MODULE- I

Alternators –
Basic principle, construction features, types
of armature winding, EMF equation

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 INTRODUCTION
• A Synchronous machine is an AC machine in which the rotor moves at a
speed which bears a constant relationship to frequency of currents in the
armature (stator) winding
• Synchronous machines are generally constructed in larger sizes as small size
alternators are not economical t
Classification of Synchronousmachines
According to application, may be classified as
1. Synchronous generators or Alternators (converts Mechanical energy
from a prime mover to Electrical energy)
2. Synchronous Motors (converts Electrical energy into
Mechanical energy)
3. Synchronous compensators/condensors (operates at no load and shaft is
not connected to any prime mover or mechanical load and is used to
control reactive power in power supply
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 Alternator - Principle of operation
➢ Principle of operation is fundamentally same as that of
a DC generator (Electromagnetic induction, Faradays
laws)
➢ In an Alternator, EMF induced due to relative motion
between conductor & magnetic field
➢ Here no need of converting induced AC EMF in armature
to DC
➢ So commutator is not needed as in a DC generator
➢ Alternators are driven at very definite speed as the
frequency of generated EMF is determined by that
speed.
➢ Because of the absence of commutator, they are simple
& possess several advantages over DC generator.
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 Construction
- Mainly two parts, namely armature (stator) and field magnet
system (rotor)
a) Armature (stator)
➢ Main parts of stator are stator core, stator winding &stator frame
➢ Stator core contain an iron ring made of silicon steel laminations

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➢ Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core, in which
stator conductors are placed.
➢ Stator core is laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
➢ It also contain axial & radial ventilating ducts to provide efficient
cooling
➢ Slots can be open, semi closed
or totally closed
➢ Open slots - are commonly used
because coils can be insulated before placing in the slots and the
expenditure is low. Also replacement of defective coil is easy here.
➢ But it got disadvantage of distributing the air gap flux into branches
which tend to produce ripples in EMF wave
➢ Semi closed slots - it overcomes the drawback of open slots, but coils
cannot be insulated before placing in the slots
➢ Totally closed slots - are rarely used
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➢ Stator contain a 3 phase winding which is normally
star connected
➢ Stator conductors are made of copper or aluminium
➢ Windings can be single layer or double layer, lap
or wave, concentrated or distributed
➢ The whole structure is held in a frame made of cast
iron or welded steel plate

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b) Field magnet system (Rotor)
• The field magnets produce the magnetic field required for the
generation of AC voltage.
• Field magnets are supplied with DC voltage.
• For this external DC sources are used.
• If an external DC source is used, exciting current is supplied to
rotor through slip rings & brushes.
• In order to make the alternator self contained & independent of
other sources, usually a small DC generator (Exciter generator) is
installed & coupled to the shaft of alternator.
• Recently brushless excitation system is used, in which a small 3
phase alternator is used as exciter & a group of rectifiers will
convert AC to DC & will supply to field system.
• Hence brushes & slip rings are eliminated.
• There are mainly 2 types of rotor construction

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1) Salient pole type
• Used with slow & moderate speed alternators
• Less expensive.
• This type of machine is not used for high speed applications due
to the difficulty in obtaining sufficient mechanical strength.
• Also it cause large windage loss & produce noise.
• Like in DC machine, it contain projecting (salient) field poles
attached on the outer periphery of shaft to give a flywheel type
appearance.
• Field poles contains laminated pole core & pole shoe (to reduce
eddy current losses) and field windings
• The flywheel type rotor is constructed to give adequate
mechanical strength to with stand centrifugal & driving
forces.At the same time it provides necessary path for the
magnetic fluxes
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• Damper windings (short circuited copper bars) are provided
on rotor to damp rotor oscillations

• Since the salient pole machine is a low speed machine, to produce

desired frequency AC voltage, it is provided with large number of
poles (4 to 60) (synchronous speed, Ns = 120f/P)
• To accommodate these large number of poles, these machines
have large diameter & small length
• Pole shoes cover about 2/3 of pole pitch
• Usually employed with hydraulic turbines

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 2. Cylindrical or non-salient polerotor
- It is used with high speed alternators ( turbo alternators)
- To reduce peripheral velocity of rotor, diameter is
reduced & axial length is increased.
- Usually it has 2 poles in rotor
- Field windings are placed in slots
- Normally 2/3rd of rotor is slotted for the field and 1/3rd is left without
slots to form the pole faces
- It has robust construction & noise less operation
- Less windage loss
- No need of damper windings
- Nearly sinusoidal flux distribution around the periphery to give a
better EMF waveform

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 Classification of Synchronousmachines.

