Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

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Remote Sensing of Environment

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Sinking cities in Indonesia: ALOS PALSAR detects rapid subsidence due to

groundwater and gas extraction
Estelle Chaussard a,⁎, Falk Amelung a, Hasanudin Abidin b, Sang-Hoon Hong c
a
School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, USA
b
Institute of Technology, Bandung (ITB), Indonesia
c
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI), Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We use interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) time-series analysis of ALOS L-band SAR data to re-
Received 6 September 2012 solve land subsidence in western Indonesia with high spatial and temporal resolution. The data reveal signif-
Received in revised form 15 October 2012 icant subsidence in nine areas, including six major cities, at rates up to 22 cm/year. Land subsidence is
Accepted 16 October 2012
detected near Lhokseumawe, in Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, Blanakan, Pekalongan, Bungbulang, Semarang,
Available online 7 November 2012
and in the Sidoarjo regency. The fastest subsidence occurs in highly populated coastal areas particularly vul-
Keywords:
nerable to flooding.
Subsidence We correlate the observed subsidence with surface geology and land use. Despite the fact that subsidence is
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar taking place in compressible deposits there is no clear correlation between subsidence and surface geology. In
SBAS time-series urban areas we find a correlation between rapid, patchy subsidence and industrial land use and elsewhere
Indonesia with agricultural land use. This suggests that the subsidence is primarily caused by ground water extraction
for industrial and agricultural use, respectively. We also observe subsidence associated with exploitation of
gas fields near Lhokseumawe and in the Sidoarjo regency. A continuation of these high rates of subsidence
is likely to put much of the densely populated coastal areas below relative sea level within a few decades.
© 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Traditional measurements of land subsidence rely on GPS and

leveling data. Although these methods provide precise measure-
Lowlands are often densely populated and land use represents ments, they are time consuming, costly, and only supply data at a
a high economic value. The shallow subsurface in these areas fre- few locations. Mapping land subsidence over extensive areas with
quently contains young, compressible deposits. These soft deposits high precision can be achieved using InSAR. InSAR has facilitated
are particularly vulnerable to subsidence caused by natural compac- the monitoring of land subsidence in many metropolitan areas, such
tion or anthropogenic activities. While natural compaction is causing as Las Vegas (Amelung et al., 1999; Burbey, 2002; Hoffmann et al.,
slow subsidence in numerous deltas, such as in the Mississippi and Po 2001), Mexico City (Osmanoglu et al., 2011), Paris (Fruneau & Sarti,
deltas at 5 and 2 mm/year, respectively (Teatini et al., 2011; Törnqvist 2000), Naples (Tesauro et al., 2000), Venice (Bock et al., 2012), Lisbon
et al., 2008), ground water extraction is causing rapid subsidence in (Heleno et al., 2011), and Shanghai (Damoah-Afari et al., 2007).
urban areas, such as Mexico City and Las Vegas at rates of tens of In Indonesia, leveling and GPS observations have revealed that
cm/year (Bell et al., 2002; Cabral-Cano et al., 2008). land subsidence is occurring in several cities (Abidin et al., 2010,
Subsidence, particularly in combination with sea level rise, heavy 2011a, 2011b). However, because of the limitations of these methods,
rains (such as monsoon), or storms, aggravates inundation risk from the spatial pattern of subsidence remains unknown and the processes
the major rivers and widens the coastal areas affected by storm causing the subsidence remain unclear. Here we define the rates and
surges and tidal inundation. The costs associated with subsidence spatial pattern of land subsidence in western Indonesia using InSAR
are enormous, directly, because of damages to buildings and infra- time-series analysis. Such a detailed mapping enables the identifica-
structures, and indirectly given the increase in flood risk and the tion of the processes responsible for the land subsidence, and is also
threat to human life. Examples of recent flooding events likely ampli- a necessary first step in the development of hazard mitigation plans.
fied by land subsidence include the flooding of New Orleans following This paper is organized as follows. We first discuss the general
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (Dixon et al., 2006) and the flooding of potential for land subsidence in Indonesia (Section 1). For this we de-
Bangkok in 2011(Chan et al., 2012). scribe the typical causes of land subsidence, the surface geology, and
the population distribution. After summarizing the data and methods
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 3056134448. used (Section 2), we present the InSAR-measured land subsidence
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Chaussard). and relate it to the surface geology and land use (Section 3), and

