Introduction to Digital Communications Telecommunication

- transmission of signs, signals, messages, images, and

Digitalization - evolution of conventional process sounds by wire, radio, optical, or other electromagnetic
- use of digital technology systems
- ex. scanning paper document - tele - a far or at a distance
Digitization - conversion of analog to digital signal - Wired: Copper lines, Fiber lines
- ex. paper document to digital document - Wireless: Wi-Fi, Satellite Communication, Zigbee
Telephony - voice communication Broadcast Communication
Telegraphy - text communication - part of telecommunication
- convey info to broad or mass
Digital - digit - digitus - fingers/toes TOC - Television Operating Center
- refers to binary 1 or 0
- discrete Generations of Telecommunication
Communication - communis - common 1G - 1981; 2kbps; ginagamit ng military; use for call only
- communicare - to share 2G - 1992; 64kbps; SMS - Short Messaging Services (call
- the act of conveying information & text), MMS - Multimedia Messaging Services (emojis)
Digital Communication - process of sharing of digital info 3G - 2001; 2Mbps; call, text, data; diff IP protocol
Data - digital info - series of discrete signals (1’s & 0’s) 4G - 2010; 100Mbps; LTE; over the top services; capable
- data can be as text, audio/voice, video, image of installing apps
5G - 2020; 10Gbps; data & IoT; part ng spectrum na hindi
Modes of Transmission harmful (non-ionizing)
Simplex - one-way (TV)
Half-Duplex - one at a time Analog vs. Digital Comm
Full Duplex - sending and receiving (telephone) 1. Less Noise Interference
2. Better Error Detection and Correction
Bit - net speed 3. Compatibility with Time-Division Multiplexing
Byte - storage 4. Use of Digital ICs
5. More functionality due to Digital Signal Processing
Evolution of Communication (DSP)
Ancient Mode of Communication 6. Disadvantage: High cost and more circuit complexities
Smoke Signals - may chismis
- oldest form of visual communication Elements of Communication System
Courier - Philippides/Pheideppides (Athenians) Electronic Communication System
- to seek help from Spartans
Carrier Pigeon - used in ancient wars to deliver
messages
- tamed by soldiers
S/N ratio - higher S, lower N (efficient/ideal)
- can be interfered
Electronic communication - processing of info with the
use of electronic circuits
Early Digital Codes
Information - knowledge or intelligence that is
Morse Code - the first digital code (Samuel Morse) 1844
communicated
- dots and dashes
Modulation - process of impressing a low-frequency
- Numbers 23:23 “What hath God wrought?”
signal (baseband info signal) upon a higher-frequency
Baudot Code - early teletype machines
signal (carrier)
- 5 bits
Modulator - electronic circuit
Radio Telegraph - wireless telegraph
Modulating Signal - baseband info signal; message
- communicate with ships
signal
Modulated - modulating signal x carrier
Telephony - 1876; transmission of human voice
- Marcoli - concept Bell - first patent
Analog Communication System
PSTN - Public Switched Telephone Network

Analog Shutoff - shutdown of all analog transmitter

Digital Shuton - 2010 nangyari
Digital Communication System Bandwidth - maximum capacity
Throughput - actual transmission rate
- at least 80% performance
Burstable - throughput is larger than bandwidth

Hartley’s Law
𝑪 ∝ 𝑩×𝑻
A/D Converter - converts analog signal to digital signal C is directly proportional to B
- periodically, sampling the input C = information capacity (bps)
- quantizing B = Bandwidth (Hz)
Source Encoder/Decoder - human observer T = transmission time (s)
- source codec
Channel Encoder - controls the error characteristics of For noiseless condition,
digital channel 𝑪 = 𝒌𝑩 × 𝑻
Channel Decoder - processes the digital signal and 𝑪 = 𝟐𝑩 (maximum theoretical bit capacity)
produces the received bitstream b
Shannon-Hartley Theorem
Digital Communications - high-frequency analog For noisy condition,
carriers are modulated by relatively low-frequency digital 𝑺
𝑪 = 𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝑵) 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑷
information signals (digital radio) and systems involving
𝑺 𝑺
the transmission of digital pulses (digital transmission) 𝑪 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝑵) 𝑷 = 𝑵 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)

