Discuss monocular cues.

Texture gradients

When the appear closer it as if they are larger grains and farther apart while when they Appear
farther away they look as if they are Smaller grains, closer together.

Relative size

When it appears closer it looks bigger, while when it appears farther away it look smaller

Interposition

When it appears closer it Partially obscures other object while when it Appears farther away it Is
partially obscured by other object

Linear perspective

When it Appears closer Apparently parallel lines seem to diverge as they move away from the
horizon and when it Appears farther away, Apparently parallel lines seem to converge as they
approach the horizon

Aerial perspective

When it Appears closer, Images seem crisper, more clearly delineated while when it Appears
farther away, Images seem fuzzier, less clearly delineated.

Location in the picture plane

When it Appears closer, Above the horizon, objects are higher in the picture plane; below the
horizon, objects are lower in the picture plane while when it Appears farther away, Above the
horizon, objects are lower in the picture plane; below the horizon, objects are higher in the
picture plane

Motion parallax

When it Appears closer, the Objects approaching get larger at an ever-increasing speed (i.e., big
and moving quickly close and when it Appears farther away, the Objects departing get smaller at
an ever decreasing speed (i.e., small and moving slowly farther away)
Discuss the structure of a neuron and process through which they communicate.

Neuron is a specialized cell in the nervous system that creates, transmits and receives
information.

The soma cell contains the nucleus of the cell (the center portion that performs metabolic and
reproductive functions for the cell).

It is responsible for the life of the neuron and connects the dendrites to the axon.

The dendrites are branchlike structures that receive information from other neurons, and the
soma integrates the information.

Learning is associated with the formation of new neuronal connections.

The axon is a long, thin tube that extends (and sometimes splits) from the soma and responds to
the information, when appropriate, by transmitting an electrochemical signal, which travels to
the terminus (end), where the signal can be transmitted to other neurons.

Myelin is a white, fatty substance that surrounds some of the axons of the nervous system, which
accounts for some of the whiteness of the white matter of the brain.

The more an axon is myelinated, the faster signals can be transmitted – the speed can reach 100
meters per second.

Synapse is the Space between axon of one neuron and dendrite of another.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that affect the electrical signal of the receiving neuron, cross
the synapse and bind with the receiving dendrites.
When the nerve is at rest, there is a difference in charge between the inside and outside of the
axon that called the resting potential.
The action potential is a very brief shift in the neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an
axon.
The neuron is now sending a message down the axon.
When the action potential reaches the end of the axon, synaptic vesicles open and release
chemical neurotransmitters
Name the layers of the eye and explain their functions.

Vision begins when light passes through the protective covering of the eye

This covering, the cornea, is a clear dome that protects the eye

The light then passes through the pupil,

the opening in the center of the iris.

It continues through the crystalline lens and the vitreous humor.

The vitreous humor is a gel-like substance that makes up the majority of the eye

Eventually, the light focuses on the retina

where electromagnetic light energy is transduced

that is, converted—into neural electrochemical impulses

Vision is most acute in the fovea, which is a small, thin region of the retina, the size of the head
of a pin.

When you look straight at an object,

your eyes rotate so that the image falls directly onto the fovea

The retina contains the photoreceptors,

which convert light energy into electrochemical energy that is transmitted by neurons to the brain

There are two kinds of photoreceptors—rods and cones.

Rods and cones differ not only in shape but also in their compositions, locations, and responses
to light

Within the rods and cones are photo pigments,

chemical substances that react to light and

transform physical electromagnetic energy into an electrochemical neural impulse that can be
understood by the brain
The rods are long and thin photoreceptors.

They are more highly concentrated in the periphery of the retina than in the fovea region

The rods are responsible for night vision and are sensitive to light and dark stimuli

The cones are short and thick photoreceptors and allow for the perception of color.

They are more highly concentrated in the foveal region than in the periphery of the retina

The rods and cones are connected to the brain.

The neurochemical messages processed by the rods and cones of the retina travel via the bipolar
cells to the ganglion cells

The axons of the ganglion cells in the eye collectively form the optic nerve for that eye.