0034-4257/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161 151

compare our results with previous surveys (Section 4). We then discuss subsidence by natural compaction. Subsidence due to this process is
the causes of the observed subsidence (Section 5) and why subsidence limited to the first twenty years or so after land modification because
is observed only in these specific locations (Section 6). Finally, we de- its typical rates of few cm/year, occurring on a local to large-scale pat-
scribe the consequences and implications of the observed subsidence tern, decrease exponentially with time (Sestini, 1996). Finally, sediment
(Section 7). loading (artificially, e.g. by construction of high-rise buildings, or natu-
rally by addition of deposits) induces compaction of clays, resulting in
2. Potential for land subsidence in Indonesia land subsidence at rates up to 5 cm/year, also decreasing exponentially
in time (Mazzotti et al., 2009; Yan & Gong, 2002).
2.1. Overview of the causes of land subsidence and their characteristics
2.2. Surface geology and population distribution of western Indonesia
Land subsidence can be caused by natural and anthropogenic pro-
cesses. Natural land subsidence results either from isostatic sediment As described above, in most cases land subsidence results from the
loading and natural compaction of Holocene deposits or from tectonic progressive compaction of compressible deposits. Compressible de-
and volcanic activities. Anthropogenic subsidence results from pro- posits refer to unconsolidated sediments with high initial porosity
cesses such as fluid withdrawal, solid withdrawal (tunnel construc- and compressibility and/or high organic content (clays, silts, peats,
tion or mining), changes in surface water drainage, and sediment loose sand). Compressible deposits correspond to surficial deposits,
loading (Raucoules et al., 2007; Yuill et al., 2009). Land subsidence often found near the mouths of rivers and along the bays (alluvial,
resulting from each of these processes is characterized by specific fan, lake, or residual deposits), and swamp or lagoon deposits. De-
rates and spatial patterns (summarized in Table 1). We define the spa- creasing pore-water pressure within the aquifer system produces an
tial patterns as follows: large-scale: >100 km2, local: 10–100 km 2, and increase of effective stress and account for the compaction of com-
patchy: b 10 km2. pressible deposits. The pressure changes induce both elastic and in-
Subsidence due to tectonic or volcanic activities occurs only in areas elastic compaction (Terzaghi, 1925). The elastic subsidence depends
with active faults and volcanoes. Natural subsidence due to compaction on the compressibility of the aquifer and can be recovered if the
of compressible Holocene deposits results from dewatering and increase water level rises again. The inelastic subsidence is a result of the
of the overburden stress in unconsolidated sediments, or oxidation and rearrangement of the pore structure under an effective stress greater
shrinkage in organic deposits. Subsidence due to this process covers than the preconsolidation stress, and results in an irreversible lower-
large areas, correlates with the surface geology, and is characterized ing of the surface (Helm, 1978).
by homogeneous rates rarely exceeding a few mm/year (Dixon et al., The general distribution of compressible deposits in western
2006; Meckel et al., 2006; Teatini et al., 2011). This type of subsidence Indonesia is shown by the black contour in Fig. 1 (Geological Map of
is often taking place in deltas and coastal marshlands where compressible Indonesia, 2008). Compressible deposits are present on the east coast,
deposits are common (Teatini et al., 2011; Törnqvist et al., 2008). and locally along the west coast of Sumatra. In Java, compressible de-
On the other hand, anthropogenic subsidence is generally one posits characterize the north coast, the central part of the south coast,
order of magnitude faster than natural subsidence (Meckel, 2008) and a few locations inside the island. The remaining parts of the islands
and results from intense land modifications in environments with are constituted of volcanic and metamorphic rocks or limestone. These
compressible deposits. Subsidence due to fluid withdrawal such as deposits are relatively incompressible because of their rigid matrix and
groundwater, oil, or gas extraction can occur at high rates of up to are less likely to experience subsidence (except in the case of dissolu-
tens of cm/year. The faster the fluid is extracted, the faster is the de- tion of limestone, responsible for sinkholes).
cline in the fluid level (water table or oil and gas levels) and the faster Indonesian municipal water supply serves on average only 25% of
the subsidence (Bell et al., 2002; Osmanoglu et al., 2011). Its spatial the population and 1% of the industrial needs, forcing the population
pattern varies from patchy to large-scale, correlating with the land and industries to rely on groundwater extraction as an alternate way
use (Feng et al., 2008). Solid withdrawal induces subsidence with to access water (Delinom, 2008; Schmidt et al., 1990). Thus, in densely
characteristics similar to fluid withdrawal but results from mining populated areas extraction of groundwater likely occurs. Fig. 1 presents
and tunneling activities (Guéguen et al., 2009). Changes in surface the population density of western Indonesia and reveals that most of
water drainage, such as land reclamation, urbanization, and agricultural the areas with over 250 persons per km2 are located on the island of
use (harvesting), create subsidence due to the same mechanisms as Java. We expect to observe subsidence in these densely populated