Based on the number of phases, they are classified as

i. Single phase – All the armature coils are connected for

addition of individual voltages and a single AC output

ii. Two phase – Armature has two set of windings & two output
voltages are 90◦ out of phase

iii. Three phase – armature has three set of windings & three
output voltages are 120◦ out of phase

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Based on construction, they are classified into
i. Rotating armature type
➢ It looks like a DC generator except that there are 3 slip rings in
place of commutator
➢ The required magnetic field is produced by DC electromagnets placed in
Stator
➢ The current generated in rotor is collected by brushes &
sliprings
➢ This arrangement is economical for low voltage generators with
ratings upto 250kVA.
ii) Rotating field type
➢ Here the required magnetic field is produced by DC electromagnets
placed in rotor
➢ DC electromagnets are powered either by brushless excitation system or
from an external DC source through slip rings & brushes
➢ The electricpower generated in stator can be taken out directly
➢ All medium &large sized machines are constructed in this manner
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❖ The advantages of stationary armature & revolving field system
➢ It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high
voltage (as high as 33kV)
➢ The load circuit can be connected directly with fixed terminals of stator
without passing through slip rings & brushes. In rotating armature
type, load circuit is required to be connected to armature through
slip ring & brush
➢ Armature winding can be more easily braced in a rigid frame to
prevent any deformation.
➢ Armature winding is cooled readily by providing many air passages
& cooling ducts in stator frame.
➢ Only two slip rings are required for the supply of DC voltage to the rotor
➢ The excitation current is relatively small. So slip rings & brush need light
construction
➢ Due to simple, light & robust construction of rotor, higher speeds of
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operation is possible.
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 Speed of rotation of an Alternator
- Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning
that the frequency of induced emf in stator is locked in or
synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the rotor

i.e, N S = 120 f
P
where, NS = Speed of rotor in rpm (Synchronous speed)
f = stator current frequency in Hz
P = Number of poles

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 Armature (stator) windings
➢ Armature windings of alternators are different from that of
d.c machines.
➢ Basically, three phase alternators carry three sets of windings
arranged in the slots in such a way that there exists a phase
difference of 120° electrical between the induced e.m.f.s in
them.
➢ In a dc machine, winding is closed while
in alternators winding is open i.e., two ends of each set of the
winding are brought out.
➢ In three phase alternators, the six terminals are brought out
which are finally connected in star or delta and then the three
terminals are brought out.
➢ Each set of windings represents winding per phase and
induced emf in each set is called induced emf per phase
denoted as Eph.
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Types of Armature Windings in Alternator:
The different types of armature windings in alternators are,
1) Single layer and double layer winding
2) Full pitch and short pitch winding
3) Concentrated and distributed winding

1)Single Layer and Double Layer Winding :

If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be a single layer.
This is shown in figure(a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one, at the
bottom and one at the top the winding is called double layer as shown in
figure(b).A lot of space gets wasted in single layer hence in practice
generally double layer winding is preferred.

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2)Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding:
one pole pitch is 180° electrical.
The value of 'n', slots per pole indicates how many slots are
contributing 180° electrical phase difference.
So if coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another
slot which is one pole pitch distance away from the first slot,
the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called
full pitch coil.
For example, in 2 poles, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is
n = 18/2 = 9 slots. So if coil side in slot No. 1 is connected to
coil side in slot No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are
one pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is
called full pitch coil. Here we can define one more term related
to a coil called coil span.

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 Coil Span:

It is the distance on the periphery of the armature, between two coil sides of a coil. It is
usually expressed in terms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So if coil span is 'n'
slots or 180° electrical the coil is called 180° full pitch coil. This is shown in the figure
to left. As against this if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a
pole pitch i.e. less than 180° electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or
fractional pitched coils. Generally, coils are shorted by one or two slots.