Different Modulation Techniques Multiple Coding Levels

Continuous-Wave Modulation Also known as M-ary encoding techniques:
Amplitude Modulation (AM) - varies amplitude (Vp) 𝑵 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝑴
Frequency Modulation (FM) - varies frequency (w = 2πf) 𝟐𝑵 = 𝑴
Phase Modulation (PM) - varies phase/angle (θ) 𝑪 = 𝟐𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝑴
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) N = number of bits necessary
M = number of encoding levels; possible outcomes; signal
Digital Radio - process of modulation uses discrete levels
signals
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Baud - rate of change of a signal after encoding and
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) modulation
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) - symbol rate; transmission rate; modulation rate
- symbols/s
Pulse Modulation - process of changing a binary pulse 1
signal 𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 =
𝑡𝑠
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Nyquist Theorem
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) - According to H.Nyquist, binary digital signals can be
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) propagated through an ideal noiseless transmission
medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the
Fiber Optic - technology medium
Optical Fiber - cable - minimum Nyquist bandwidth; minimum Nyquist
frequency
Information Theory - theoretical study of the efficient use (𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆)𝒇𝒃 = 𝟐𝑩 (ideal Nyquist bandwidth)
of bandwidth
Information capacity - information channel 𝒇𝒃 = 𝟐𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝑴
- measure of how much info can fb = channel capacity (bps)
be propagated B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hz)
Binary digit - bit; basic unit of information M = number of encoding levels; possible outcomes; signal
Bit rate - data rate levels
- no. of binary digits transmitted during 1sec (bps) 𝒇𝒃
𝑩 = 𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 =
𝑵
Example 1 Solution:
For a standard voice band communications channel with 𝑓𝑏 = 2𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 = 2(2 ∗ 109 )𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (512)
a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 (30dB) and a 𝒇𝒃 = 𝟑𝟔 𝑮𝒃𝒑𝒔
bandwidth of 2.7kHz, the Shannon limit for information
capacity is Example 5
Given: Using the fiber in the previous question, if the average
𝑆/𝑁 = 1000 𝐵 = 2.7 𝑘𝐻𝑧 signal power is 405 units and the average noise power is
Solution: 27 units, what is the maximum channel capacity according
𝑆 to Shannon?
𝐶 = 3.32𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1 + ) = 3.32(2700)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1 + 1000)
𝑁 Given:
𝑪 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟗 𝒌𝒃𝒑𝒔 𝑆 = 405 𝑁 = 27 𝐵 = 2 𝐺𝐻𝑧
Solution:
Example 2 𝑆
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 𝑁) = (2 ∗ 109 )𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 +
405
)
The bandwidth of a communication channel is 12.5 kHz. 27

The S/N ratio is 25 dB. Calculate (a) the maximum 𝑪 = 𝟖 𝑮𝒃𝒑𝒔

theoretical data rate in bits per second, (b) the maximum
actual channel capacity, and (c) the number of coding Example 6
levels N needed to achieve the maximum speed. Using the solved Nyquist bitrate in problem number 4,
Given: calculate the baud rate of the communication system if the
𝐵 = 12.5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑆/𝑁 = 25 𝑑𝐵 number of signal levels will be increased to 1024.
Solution: Given:
(a) the maximum theoretical data rate 𝑓𝑏 = 36 𝐺𝑏𝑝𝑠 𝑀 = 1024
𝐶 = 2𝐵 = 2(12500) Solution:
𝑓𝑏 36 000 000 000
𝑪 = 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒃𝒑𝒔 𝐵𝑎𝑢𝑑 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1024)
(b) the maximum actual channel capacity 𝑩𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝟑 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔
𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃
25 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 𝑃 = 316.23 Digital Radio - wireless, physical, free space
𝑆 - digital modulation technique in which the
𝐶 = 3.32𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1 + ) = 3.32(12500)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (1 + 316.23) baseband signal is digital (binary/M-ary encoding) and
𝑁
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝒃𝒑𝒔 impressed into a high-frequency analog signal (carrier)

(c) the number of coding levels N Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