Table 1
Characteristics associated with each subsidence process potentially affecting Indonesian cities. Tectonic subsidence is unlikely to cause the observed subsidence because there are
no mapped active faults coinciding with the boundaries of the described subsidence areas. Similarly, the observed subsidence is unlikely due to volcanic activity since no volcanoes
are located in the subsiding areas. For the 5 remaining processes we compile the typical rates and spatial patterns, as well as correlations between subsidence and surface geology
and subsidence and land use (Y = correlation, N = no correlation). The subsidence characteristics can be related to the observations made in the subsiding areas of Indonesia to
isolate their causes (Table 2). Large-scale pattern refers to areas of over 100 km2, local to 10–100 km2, and patchy to 10 km2 or less. Compressible deposits refer to surficial (alluvial,
fan, lake, and residual deposits) and swamp deposits. They are unconsolidated deposits with a high initial porosity and compressibility and/or a high organic content (loose sand,
clays, silts, and peat). As land use we distinguish forest, agricultural, residential, industrial, and mixed (residential and industrial) usage. Recently developed areas correspond to
areas affected by changes in the past 20 years.

Subsidence process Rates Spatial pattern Surface geology Correlation with Land use Correlation with
surface geol. land use

Natural Holocene sed. b1 cm/year Large Compressible Y All types N

compaction deposits
Anthropogenic Fluid withdrawal Up to tens of Large to patchy Compressible N Indust., mixed, and agricult. Y
cm/year deposits (water, gas, oil extraction)
Solid withdrawal Up to tens of Local to patchy All deposits N Industrial (mining) Y
cm/year
Surface water drainage b5 cm/year Large to local Compressible N Indust., mixed, and agricult. Y
deposits (harvest or recently developed
areas)
Mixed Sediment loading b5 cm/year Large (sed. load) Compressible − Slow subs.: Y Industrial and mixed Y
(settlement) Patchy (buildings) deposits − Rapid: N (recent massive buildings)
152 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

Fig. 1. Map of the population density in western Indonesia from the 2000 census. Cities with over 1 million inhabitants are marked by green squares; province capitals are shown
with dark blue contoured squares. The distribution of compressible deposits is shown with the black line: the deposits are observed from the coast to the black contour or within the
back contour. The area defined by the red line shows the InSAR ALOS data coverage available from the Alaska Satellite Facility.