So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot

No 1 to slot No.10, it is connected to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, the coil is said
to be short pitched coil and winding are called short pitch winding. This is shown in
the below figure.
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Advantages of Short Pitch Coils:
In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages,
1) The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. the inactive length of
winding is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical.

2) Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature
of e.m.f. Hence waveform of an induced e.m.f. is more sinusoidal due to short pitching.

3) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which
depend on frequency also get minimised. This increases the efficiency.

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3. Concentrated & Distributed winding
Concentrated winding – if there is only one slot/pole/phase (i.e,
number of slots = number of poles), then concentrated winding
is obtained. Here maximum EMF is induced but is not exactly of
sinusoidal form
Distributed winding – If the conductors are placed in several
slots under one pole, winding is known as distributed winding.
Advantages of Distributedwinding
➢ certain harmonics can be eliminated
➢ Armature reaction reduces
➢ the core is better utilized
➢ higher current density in copper can be adopted due to
even distribution of winding over the surface of armature

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4. Integral slot & Fractional slot winding
Integral slot winding – if the number of slots/pole/phase
is an integer, the winding is called Integral slot winding
Fractional slot winding – if the number of
slots/pole/phase is a fractional number, the winding is
called fractional slot winding

Slot angle,  = 180 electrical , where ‘n’ is the number of slots/pole

n

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 Pitch factor, Kp (Chord factor)
➢ In a full pitch winding, two coil sides of a coil are under opposite
poles, EMF induced in them are equal in magnitude & opposite in
phase
➢ The winding is provided in such a way that these EMFs will add up
➢ In a short pitch winding the induced EMFs in two sides of the coil
are not in phase & hence resultant EMF is given by phasor sum of
induced EMFs

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Consider a coil AB which is short-pitch by an angle ‘α’ electrical
degrees (‘α’ is always an integer multiple of slot angle ‘’). The
EMFs generated in the coil sides A and B differ in phase by an
angle ‘α’ and can be represented by phasors EA and EB respectively
as shown in Fig. ER represents the resultant EMF of the coil.

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Harmonic Elimination
➢ The equation (1) is the Pitch factor for fundamental
component of EMF
➢ The Pitch factor for rth harmonic EMF is given by , KPr =
Cos(rα/2)
➢ The rth harmonic EMF will be reduced to zero if the
angle α is made such that Cos(rα/2) = 0 or (rα/2) =
90◦
➢ 3 phase alternators are star connected to suppress 3rd &
9th harmonics. Suitable short pitching of winding is
done to suppress 5th & 7th harmonic components in
induced EMF

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 Distribution factor, Kd (Breadthfactor)
➢ In concentrated winding, all the coil sides of any one phase are
connected in series and grouped together in one slot, and placed
under one pole.
➢ The magnitude and phase difference of the emf induced remains
the same throughout the coils of one phase under one pole.
➢ The arithmetic sum of the emfs induced in each coil gives net emf
induced under one pole of one phase as shown in the below figure.

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➢ But, in order to obtain a better wave shape ( i.e., more sinusoidal of the
induced emf ) the coils are divided into a number of slots and distributed one
each in three slots per-phase under each pole.
➢ The below figure shows the coils of one phase distributed in adjacent slots,
and are connected in series.
➢ Though the magnitude of the induced emf in distributed winding remains the
same, there exists a time-phase difference by a certain angle β° between the
coils of one phase under one pole.

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The coils are displaced because if we consider the clockwise direction of the
alternator as shown above. A similar amount of emf induced in the coil 2-2' as of 1-1'
will occur after a time lag of β. Similarly for the coil 3-3' with a time lag of 2β
respectively. Hence, the time-phase difference of the induced emf in coils of one
phase under one pole depends upon the angular displacement of the slots.