The optic nerves of the two eyes join at the base of the brain to form the optic chiasma

At this point, the ganglion cells from the inward, or nasal, part of the retina—the part closer to
your nose—

cross through the optic chiasma and extend to the opposite hemisphere of the brain. The ganglion
cells from the outward, or temporal area of the retina closer to your temple

go to the hemisphere on the same side of the body.

The lens of each eye naturally inverts the image of the world as it projects the image onto the
retina. In this way, the message sent to your brain is literally upside-down and backward

After being routed via the optic chiasma, about 90% of the ganglion cells then go to
the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.
From the thalamus, neurons carry information to the primary visual cortex (V1 or striate cortex)
in the occipital lobe of the brain.
The visual cortex contains several processing areas.
Each area handles different kinds of visual information relating to intensity and quality,
including color, location, depth, pattern, and form.
Discuss the slips of the tongue with examples

In anticipation, the speaker uses a language element before it is appropriate in the sentence
because it corresponds to an element that will be needed later in the utterance. For example,
instead of saying, “an inspiring expression,” a speaker might say, “an expiring expression.”

• In perseveration, the speaker uses a language element that was appropriate earlier in the
sentence but that is not appropriate later on. For example, a speaker might say, “We sat down to
a bounteous beast” instead of a “bounteous feast.”

• In substitution, the speaker substitutes one language element for another. For

example, you may have warned someone to do something “after it is too late,” when you meant
“before it is too late.”

• In reversal (also called transposition), the speaker switches the positions of

two language elements. An example is the reversal that reportedly led “flutterby” to become a
“butterfly.” This reversal captivated language users so much that it is now the preferred form.
Sometimes, reversals can be fortuitously opportune.

• In spoonerisms, the initial sounds of two words are reversed and make two

entirely different words. The term is named after the Reverend William Spooner, who was
famous for them. Some of his choicest slips include, “You have hissed all my mystery lectures,”
[missed all my history lectures] and “Easier for a camel to go through the knee of an idol” [the
eye of a needle]

In malapropism, one word is replaced by another that is similar in sound but

different in meaning (e.g., furniture dealers selling “naughty pine” instead of

“knotty pine”).

•Additionally, slips may occur because of insertions of sounds (e.g., “mischievious” instead of
“mischievous” or “drownded” instead of “drowned”) or other linguistic elements.

The opposite kind of slip involves deletions (e.g., sound deletions such as “prossing” instead of
“processing”). Such deletions often involve blends (e.g., “blounds” for “blended sounds”)
Discuss the Baddeley and Hitch model including episodic buffer

Baddeley originally suggested that working memory comprises four elements: the visuospatial
sketchpad, the phonological loop, the central executive, and the episodic buffer.

 A visuospatial sketchpad briefly holds some visual images,

 as when you picture the way your best friend looks or when you work on a puzzle.
 It contains both spatial and visual information,
 but some evidence indicates that actually,
 two separate mechanisms within the visuospatial sketchpad deal with spatial and visual
information.
 Information in the visuospatial sketchpad decays rapidly.
 We somehow rehearse the information to keep it from fading.

Phonological loop briefly stores mainly verbal information for verbal comprehension and for
acoustic rehearsal.

We use the phonological loop for a number of everyday tasks,

including sounding out new and difficult words and solving word problems.

This loop has two critical components:

Phonological storage, which holds information in memory

The phonological loop is the sub vocal rehearsal, which holds information by nonverbally
practicing it.

Information is rehearsed here to prevent its fading in the phonological store.

The sub-vocal rehearsal mechanism can also verbally label images we see

 Central executive, which allocates attention within working memory.

  The central executive decides how to divide attention between two or more tasks that
need to be done at the same time,
 or how to switch attention back and forth between multiple tasks
 The central executive is critical to working memory because it is the gating mechanism
that decides what information to process further
 and how to process this information.
 It decides what resources to allocate to memory and related tasks, and how to allocate
them.
 It is also involved in higher-order reasoning and comprehension and is central to human
intelligence.