areas if they are located on compressible deposits. Cities such as Medan, eliminate bias from phase-unwrapping errors (Tizzani et al., 2007).
Pekanbaru, Palembang, Jakarta, Depok, Bekasi, Bandung, Semarang, Small baseline interferograms minimize the phase due to the DEM
and Surabaya are likely to experience subsidence, as well as the popu- error in individual interferograms but not in the time-series, thus
lated coastal areas of Java outside city centers. DEM error correction is necessary to remove the dependence of the
displacement history to the perpendicular baseline history. We apply
3. Data coverage and method DEM error correction after the inversion of the network of interfero-
grams following the technique developed by Fattahi and Amelung
The red line in Fig. 1 shows our data coverage. We use over 900 (in press). We do not use atmospheric filtering but we use pairwise
SAR images from 33 ascending tracks acquired by the ALOS satellite logic to eliminate acquisitions with large atmospheric delays. We eval-
between 2007 and 2009, to cover an area of 500,000 km 2 in Sumatra, uate, based on the variance of the time dependent displacements, that
Java and Bali. This coverage allows us to investigate 8 of the 9 major the measurement noise for the entire survey is below ±2 cm/year
cities cited above (Palembang being left out) and to investigate subsi- (green-yellow colors in Fig. 2) and varies depending on the number
dence over the entire island of Java. ALOS had a recurrent cycle of of SAR acquisitions and the atmospheric conditions. In the Indonesian
46 days. For our 2 year period we used an average of 9 acquisitions cities the accuracy is likely better because of the lack of significant
per location. topography and associated atmospheric delays.
L-band SAR images, such as PALSAR onboard ALOS, enable The limitation of this survey is that only ascending ALOS acquisi-
large-scale deformation mapping even in tropical areas, and provide tions are available, thus vertical and horizontal components of the de-
for the first time consistent ground deformation data without spatial formation cannot be retrieved independently (Wright et al., 2004).
and temporal gaps (Chaussard & Amelung, in press). We perform a However, previous GPS campaigns conducted in Jakarta, Bandung,
differential InSAR (D-InSAR) survey of western Indonesia by generating and Semarang, showed that ground displacement is occurring princi-
over 1300 interferograms. The D-InSAR technique measures ground pally vertically (Abidin et al., 2006, 2008; Lubis et al., 2011). Thus, we
displacement in the radar line-of-sight (LOS) by computing the phase assume that the horizontal ground displacement is negligible and
difference of two temporally separated SAR images (Gabriel et al., 1989; convert LOS into vertical displacement: dv = dLOS / cosθ; where dv
Hanssen, 2001; Massonnet et al., 1993). After generation of the interfer- and dLOS are the vertical and LOS displacement, respectively, and θ
ograms using the ROI_PAC software (Rosen et al., 2004), we use multi- is the satellite incidence angle (we use 34.3° for ALOS). However,
ple SAR acquisitions of the same area to perform time-series analysis this assumption may not be appropriate near the edges of the subsid-
based on the small baseline subset (SBAS) method (Berardino et al., ing areas. Vertical ground displacement is 21% more than LOS dis-
2002). Interferograms with a maximum spatial baseline of 2600 m placement, i.e., 1 cm of LOS displacement corresponds to 1.2 cm of
are phase-unwrapped and inverted for the phase with respect to the vertical displacement. In most of this paper we use vertical subsi-
first acquisition. Coherence of each pixel is computed on the set of in- dence rates converted from the observed LOS rates. When LOS is
terferograms and we select only pixels with coherence above 0.7 to used it is explicitly stated.
 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161 153

Fig. 2. Averaged 2006–2009 LOS velocity map of Sumatra, Java, and Bali, Indonesia, from ALOS InSAR time-series analysis, overlaying SRTM V4 DEM. Insets: zoom into the subsiding
areas. The emplacement of major cities are shown by black diamonds and labeled for reference. The color scale shows red colors as negative LOS velocities (subsidence) and blue
colors as positive LOS velocities (uplift). Vertical subsidence rates converted from the LOS rates are labeled on the color scale.

4. Results: time-series reveal subsidence in nine locations Figs. 4–9 (a)) are observed at large-scales of 150, 450, 280, 150, 110,
and 150 km2 in Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, Blanakan, Pekalongan, and
A map of the averaged LOS velocity identifies actively deforming Semarang, respectively. In these locations, we find several areas of
areas (Fig. 2). Positive LOS velocities (blue colors) represent move- rapid subsidence (>6 cm/year, characterized by red to yellow colors)
ment towards the satellite (e.g. uplift); negative LOS velocities (red with a patchy distribution. They are located near the coast in Jakarta,
colors) represent movement away from the satellite (e.g. subsidence). Blanakan, Pekalongan, and Semarang.
We detect land subsidence above the noise level in nine locations. In Subsiding areas south of Lhokseumawe, near Bungbulang, and
Sumatra we identify subsidence south of Lhokseumawe (population in the Sidoarjo regency are localized and cover 80, 15, and 25 km 2, re-
of 170,000) and in Medan (population of 2.1 million). In Java we detect spectively (Figs. 3, 10, and 11 (a)). We observe in these locations that
subsidence in 4 urban areas: Jakarta, the capital and largest city of the transition between areas with subsidence (red to yellow colors)
Indonesia (population of 9.5 million), Bandung (population of 2.4 mil- and areas without subsidence (dark blue colors) occurs on a narrow
lion), Pekalongan (population of 200,000), and Semarang (population zone (b1 km). This indicates that there is a sharp transition between
of 1.5 million). We additionally identify subsidence in 3 other loca- the subsiding and the stable areas.
tions of Java, outside major urban centers: near Blanakan (northeast The time-series suggest nearly constant rates of subsidence in all
Java), near Bungbulang (southeast Java), and in the Sidoarjo regency the locations over the 2-year period spanned by the SAR acquisitions.
(East Java), affected by the eruption of the Lusi mud volcano since The maximum vertical rates of subsidence observed are 11.3, 8.3, 21.8,
May 2006 (Mazzini et al., 2007). 22.5, 12.0, 10.5, 13.0, 15.1, and 16.5 cm/year near Lhokseumawe,
Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, Blanakan, Pekalongan, Semarang, Bungbulang,
and in the Sidoarjo regency, respectively (Figs. 3 to 11 (b)).
4.1. Spatial pattern and rates of land subsidence