If we represent individual emf induced in coils of the same phase under one pole by
phasors. The resultant emf will be phasor sum of all of them as shown above. Here
we can see that instead of arithmetic sum for resultant emf as seen in the
concentrated winding. It will be a phasor sum for distributed winding. Thus the
magnitude of total emf induced will be lesser compared to concentrated type
winding.
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 Distribution factor, Kd (Breadthfactor)
• In concentrated winding, the EMF generated/phase is equal to the
arithmetic sum of the individual coil EMFs in that phase
• If the winding is distributed type, the EMFs in the coils are not in
phase (i.e., phase difference is not zero) but are displaced from each
by the slot angle
• The EMF/phase will be the phasor sum of coil EMFs.
• Distribution factor, K d = Phasor sum of EMF induced / coil
Arithmetic sum of EMF induced / coil
EMF induced in distributed winding
• Also, K d =
EMF induced in concentrated winding
Let number of slots/pole = n
Number of slots/pole/phase = m
Induced EMF in each coil side = E
Angular displacement between the slots = slot angle, β = 180/n
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➢ The different EMFs induced in different coils of one phase under one
pole are represented by side AC, CD, DE, EF,…. which are equal in
magnitude (say E) & are differ in phase by
➢ If bisectors are drawn on AC, CD, DE, EF,… they would meet
at common point at ‘O’.
➢ EMF induced in each coil side, E = AC = 2*OA Sin(β /2)
➢ Arithmetic sum of EMF induced
= m*2*OA Sin (β/2)
➢ Phasor sum of EMF induced
= ER = 2*OA Sin(˂AOB/2)
= 2*OA Sin(m/2)
𝑚𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
i.e, K d =
𝛽 𝛾𝑚𝛽
𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
For rth harmonic, K =
dr
𝛾𝛽
𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛
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 EMF equation
Let, Z = number of conductors in series/phase
 = flux/pole in Wb
P = Number of rotor poles
N = Rotor speed in rpm
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N sec
Flux cut by the stator conductor in one revolution, d = P Wb
Average EMF induced in one stator conductor = d/dt

P PN
= 60ൗ = Volts
𝑁 60
Since there are Z conductors in series/phase, Average EMF/phase
𝑃∅𝑁
= *Z
60
PZ 120 f
= * = 2 fZ Volts 120𝑓
60 P 𝑁=
𝑃 23
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- RMS value of EMF/phase = Average value/phase * form factor
= 2fZ * 1.11 = 2.22 fZ Volts
- If KP & Kd are the Pitch factor & Distribution factor of
armature winding, then,
ERMS/phase = 2.22 KP Kd føZ Volts
- Sometimes turns/phase (T) is given rather than conductors/phase (Z
= 2T). Then,
ERMS/phase = 4.44 KP Kd føT Volts
The product of pitch factor & distribution factor is called winding
factor Kw = Kp * Kd
Harmonics in output voltagewaveform
- Harmonics are signals having a frequency which is the integer
multiple of fundamental frequency
- Source of harmonics in output voltage waveform are
- Non sinusoidal waveform of field flux
- Variation in reluctance of air gap due to slotting of stator core 24
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• In a salient pole machine, the air gap is made to vary sinusoidally
around the machine by proper construction of field poles
• In a non-salient pole machine, the air gap is uniform. Therefore to get
a field of sinusoidal form, the field windings are distributed in slots
sinusoidally
• An ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to achieve and therefore
harmonic EMFs will be induced in winding
• The harmonics can be eliminated from output voltage waveform by
properly designing the stator windings
• The various methods for elimination of harmonics are
- Distributing the armature winding
- Short pitching the armature winding
- By using fractional slot winding
- larger air gap length causes an increase in reluctance & harmonics
will reduce
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Synchronous generator on no load
When a synchronous generator is driven at constant speed, the
terminal voltage on open circuit is,

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Synchronous generator on load
➢ When a synchronous generator is running on no-load, there will be no
current flowing through the armature windings. The flux produced in
the air-gap will be due to the field ampere-turns only.
➢ When load is connected across the armature terminals, current will flow
through the armature windings.
➢ This three phase currents will produce a rotating magnetic field in the
air-gap.
➢ The effect of the armature flux on the flux produced by the field
ampere-turns is called armature reaction.
➢ The armature flux will distort, oppose or aid the field flux causing
reduction or increase in the air-gap flux depending upon the power
factor of the load.
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 ARMATURE REACTION
• The effect of the armature flux (produced by the armature
current) on the main flux (produced by the field winding) is
called armature reaction.
• The effect of the armature flux depends on the magnitude of
the armature current and load power factor.