Episodic buffer, a late addition to the working-memory model,

it explains how we integrate information in working memory, long-term memory, the

visuospatial sketchpad, and the phonological loop.

This buffer allows us to solve problems and reevaluate previous experiences with more recent
knowledge.
Discuss classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning theory states that behaviors are learned by connecting a neutral stimulus
with a positive one, such as Pavlov's dogs hearing a bell (neutral) and expecting food (positive).
The learned behavior is called a conditioned response.

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify
behavior. Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and
behavior that is punished will rarely occur.

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning
involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about
associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

Discuss the Ebbinghausss memory experiment including the forgetting curve.

 Ebbinghaus experimented with his own ability to remember using a list of nonsense
syllables,
 which he attempted to recall after different lengths of time.
 His experiences and results revealed a number of key aspects of memory:
 Memories weaken over time.
 The biggest drop in retention happens soon after learning
 It's easier to remember things that have meaning.
 The way something is presented affects learning.
 How you feel affects how well you remember.

Discuss the functions of lobes in the brain.

Frontal lobe:

 The frontal lobe is responsible for voluntary movements, intellect, speech components,
planning, problem-solving, and emotions.
  The frontal lobes are crucial for controlling higher-order executive functions, expressive
language, and voluntary movement.
 The ability to plan, organize, initiate, self-monitor, and manage one's responses in order
to accomplish a goal is referred to as having executive functions.

Parietal lobe:

 The parietal lobe is in charge of visual and auditory processing, as well as input
perception.
 Somatosensory information from the body, such as touch, pain, temperature, and the
perception of limb position, is processed by the parietal lobes.
 The parietal lobes play a role in integrating data from several modalities, just like the
temporal lobes do.

Occipital lobe:

 Vision or visual processing is the most important function of the occipital lobe.
 It is linked to memory formation, object and face identification, color perception,
distance and depth perception, and visuospatial processing.

Temporal lobe:

 Emotions, vision, speech, memory, language, stimulus, and auditory recognition are all
processed by the temporal lobe.
 It is also thought that the temporal lobes are crucial for processing affect/emotions,
language, and some facets of visual perception.
 The left side of the dominant temporal lobe, which is the side in most people, is involved
in verbal learning and memory as well as language comprehension.

Define structural and functional connectivity as it pertains to neurons in the brain.

Structural connectivity
  Brains wiring diagram created by axons that connect the brain area
 Includes one pathway that connects neurons to each other
 Measured with diffusion tensor imaging (dti)

Functional connectivity

 How groups of neurons within one connection functions in relation to types of cognition
 Provides info on how these regions communicate and work together to prepare a specific
task
 Measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) or eeg

Discuss the what-where hypothesis and deficit to perception relating to what-where pathways.

What pathway Neural pathway, extending from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe, that is
associated with perceiving or recognizing objects. Corresponds to the perception pathway.

Where pathway Neural pathway, extending from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe, that is
associated with neural processing that occurs when people locate objects in space. Roughly
corresponds to the action pathway.

Agnosias and Ataxias

Perceptual deficits provide an excellent way to test hypotheses with regard to how the perceptual
system works. Remember that there are two distinct visual pathways, one for identifying objects
(what), and the other for pinpointing where objects are located in space and how to manipulate
them (where or how). The what–how hypothesis is best supported by evidence of processing
deficits: Deficits can impair people’s ability to recognize what they see and can impair people’s
ability to reach for what they see (how)

Describe 3 agnosias in the what pathway.

Prosopagnosia
 results in a severely impaired ability to recognize human faces
  A person with prosopagnosia might not recognize her or his own face in the mirror

Visual agnosia

 Inability to recognize everyday objects, familiar faces and geometrical shapes

 Simultagnosia.

 When you view this figure, you see various objects overlapping.

 People with simultagnosia cannot see more than one of these objects at any one time.

Name and discuss 7 gestalt principles.