The land subsidence observations are summarized in Figs. 3–11. 4.2. Correlation between subsidence and surface geology
The figures are organized as follows: (a) shows the averaged velocity
map and the surface geology, revealing the rates and spatial pattern In Lhokseumawe, Jakarta, Bandung, Blanakan, Pekalongan, Semarang,
of subsidence and the relation with the surface geology; (b) shows and in the Sidoarjo regency, subsidence is taking place in surficial
the vertical displacement time-series in locations with rapid subsi- deposits (alluvial, fan, and lake deposits) (Figs. 3, 5–9, and 11 (a)). In
dence (characterized by red to yellow colors in (a)); (c) shows the Medan, subsidence is taking place both in surficial and swamp de-
optical images of the locations experiencing rapid subsidence. Obser- posits (Fig. 4 (a)). In Semarang, we notice that the boundary between
vations from these figures are summarized in Table 2. surficial deposits and limestone coincides with the southern limit of
We define the spatial patterns of land subsidence as follows: large- the subsiding area (Fig. 9 (a)). Near Bungbulang, subsidence is taking
scale subsidence corresponds to subsidence with regular, homogeneous place in clastic and volcanic deposits (Fig. 10 (a)). Thus, in all the loca-
rates covering 100 km2 or more; local subsidence covers 10–100 km 2; tions subsidence is taking place in compressible deposits (surficial and
and patchy subsidence covers less than 10 km2. Average rates of subsi- swamp deposits), except near Bungbulang. However, the subsidence
dence of 4–6 cm/year (characterized by light blue to green colors in rates do not correlate with the sediment type or thickness: multiple
154 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

Fig. 3. Subsidence observed near Lhokseumawe. a) Average 2007–2009 velocity map. Roads are shown in light brown and main towns are labeled for reference. We correlate the
subsidence distribution with the surface geology (combined bedrock and superficial geology and age data from the Geological Map of Indonesia, 2008). The contours of the geologic
units are shown by white lines and referred to using white numbers. The black boxes show the locations of the Google Earth optical images displayed in c) corresponding to areas
experiencing rapid subsidence. Black circles within the boxes show the location of the pixels whose time-series are showed in b). b) Vertical displacement time-series and corre-
sponding linear rates of subsidence. c) Google Earth optical images showing the type of land use in rapidly subsiding areas. We distinguish forest, agricultural, residential, industrial,
and mixed (residential and industrial) land use, based on the criteria described in the text.

subsidence rates are observed in a single sediment unit and a given in 2 types: shallow-water extraction for domestic use, and deep-
subsidence rate can be observed in different sediment units. This sug- water extraction at high rates for industrial and agricultural uses
gests that there is no clear correlation between subsidence and surface (Braadbaart & Braadbart, 1997). Thus, we utilize land use as a proxy
geology. Compressible deposits may be necessary, but other parame- for the expected amount of groundwater extraction.
ters also control the spatial distribution of subsidence. We use optical Google Earth imagery from 2006 to 2009 to classify
the land use. We distinguish forest, agricultural, residential, industrial,
4.3. Correlation between subsidence and land use and mixed (residential and industrial) land use. Green colors indicate
forests and agricultural land use. Geometric patterns also indicate agri-
We test whether areas experiencing rapid, patchy subsidence cultural land use. Small habitations and red or brown colors indicate
(>6 cm/year, red to yellow colors) correlate with areas of intense residential land use. Large buildings with white or gray roofs indicate
groundwater extraction. We cannot use reported groundwater ex- industrial land use.
traction volumes because of the large number of unregistered wells. We notice, in six of the nine subsiding areas, a correlation between
Illegal extraction is believed to be as much as 120% of the registered rapid, patchy subsidence and land use (Figs. 3–11 (c)). In Medan,
extraction (Soetrisno, 1996). Groundwater extraction is categorized Jakarta, Bandung, and Semarang rapid, patchy subsidence is occurring

Fig. 4. Same as Fig. 3 for Medan.