Main flux φm available in the air-gap is sinusoidal. Sinusoidal

main flux produces a sinusoidal emf and hence a sinusoidal
current. Sinusoidal armature current causes the armature flux also
to be sinusoidal. Armature flux φa and main flux φm are rotating
at the same speed in same direction. Hence the relative speed
between φa and φm is zero or they are stationary in space.

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1. Armature reaction at unity power factor
Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator having unity power
factor.

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➢ Induced emf e lags behind φm by 90° (e ∞ -dφ/dt).
➢ Since power factor is unity, e and i will be in phase.
➢ i sets up a flux φa in phase with i.
➢ Resultant flux in the air-gap φR will be the sum of φa and φm.
➢ Here, φa lags behind φm by 90° .
➢ Due to armature reaction, flux in the first quarter portion is decreased and in the second
quarter portion flux is increased.
▪ If saturation is neglected, amount of flux increased in the first quarter and amount of
flux decreased in the second quarter will be equal. Hence, the effect of armature
reaction is only distortional or cross-magnetizing at unity power factor.
▪ If saturation is accounted (i.e. if the armature current is large), amount of flux increased
in the second quarter will be less than the amount of flux decreased in the first quarter
and hence the resultant flux φR will be less than φm in magnitude.
➢ Hence, in a saturated machine, the effect of armature reaction is both distortional and
demagnetizing.
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2. Armature reaction at zero power factor lagging

➢ Induced emf e lags behind φm by 90°.

➢ Since power factor is zero lagging, i lags behind e by an angle 90°.
➢ i sets up a flux φa in phase with i. φa lags behind φm by 180° or φa is in phase
opposition to φm.
➢ Resultant flux in the air-gap φR will be the sum of φa and φm. Resultant flux φR is
decreased.
➢ Effect of armature reaction is purely demagnetizing for a purely inductive load (Zero
power factor lagging).
➢ Since the resultant flux is decreased, generated emf will be decreased.

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3. Armature reaction at zero power factor leading

➢ Induced emf e lags behind φm by 90°.

➢ Since power factor is zero leading, i leads from e by an angle 90°.
➢ i sets up a flux φa in phase with i. φa is in phase with φm.
➢ Resultant flux in the air-gap φR is increased.
➢ Effect of armature reaction is purely magnetizing for a purely capacitive load
(Zero power factor leading).
➢ Since the resultant flux is increased, generated emf will be increased.

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For an R-L load (0 < p.f. lag < 1), effect of armature reaction is
partly distortional and partly demagnetizing.
For an R-C load (0 < p.f. lead < 1), effect of armature reaction is
partly distortional and partly magnetizing.
The change in terminal voltage due to effect of armature reaction
can be accounted by assuming the presence of a fictitious
reactance Xar in series with the armature

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 Armature leakage reactance
➢ When current flows in the armature (i.e. when the machine is loaded), it
sets up armature flux.
➢ Some part of the armature flux links with the main flux causes armature
reaction. The remaining part is called leakage flux.
The armature flux which links only with the armature winding not with the
field winding is called leakage flux.
The various
leakage fluxes may be
I. slot leakage flux –This includes the fluxes that link the coils of a
winding by crossing the slots in which the coils are placed
II. overhang leakage flux - includes all the leakage fluxes around the coil
ends protruding from the slots at each end of the core.
III. zig-zag leakage flux- is due to fluxes produced by a given winding
that cross the air gap but do not link the other winding.
➢ The effect of this leakage flux is accounted by connecting a leakage
reactance Xal in series with the armature.

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 Synchronous impedance
When a synchronous generator is loaded, there will be a change in
the terminal voltage from that under no-load condition, due to :
i) armature resistance Ra
ii) armature leakage reactance Xal
iii) effect of armature reaction Xar

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POWER FLOW EQUATIONS (Synchronous Generator)

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 LOSSES & EFFICIENCY
The various losses in synchronous machines are
I. No-load rotational losses (friction and windage loss, open-
circuit core loss)
II. Field circuit loss (𝐼2 𝑅 loss in the field winding)
III. Direct load loss (𝐼2 𝑅 loss in the armature winding)
IV. Stray load losses (core loss in the teeth, core end-plates etc
due to armature leakage flux, eddy current loss in the
armature conductors due to armature leakage flux)

Direct load loss + stray load loss = short circuit load loss

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