Figure-ground
 When perceiving a visual field, some objects (figures) seem prominent, and other aspects
of the field recede into the background (ground).
Proximity
 When we perceive an assortment of objects, we tend to see objects that are close to each
other as forming a group.
Similarity
 We tend to group objects on the basis of their similarity
Continuity
 We tend to perceive smoothly flowing or continuous forms rather than disrupted or
discontinuous ones
Closure
 We tend to perceptually close up, or complete, objects that are not, in fact, complete.
Symmetry
 We tend to perceive objects as forming mirror images about their center
Differentiate between sensation perception and cognition.

 Sensation refers to the process of receiving and detecting stimuli from the environment
through our sensory organs.
 Perception involves interpreting and organizing sensory information to create a
meaningful representation of the world.
 Cognition encompasses higher mental processes such as thinking, reasoning, and
problem-solving, which involve memory, attention, and language.

Define selective attention

 selective attention choosing to attend to some stimuli and to ignore others.

Discuss the signal detection theory and its 4 outcomes.

 Signal detection theory is a framework used to understand how individuals make

decisions when faced with ambiguous or uncertain stimuli. It involves four possible
outcomes:
 Hit: When a signal is present, and the individual correctly detects it.
 Miss: When a signal is present, but the individual fails to detect it.
 False Alarm: When a signal is absent, but the individual incorrectly detects it.
 Correct Rejection: When a signal is absent, and the individual correctly does not detect it.

Differentiate between feature and conjuctive searches

 Feature search is a type of visual search where the target item is distinguished by a single
feature, such as color or shape, and can be detected quickly and efficiently.
 Conjunction search, on the other hand, involves searching for a target item that is defined
by a combination of features, requiring more time and effort to find among distractors.
Discuss episodic, semantic and autobiographical memory with examples.

Episodic memory refers to the ability to recall specific events and experiences in a
chronological order. For example, remembering your last birthday party or a recent vacation
would involve episodic memory.

Semantic memory involves the storage and retrieval of general knowledge and concepts. It
pertains to facts, meanings, and concepts that are not tied to a particular event or personal
experience. For instance, knowing that Paris is the capital of France or understanding the concept
of gravity is a part of semantic memory.

Autobiographical memory relates to personal memories that are tied to one's own life
experiences and self-identity. It includes memories of significant life events, personal
achievements, and emotional experiences. Remembering your high school graduation or a
childhood family gathering would be examples of autobiographical memory.

In summary, episodic memory deals with remembering specific events, semantic memory deals
with general knowledge and concepts, and autobiographical memory focuses on personal life
experiences.

Discuss Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model of memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin's modal model of memory, proposed in 1968,

describes memory as a three-stage process consisting of sensory memory, short-term memory,

and long-term memory.

Sensory memory briefly holds sensory information from the environment.

If attended to, this information moves into short-term memory, which has limited capacity and
duration.

To transfer information to long-term memory, it needs to be rehearsed and encoded.

Long-term memory is the final stage and has unlimited capacity for storing information over a
long period of time.
Compare echoic and iconic memory

Echoic memory refers to the auditory sensory memory, which holds a brief trace of sounds that
are heard.

It allows us to retain and process auditory information for a short period, typically around 3-4
seconds.

For example, when someone asks a question, echoic memory helps us recall and comprehend the
spoken words even after they have been uttered.

Iconic memory, on the other hand, pertains to the visual sensory memory, capturing a fleeting
representation of visual stimuli.

It enables us to retain an image of what we see for a brief moment, typically around 0.5-1
second.

This type of memory helps us perceive the world as continuous and stable, as it bridges the gaps
between our eye movements, providing a coherent visual experience.

Discuss the serial positioning curve with special reference to the primacy and recency effects

The serial positioning curve describes the pattern of recall for items in a list. It reveals two
distinct effects: primacy and recency.

The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember items at the beginning of the list better
than those in the middle.

This is attributed to the greater opportunity for rehearsal and encoding of early items into long-
term memory.

The recency effect, on the other hand, denotes better recall for items at the end of the list.

These items are still in the short-term memory when recall is requested.