 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161 155

Fig. 5. Same as Fig. 3 for Jakarta.

in industrial areas (Figs. 4 to 6 and 9 (c)), while on the coast north of 5. Comparison between InSAR and GPS
Blanakan and around Pekalongan it correlates with agricultural areas
(Figs. 7 and 8 (c)). In the remaining 3 locations, where subsidence GPS surveys have been conducted in three Indonesian cities:
areas have sharp transitions with the surrounding stable areas, the Jakarta (Abidin et al., 2001, 2004, 2008, 2011a), Bandung (Abidin et
pattern of the subsidence does not correlate with the land use. al., 2011b), and Semarang (Abidin et al., 2010, 2012). GPS subsidence
South of Lhokseumawe and in the west of the Sidoarjo regency, sub- rates overlapping InSAR velocity maps are shown in the Supplemen-
sidence is taking place in agricultural and residential areas (Figs. 3 tary material. In Jakarta, GPS campaigns between 1997 and 2005
and 11 (c)) and near Bungbulang subsidence is taking place in forests show that the fastest subsidence is occurring near the coast at rates
and agricultural areas (Fig. 10 (c)). up to 15–25 cm/year. In Bandung GPS surveys between 2000 and

Fig. 6. Same as Fig. 3 for Bandung.

156 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

Fig. 7. Same as Fig. 3 for Blanakan.

2010 show subsidence rates of 8–23 cm/year, the fastest subsidence paper. It would require detailed information on the sediment proper-
occurring in the northwest of the city. In these two cities we observe ties (sediment thickness, porosity and permeability), water table and
a good agreement between GPS and InSAR observations both in rates gas extraction rates, all of which is not readily available in Indonesia.
and spatial distribution (Supplementary material Figs. S1 and S2, re-
spectively). In Semarang, GPS surveys between 2008 and 2009 show
a maximum subsidence of 13.5 cm/year along the coast, in agreement 6.1. Urban areas: subsidence due to groundwater extraction for
with our results. However, local differences between GPS and InSAR industrial use
occur (Supplementary material Fig. S3), reflecting the fact that the
subsidence rates are not constant or that local site effects affect GPS Rapid, patchy subsidence in Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, and Semarang
measurements. A subsidence map of Semarang derived from 2002 correlates with industrial land use (Figs. 4–6, 9). This suggests that
to 2006 PS-InSAR data is compared to our InSAR survey (Kuehn et groundwater extraction for industrial use is the main cause of the
al., 2010, Supplementary material Fig. S4). Even though the time rapid land subsidence in these four cities.
spans do not overlap, the agreement is very good, suggesting that We observe constant subsidence rates without any clear seasonal
the difference between InSAR and GPS is due to local site effects. variability. There are two possible explanations for this. First, water
could be extracted from confined aquifers that are little affected by
6. Causes of subsidence in Indonesia seasonal recharge. Second, water extraction could occur at higher
rates during the rainy season, compensating the recharge of the shal-
In Indonesia, subsidence is taking place at average rates of low, unconfined aquifers. Since stress changes are lower in unconfined
4–6 cm/year over large-scales (light blue to yellow colors), while aquifers it is improbable that any substantial subsidence would result
rapid subsidence (>6 cm/year, yellow to red colors) has a patchy dis- from compaction occurring in unconfined units. Thus, it is very likely
tribution. We focus on identifying the causes of the latter using a that the lack of seasonal variability reflects water extraction from con-
qualitative approach. Quantitative modeling could help to better con- fined aquifers. Since only deep wells are reaching confined aquifers
strain the subsidence processes but this is beyond the scope of this (Braadbaart & Braadbart, 1997), the lack of seasonal variability supports

Fig. 8. Same as Fig. 3 for Pekalongan.

 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161 157

Fig. 9. Same as Fig. 3 for Semarang.

that in Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, and Semarang industrial groundwater Atmospheric phase delay and backscattering effects can also be respon-
extraction is responsible for the rapid subsidence. sible for some of this variability.