𝐶 = 2𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 - Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM); On-Off Keying
103807 = 2(12500)𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀 (OOK)
𝑀 = 17.78 - simplest modulation technique
𝑴 = 𝟏𝟕 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔 - binary info signal directly modulates the amplitude of an
analog carrier
Example 3 - there are only two output amplitudes possible
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 + 𝜽)
signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and
the bit rate. Mathematical Representation
𝑨
Solution: 𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (𝒕) = [𝟏 + 𝑽𝒎 (𝒕)][ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒄 𝒕]
𝑩𝒂𝒖𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔 𝟐
𝑓𝑏 𝑓𝑏 Vask (t) = ASK wave
𝐵𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 1000 = Vm (t) = digital information (modulating) signal (V)
𝑁 4
𝒇𝒃 = 𝟒 𝒌𝒃𝒑𝒔 A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (V)
𝜔𝑐 = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per sec,
Example 4 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡)
If an optical fiber has a bandwidth of 2 Gigahertz and a
modem uses 512 signal levels, what is the maximum data Modulation of ASK
rate according to Nyquist?
Given:
𝐵 = 2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝑀 = 512 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠
Product Modulator - mixes message signal with carrier c. Carrier center frequency (hertz)
signal 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐
Oscillator - generates a signal 215 ∗ 103 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐
m(t) - message signal 𝒇𝒄 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑯𝒛
c(t) - carrier
d. Modulation index
Demodulation of ASK 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 4.5 − 3
Coherent - synchronous 𝑀𝐼 = =
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 4.5 + 3
- using another signal; in phase 𝑴𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟐

e. baud (symbols/s)
𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝑓𝑏
𝑩𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔

Non-coherent - asynchronous Example 2

- no reference carrier wave Determine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary
to pass a 10 kbps binary signal using amplitude shift
keying.
Given:
𝑓𝑏 = 10 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
Since, 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝑓𝑏
Bandwidth & Baud Rate 𝑩𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔
For ASK, there are only 2 coding levels (0, 1), therefore: 𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝑓𝑏 𝑓𝑏
𝐵 = 𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 = = Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (2) 1
𝑩 = 𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝒇𝒃 - relatively simple, low-performance type
- constant-amplitude angle modulation
Example 1 - modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between
A carrier signal with an angular frequency of 215 x 103 two discrete voltage levels
radians per sec and an amplitude of 3V is to be modulated - Binary FSK (BFSK)
by a modulating signal with 1kHz frequency using ASK. 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 + 𝜽)
Determine the following if the modulating signal's ON
voltage is equal to 2V and OFF voltage is equal to 1V. Modulation of FSK
Given:
𝜔𝑐 = 215 ∗ 103 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴=3𝑉
𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Solution:
a. Modulated ON voltage (volts)
𝑉𝑚 = 2 𝑉
𝐴 3
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = [1 + 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡] = [1 + 2][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡]
2 2
9
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡
2
𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (𝒕) = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝑽 → 𝑂𝑁 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

b. Modulated OFF voltage (volts) Mathematical Representation

𝑉𝑚 = 1 𝑉 𝑽𝒇𝒔𝒌 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔{𝟐𝝅[𝒇𝒄 + 𝒗𝒎 (𝒕)∆𝒇]𝒕}
𝐴 3 Vfsk (t) = binary FSK waveform
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = [1 + 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡] = [1 + 1][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡]
2 2 Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (V)
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 fc = analog carrier center frequency (Hz)
𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (𝒕) = 𝟑 𝑽 → 𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 Δf = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier freq (Hz)
Vm (t) = binary input (modulating) signal (V)
Mark frequency (fm) - logic 1 Bessel Function Table
Space frequency (fs) - logic 0 Modulation Modulation
Note: either can be the higher frequency Sidebands Sidebands
Index Index
𝒇𝒎 = 𝒇𝒄 + ∆𝒇 0 0 3.0 6
𝒇𝒔 = 𝒇𝒄 − ∆𝒇 0.25 1 4.0 7
0.5 2 5.0 8
Peak Shift - frequency deviation 1.0 3 6.0 9
- proportional to the amplitude of the binary 1.5 4 7.0 10
input signal
2.0 4 8.0 10
|𝒇𝒎 − 𝒇𝒔 |
∆𝒇 = 2.5 5
𝟐

FSK Spectrum BW (Bessel)

𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐 (𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒅 × ∆𝒇)

FSK Transmitter
- center or carrier frequency is shifted (deviated) by the
binary input data
- Consequently, the output of a BFSK modulator is a step
function in the time domain.
- With BFSK, there is a change in the output frequency
Total Bandwidth each time the logic condition of the binary input signal
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏 changes
𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒇𝒎 + 𝒇𝒃 𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒇𝒔 − 𝒇𝒃
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐(∆𝒇 + 𝒇𝒃 ) FSK Receiver
BW = total BW; minimum BW Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
fmax = maximum frequency - most common circuit used for demodulating BFSK
fmin = minimum frequency signals
- As the input to the PLL shifts between the mark and
Baud space frequencies, the dc error voltage at the output of the
For BFSK, there are only 2 signal frequency shifts use, so, phase follows the frequency shift.
𝑓𝑏 𝑓𝑏
𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (2) 1
𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝒇𝒃
VCO - Voltage Controlled Oscillator
Modulation of BFSK
Capture Range - range of input frequencies around the
VCO center frequency onto which the loop can lock when
starting from the unlocked condition.