Both effects demonstrate the importance of the position of information in memory retrieval, with
primacy relying on long-term memory and recency relying on short-term memory.
Compare long and short term memory as it relates to visual, auditory and semantic coding

Long-term memory refers to the storage of information over an extended period, ranging from
minutes to years.

 It is categorized into three coding systems: visual, auditory, and semantic.

 Visual coding involves storing and recalling visual images,
 auditory coding focuses on sounds and language-based information,
 while semantic coding relates to the meaning and concepts associated with the
information.

On the other hand, short-term memory refers to the temporary storage and manipulation of
information for immediate use, usually lasting for seconds to minutes.

 While short-term memory can involve visual and auditory coding,

 it primarily relies on auditory rehearsal,
 which involves repeating information in one's mind to maintain it temporarily.
 Visual and semantic coding also play a role in short-term memory but to a lesser extent
compared to long-term memory.

Differentiate between synaptic and systems consolidation

 Synaptic consolidation refers to the process of strengthening and stabilizing individual

neural connections or synapses in the brain, which is thought to be important for short-
term memory storage.
 Systems consolidation, on the other hand, involves the gradual reorganization and
integration of information across multiple brain regions over time, leading to the long-
term storage and retrieval of memories.
  In summary, synaptic consolidation focuses on the strengthening of individual synapses,
while systems consolidation involves the reorganization of information across brain
regions for long-term memory storage.

Discuss levels of processing theory in memory

 The levels of processing theory suggest that the depth of processing affects memory
retention.
 According to this theory, information that is processed at a deeper level, such as
semantic or meaningful processing, is better remembered than information processed at a
shallow level, such as visual or structural processing.
 In other words, the more we engage with and relate new information to our existing
knowledge, the more likely we are to remember it.

Discuss encoding procedures that affect memory retrieval

 Forming visual images- words are remembered better if images are formed
 Linking words to yourself- words associated with yourself are remembered better
 Generating information- memory is better is the second work in a word pair is generated
by a person, compared to just being presented with the word
 Organizing information- studying information that is organized in a tree results in better
memory
 Practicing retrieval- testing following learning results in better memory than rereading
material after learning

Name and explain the 7 sins of memory with special reference to the categories of the sins

 Transience: The sin of forgetting over time. Memories tend to fade and become less
accurate or disappear altogether.
  Absent-mindedness: The sin of forgetting due to lack of attention. This can happen when
we're preoccupied or not fully focused on encoding or retrieving information.
 Blocking: The sin of temporary inaccessibility. It occurs when we have trouble retrieving
information that is stored in memory, even though we know we know it.
 Misattribution: The sin of assigning a memory to the wrong source. We may mistakenly
attribute a memory to the wrong context, person, or time, leading to inaccuracies or false
memories.
 Suggestibility: The sin of memory distortion due to external influences. Our memories
can be altered or influenced by suggestions, leading us to remember events differently or
even create false memories.
 Bias: The sin of distorting memories based on personal beliefs, attitudes, or expectations.
Our pre-existing biases can influence how we remember past events, leading to
inaccuracies or selective recall.
 Persistence: The sin of unwanted and intrusive memories. Sometimes we are unable to
forget traumatic or emotionally distressing events, and they persistently intrude upon our
thoughts and memories.

Discuss types of bilingualism

1. Additive Bilinguals: Additive bilingualism refers to individuals who acquire a second

language without it affecting their proficiency in their first language. They maintain and enhance
their abilities in both languages, adding the second language as a valuable asset to their linguistic
repertoire.

2. Subtractive Bilinguals: Subtractive bilingualism occurs when individuals learn a second

language at the expense of their first language. The acquisition of the second language leads to a
decline in proficiency or loss of fluency in their native language, which may occur due to limited
exposure or cultural assimilation.

3. Simultaneous Bilinguals: Simultaneous bilingualism refers to individuals who acquire two

languages from birth or during early childhood. They learn both languages concurrently,
typically due to exposure to a bilingual environment or having parents who speak different
languages. As a result, they develop native-like proficiency in both languages.