6.2. Blanakan and Pekalongan: subsidence mainly due to groundwater 6.3. Lhokseumawe and Sidoarjo: subsidence due to gas extraction
extraction for agricultural use
The subsidence bowl near Lhokseumawe is elongated north–south
Rapid, patchy subsidence near Blanakan and Pekalongan varies and covers 80 km2 (Fig. 3). Its particular shape, the lack of direct corre-
from one field to the other, lacks significant seasonal variability, and lation with land use, and its sharp transition with the stable surrounding
correlates with agricultural land use (Figs. 7–8). These observations areas make it unlikely to result from groundwater extraction. Interest-
suggest that groundwater extraction for agricultural use is likely the ingly, this subsidence area coincides with the Arun gas field. Gas is
main cause of rapid land subsidence and that some farmers extract extracted from Lower and Middle Miocene reef deposits of ~300 m
more intensely groundwater than others. In these two cities we thickness and located over 3 km deep (Soeparjadi, 1983). We suggest
note a larger variance of the time dependent displacement than at that gas extraction causes the observed subsidence.
the other locations (especially near Pekalongan) (Figs. 7–8 (b)). This In the Sidoarjo regency, subsidence is taking place at 2 different
variability may be due to differences in groundwater extraction rates locations: around Lusi mud volcano (Fig. 11, inset B) and west of Lusi,
owing to harvesting schedules or seasonality, and suggests that oxida- on an east–west 3 km-long area located in residential and agricultural
tion and shrinkage of organic deposits may contribute to the subsidence. areas (Fig. 11, inset A). The subsidence west of Lusi is located on the

Fig. 10. Same as Fig. 3 for Bungbulang.

158 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

Fig. 11. Same as Fig. 3 for Sidoarjo regency.

Wunut gas field. Gas is extracted from a Pleistocene volcaniclastic reser- major cities of western Indonesia can largely be explained by the ab-
voir located from 100 to 900 m depth (Kusumastuti et al., 2000). The sence of compressible deposits. Along the west coast of Sumatra, in
observed subsidence is likely due to gas extraction from this field. western and southern Java, and in southern Bali, surface geology is
dominated by limestone, volcanic or metamorphic rocks, which are
6.4. Urban areas: large-scale subsidence due to natural and anthropo- relatively incompressible. Thus, we do not expect subsidence in cities
genic processes developed on these sediments. This is consistent with the lack of sub-
sidence in Banda Aceh, Bengkulu, Padang, Bandar Lampung, Serang,
In Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, Blanakan, Pekalongan, and Semarang Tangerang, Yogyakarta, and Denpasar.
we observe, in addition to the rapid, patchy subsidence, a large-scale We do not detect subsidence in several cities developed on com-
subsidence at rates of 4–6 cm/year (light blue to green colors). These pressible deposits (Pekanbaru, Depok, Bekasi, and Surabaya). It is
rates are well above the typical subsidence rates associated with nat- possible that subsidence in these cities occurs at rates below our de-
ural compaction of Holocene sediments (Table 1, Meckel et al., 2006), tection threshold of 2 cm/year. The lack of significant subsidence
suggesting that anthropogenic processes are anyhow involved. The could be because of lower rates of groundwater extraction (limited
large-scale pattern of the subsidence, its average rates (few cm/ industrial activities).
year), and its lack of correlation with the land use suggest that it is
due to sediment compaction caused by a combination of natural 8. Consequences and implications of land subsidence
and anthropogenic processes (Table 1). The latter are the effect of
past drainage, settlement, and water extraction. In Indonesia, land subsidence increases the risk of major flooding
because many of the subsiding cities and some of the highest subsi-
6.5. Subsidence due to other processes dence rates are located along the coast at, or near, sea level, and
near major rivers.
The cause of subsidence at Lusi has been investigated by We estimate the time necessary until the coastal parts of the cities
Fukushima et al. (2009) who concluded that pressure decreases and are below relative sea level. In Jakarta, the subsidence rates along the
depletion of material at depth are likely to cause the observed coast vary from 9.5 cm/year to 21.5 cm/year (Fig. 5). Assuming that
subsidence. subsidence continues at an average rate of 10 cm/year and an average
The subsidence observed near Bungbulang is not taking place in elevation above relative sea level of 2 m (SRTM V4 data, Farr et al.,
compressible deposits but in clastic and volcanic soft rocks (Fig. 10). 2007) we estimate that the coastal part of Jakarta will be below rela-
Groundwater extraction is unlikely responsible for the observed sub- tive sea level in 20 years. In Lhokseumawe and Medan, with an aver-
sidence because of the sharp transitions with the stable surrounding age elevation of 5 m above relative sea level and a subsidence rate of
areas and because of the lack of correlation with land use (agricultur- 8 cm/year, the coastal parts of these cities will be below relative sea
al and forests). Possible causes of the observed subsidence are solid level in 60 years. Near Blanakan, Pekalongan and Semarang, with an
withdrawal due to mining activities (gem mining is common but no average elevation taken as 5 m above relative sea level and a subsi-
detailed information is available), gas extraction, deforestation and dence rate of 10 cm/year, the agricultural coastal areas will be
landslides affecting the ground stability, and geothermal activity below relative sea level in 50 years.
from the neighboring Cilayu geothermal spring (Herdianita & Priadi, These estimates rely on linear extrapolation of the observed subsi-
2008; Hochstein & Sudarman, 2008). dence rates. This, however, may be inaccurate because compaction
of aquifers in response to water level decline depends on the physical
7. Lack of subsidence in other areas properties of the aquifer that varies with the stress history (e.g. Terzaghi,
1925). Two processes with opposite effects can affect the time‐varying
We have identified nine locations experiencing subsidence on the component of the subsidence. Aquifer compaction causes steady land
islands of Sumatra, Java, and Bali. It is possible that we missed areas in subsidence, but, as the aquifer compaction limit is reached, subsidence
east Sumatra where no InSAR data are available, and areas subsiding is slowing down (e.g. Kim et al., 2010; Terzaghi, 1925). In this case our
at rates below 2 cm/year. The lack of subsidence in the remaining approximations based on linear extrapolation underestimate the time
Table 2
Compilation of the observations made in the nine locations experiencing subsidence. AR = average rates of subsidence (light blue to green colors), HR = high rates of subsidence (red to yellow colors). We relate these observations to the
characteristics of each process creating subsidence (in Table 1) to isolate the causes of subsidence (last column).

