Neand 4.
Equations of Motion. Using the data shown on the free-body
diagram, we have
S3F,= maz 400.603 30° ~ 0.3Ne = 50a a
+PSA, = may: No ~ 490.5 + 400 sin 30° = 0 2
Solving Eq. 2 for Nc, substituting the result into Eq, 1, and solving
fora yields
Ne = 2905N
a= 5.185 m/s
Kinematics. Notice that the acceleration is constant,since the app!
force P is constant. Since the initial velocity is zero, the velocity of the
crate in 3 sis
(s) vy + a = 0+ 5,185(3)
ae Pe
eT
rf
i - fw.
ane
ba ()
NOTE: We can also use the altemative procedure of drawing the
‘rate’s free-body and kinetic diagrams, Fig. 13-6c, prior to applying,
the equations of motion, 13.4 Eauarions oF MoTON: RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 17
Eau
13.
A 10-kg projectile is fired vertically upward from the ground, with an
initial velocity of 50 m/s, Fig. 3-2. Determine the maximum height
to which it will travel if (a) atmospheric resistance is neglected: and
(0) atmospheric resistance is measured as Fy, ~ (0.010") N, where vis
the speed of the projectile at any instant, measured in m/s.
SOLUTION
In both cases the known force on the projectile can be related to its
acceleration using the equation of motion, Kinematies ean then be
used to relate the projectie’s acceleration to its position.
Part (a) Free-Body Diagram. _Asshown in Fig.13-7b, the projectie’s
weight is W= mg = 109.81) = 98.1 N. We will assume the unknown
acceleration a acts upward in the positive z direction.
Equation of Motion.
+13F, = ma, 98.1 = 104, a= 981 m/e
The result indicates that the projectile, ike every object having free-
fight motion near the earth's surface, is subjected to a constant
downward acceleration af 9.81 m/s"
Kinematics. Initially, zg = Oand 1p = 50 m/s, and at the maximum
height: = h, » = 0, Since the acceleration is constant, then
oh wa ab + ade
50}? + 2(-981} ~ 0)
27 m Ans.
Part (b) Free-Body Diagram. Since the force Fi = (0.010%) N tends
to retard the upward motion of the projectile, t acts downward as
shown on the free-body diagram, Fig, 13-70.
Equation of Motion.
TEE = mas 0010-981 = 104 a = (00012* + 9.81)
Kinematics. Here the aeceleration is nor constant sinee Fy depends
oon the velocity. Sinee a = flv), we ean relate @ to position using
Gtyads= dy; (0.00107 + 981) de = vdv
Separating the variables and integrating, realizing that initially zy
¥y = 50 m/s (positive upward), and at z = h, v = 0, we have
fu -f