4. Sequential Bilinguals: Sequential bilingualism occurs when individuals acquire a second

language after already establishing proficiency in their first language. This can happen through
immigration, relocation, or formal language instruction. Sequential bilinguals often experience a
learning curve as they transition from their first language to the second, but they can ultimately
develop proficiency in both languages.

Name and describe 4 conversation maxims

1. Maxim of Quantity: Provide as much information as necessary, neither more nor less, to
contribute to the conversation. Avoid being overly verbose or withholding crucial information.

2. Maxim of Quality: Offer truthful and accurate information, based on what you know to be
true. Avoid making false statements or providing information that lacks evidence or credibility.

3. Maxim of Relation: Keep the conversation relevant and on topic. Respond to the current
discussion and avoid introducing unrelated or tangential subjects.

4. Maxim of Manner: Communicate in a clear and organized manner. Avoid ambiguity,

excessive use of jargon, or being unnecessarily obscure or vague.

Discuss the effects of context on how we perceive language (phonemic restoration, word
superiority, speech segmentation and words isolated from conversational speech)

1. Phonemic restoration: Context helps us fill in missing or distorted sounds in speech. We

can still understand words even if certain phonemes are masked or removed because our
brains use surrounding context to "restore" the missing information.

2. Word superiority: In the context of a sentence or phrase, individual words are easier to
recognize and process compared to isolated letters or random strings of letters. The
context provides cues that facilitate word recognition.
 3. Speech segmentation: Context aids in dividing a continuous stream of speech into
individual words. Our knowledge of language and the surrounding context allow us to
identify word boundaries and comprehend the intended message.

4. Words isolated from conversational speech: When words are presented in isolation
without the surrounding conversational context, they may be more difficult to interpret.
Context helps us disambiguate word meanings and understand intended messages
accurately.

Discuss pidgin and creoles

 Pidgin and creoles are forms of language that emerge when different groups with limited
linguistic resources come into contact.
 Pidgins are simplified languages that develop as a means of communication between
groups with different languages.
 Creoles, on the other hand, are fully developed languages that evolve from pidgins as
they become the native language of a community.
 Both pidgins and creoles exhibit unique linguistic features and reflect the cultural and
social dynamics of the communities that use them.

Name and describe 3 inferences we rely on to understand stories

1. Anaphoric Inference: Anaphoric inference is the process of resolving pronouns or

other referring expressions by connecting them to their antecedents in the text. It allows
us to understand the relationships between different entities or concepts mentioned in a
text.
2. Instrument Inference: Instrument inference involves understanding the tools, objects,
or means used to accomplish a particular action or goal described in the text. It helps us
infer the actions or processes involved and the role of various elements in achieving the
desired outcome.
3. Causal Inference: Causal inference refers to the process of understanding the cause-
and-effect relationships between events or actions mentioned in a text. It allows us to
 infer the reasons behind certain outcomes or consequences and helps us comprehend the
logical flow of events in a narrative.

Discuss the expected utility theory

Expected utility theory posits that individuals, assuming rationality, strive to maximize
their expected utility when making decisions.
Utility refers to the subjective value or satisfaction derived from achieving specific
outcomes that align with one's goals.
In this theory, people are presumed to consider all pertinent information available to them
and weigh the potential outcomes to select the option with the highest expected utility.

Define incidental emotions

In a decision-making situation, emotions not directly caused by the act of having to make
a decision

Distinguish between risk-taking and risk-aversion strategies

Risk-taking strategies involve actively seeking out and embracing risks in order to
potentially achieve higher returns or gains.
These strategies involve a willingness to accept and tolerate uncertainty, volatility, and
potential losses in pursuit of greater rewards.
On the other hand, risk-aversion strategies involve minimizing or avoiding risks as much
as possible.
These strategies focus on preserving capital and prioritizing the protection of assets over
potential gains.
Risk-averse individuals or organizations tend to opt for safer, more conservative
investments and approaches that prioritize stability and predictability over higher-risk
opportunities.