M-ary FSK (MFSK)

- FSK that uses more than two frequencies
- number of tones or frequencies (M) is always even
Lock Range - range of input frequencies over which the
Modulation Index loop remain in the lock condition once it has captured the
- ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating input signal.
frequency
- measures the extent of how much modulation is done on
the carrier frequency using the message signal
∆𝒇 𝒇𝒃 |𝒇𝒎 −𝒇𝒔 | Continuous-Phase FSK (CP-FSK) – is BFSK except the
𝑴𝑰 = 𝒇 𝒇𝒂 = 𝟐
𝑴𝑰 = 𝒇𝒃 mark and space frequencies are synchronized with the
𝒂
MI = modulation index (unitless) input binary bit rate.
Δf = frequency deviation (Hz) 𝑓𝑏
𝑓𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑛 ( )
fa = modulating frequency (Hz) 2
Coherent Demodulation (c) minimum bandwidth
|𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 | |80 𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 60 𝑀𝐻𝑧|
∆𝑓 = = = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2 2
𝐵𝑊 = 2(∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑏 ) = 2(10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠)
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑴𝑯𝒛

Example 3
Non-coherent Demodulation Using a Bessel table, determine the minimum bandwidth
for the same FSK signal described in Example 1 with a
mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kHz,
and an input bit rate of 2 kbps.
Given:
𝑓𝑚 = 49 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑠 = 51 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑏 = 2 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
Solution:
|𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 | |49 − 51|
𝑀𝐼 = = = 1.0 (3 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠)
Example 1 𝑓𝑏 2
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum |𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 | |49 𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 51 𝑘𝐻𝑧|
bandwidth, and (c) baud for a binary FSK signal with a ∆𝑓 = = = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2 2
mark frequency of 49 kHz, a space frequency of 51 kHz, 𝐵𝑊 = 2 (𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 × ∆𝑓) = 2 (3 × 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧)
and an input bit rate of 2 kbps. 𝑩𝑾 = 𝟔 𝒌𝑯𝒛
Given:
𝑓𝑚 = 49 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑠 = 51 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑏 = 2 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Solution: -another form of angle-modulated
(a) the peak frequency deviation -constant-amplitude digital modulation
|𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 | |49 𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 51 𝑘𝐻𝑧| -phase of the carrier signal is varied by the digital message
∆𝑓 = = signal
2 2
∆𝒇 = 𝟏 𝒌𝑯𝒛 -input signal is a binary digital signal
-limited number of output phases are possible
(b) minimum bandwidth 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 + 𝜽)
𝐵𝑊 = 2(∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑏 ) = 2(1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 2 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠)
Modulation of PSK
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟔 𝒌𝑯𝒛

(c) baud for BFSK

𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝑓𝑏 = 2 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔

Example 2
For a binary FSK modulator with space, rest, and mark
frequencies of 60, 70, and 80 MHz, respectively, and an BPSK Transmitter
input bit rate of 20 Mbps, determine the modulation index,
output baud, and the minimum required bandwidth.
Given:
𝑓𝑠 = 60 𝑀𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑚 = 80 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 = 70 𝑀𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑏 = 20 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
Solution:
(a) modulation index
|𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓𝑠 | |80 𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 60 𝑀𝐻𝑧|
𝑀𝐼 = =
𝑓𝑏 20 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 Balanced Modulator - acts like a phase reversing switch
𝑴𝑰 = 𝟏. 𝟎
BPSK Modulation
(b) baud for BFSK Truth Table
𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝑓𝑏 = 20 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔
Phasor Diagram Constellation Diagram

QPSK Modulated Signal

Bandwidth Consideration
Uf – upper side frequency
Lf – lower side frequency

𝑩𝑷𝑺𝑲 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒂 𝒕) × 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕)

QPSK Bandwidth Consideration

𝑩 = (𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒂 ) − (𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒂 )
For either I or Q channel, the bit rate is equal to one half
𝑩 = 𝑼𝒇 − 𝑳𝒇
the input data rate (fb/2),
𝑼𝒇 = 𝒇 𝒄 + 𝒇 𝒂 𝑳𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒂 𝟏 𝒇 𝒇𝒃 𝒇𝒃
𝒇𝒂 = ( ) ( 𝒃 ) = 𝑩=
𝑩 = 𝟐𝒇𝒂 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
𝒇𝒃
𝒇𝒂 = 𝑩 = 𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝒇𝒃
𝟐 8-PSK
- N = 3 bits M = 8 possible outputs
BPSK Receiver I - In phase
Q - Quadrature
C - Control Bit