E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

Location Average LOS Max LOS rate Av. vert. rate Max vert. rate Spatial pattern Surface geology Correl. with surface Land use Correl. with land Interpreted cause of rapid
rate (cm/year) (cm/year) (cm/year) (cm/year) AR = average geol. use subs.
rate
HR =high
rates

Lhokseumawe (Fig. 3) 3.5 9.4 4.2 11.3 Local Surficial deposits N Agricult. and resident. N, but on Arun Gas extraction
gas field
Medan (Fig. 4) 4 6.9 4.8 8.3 AR = large Surficial and swamp N Industrial Y Industrial water extraction
HR = patchy deposits
Jakarta (Fig. 5) 6 18.2 7.2 21.8 AR = large Surficial deposits N Industrial Y Industrial water extraction
HR = patchy
Bandung (Fig. 6) 6 18.8 7.2 22.5 AR = large Surficial deposits N Industrial Y Industrial water extraction
HR = patchy
Blanakan (Fig. 7) 4 10 4.8 12.0 AR = large Surficial deposits N Agricult. Y Agricult. water extraction
HR = patchy
Pekalongan (Fig. 8) 4 8.8 4.8 10.5 AR = large Surficial deposits N Agricult. and resident. Y Agricult. water extraction
HR = patchy
Semarang (Fig. 9) 4 10.8 4.8 13.0 AR = large Surficial deposits N, but no subs. Industrial Y Industrial water extraction
HR = patchy on limestone
Bungbulang (Fig. 10) 5 12.6 6 15.1 Local Clastic and volcanic N Agricult. and forests N ?
deposits
Sidoarjo (Fig. 11) 4 13.8 4.8 16.5 Local Surficial deposits N − East: Lusi − East: Y − East: Lusi eruption
− West: agri. and resid. − West: N, Wunut − West: Gas extraction
gas field

159
160 E. Chaussard et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 128 (2013) 150–161

until coastal areas are below relative sea level. However the subsidence Abidin, H., Andreas, H., Gumilar, I., Sidiq, T., Gamal, M., Murdohardono, D., et al. (2010).
Studying land subsidence in Semarang (Indonesia) using geodetic methods. FIG
rates measured in Jakarta between 2007 and 2009 are similar to the Congress, Facing the Challenges—Building the Capacity, Sydney, Australia.
ones measured in 1997, suggesting that subsidence shows no signs of Abidin, H., Djaja, R., Andreas, H., Gamal, M., Hirose, K., & Maruyama, Y. (2004). Capabil-
deceleration. Moreover, we need to consider that even after cessation ities and constraints of geodetic techniques for monitoring land subsidence in the
urban areas of Indonesia. Geomatics Research Australia, 81, 45–58.
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tion. The combination of these last two observations suggests that linear Land subsidence of Jakarta (Indonesia) and its geodetic monitoring system. Natural
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Abidin, H., Gumilar, I., Andreas, H., Sidiq, P. T., & Fukuda, Y. (2011b). Study on causes
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Sea level rise is further worsening the situation. Regional sea level 2011 Bridging the Gap between Cultures Marrakech, Morocco, 18–22 May 2011.
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Yokoki, 2004), and expected to accelerate 2–3 folds in the next 1–2
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