Quaternary PSK (QPSK)

-another form of angle-modulated
-constant-amplitude digital modulation
-N = 2 bits M = 4 possible outputs

QPSK Transmitter

QPSK Modulation
16-PSK
- N = 4 bits M = 16 possible outputs

Example 1 8-QAM Modulated Output

For a BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 70 MHz
and an input bit rate of 10 Mbps, determine the maximum
and minimum upper and lower side frequencies, draw the
output spectrum, determine the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth, and calculate the baud.
Given:
𝑓𝑐 = 70 𝑀𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑏 = 10 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 8-QAM Bandwidth Consideration
Solution: In 8-QAM, the bit rate in the I and Q channels is one-third
𝑓𝑏 10 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 of the input binary rate, the same as in 8-PSK
𝑓𝑎 = = = 5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 𝟏 𝒇 𝒇𝒃 𝒇𝒃
2 2 𝒇𝒂 = (𝟑) ( 𝟐𝒃 ) = 𝟔
𝑩= 𝟑
𝑈𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑎 = 70 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝑼𝒇 = 𝟕𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛 8-QAM Receiver
𝐿𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑎 = 70 𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 8-QAM receivers are mostly identical with the 8-PSK
𝑳𝒇 = 𝟔𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛 receivers with only 2 differences:
𝐵 = 𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝑓𝑏 1. The PAM levels at the output of the product modulator
𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑴𝒉𝒛 𝒃𝒂𝒖𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔/𝒔 2. Binary signals at the output of the analog-to-digital
converters
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) There are two transmit amplitudes possible with 8-QAM
- digital information is contained in both the amplitude and that are different from those achievable with 8-PSK.
the phase of the transmitted carrier
- ASK and PSK are combined
- most reliable way to achieve high data rates
-finite number of allowable amplitude-phase combinations
-not a constant-amplitude signal
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 + 𝜽)

8-QAM
- N = 3 bits M = 8 possible outputs 16-QAM
- N = 4 bits M = 16 possible outputs
8-QAM Transmitter
16-QAM Transmitter
 Error performance - rate in which errors occur
- expected or an empirical value
Probability 0f Error (P[e]) - theoretical (mathematical)
Bit Error Rate (BER) – actual

16-QAM Modulation 2 General Categories of Error Control

Error Detection
Error Correction

Error Detection
Redundancy - form of error detection that duplicates each
data unit for the purpose of detecting errors
- effective but rather costly
Redundancy Checking - adding bits for the sole purpose
of detecting errors

Left side bit - most significant bit

Error Detection Techniques

Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
- simplest error-detection
- most convenient if single bit error
- character parity or parity
-The number of error-detection bits is directly proportional
to the length of the message.
- parity bit - error-detection bit; redundant bit
- it is not part of the character

16-QAM Bandwidth Consideration Even Parity Generator

VRC: 1; if number of 1s is odd
With a 16-QAM, because the input data are divided into VRC: 0; if number of 1s is even
four channels, the bit rate in the I, I’, Q, or Q’ channel is Odd Parity Generator
equal to one-fourth of the binary input data rate (fb/4). VRC: 0; if number of 1s is odd
VRC: 1; if number of 1s is even
Also, the I, I’, Q, and Q’ bits are outputted simultaneously
and in parallel, the 2-to-4-level converters see a change in Performance of VRC
their inputs and outputs at a rate equal to one-fourth of the It can detect single bit error
input data rate. It can detect burst errors only for a certain case of the
𝟏 𝒇
𝒇𝒂 = (𝟒) ( 𝟐𝒃 ) =
𝒇𝒃
𝑩=
𝒇𝒃 given generator.
𝟖 𝟒
- Even: if the number of errors is odd
- Odd: if the number of errors is even
Error Control (Part 1)
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
Error Control
- transmission error has occurred within a message
-the technique of detecting and correcting blocks of data
- message parity
during communication
- Two Dimensional Parity - block of bits is organized in
- transmission errors are caused by electrical interference
rows and columns
- natural sources: lightning
- block of parity - redundant bits
- man-made sources: motors, generators, power lines,
fluorescent lights
Performance of LRC
LRC increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors.
Single Bit
If two bits in one data unit are damaged and two bits in
Multiple Bit - many single bits per character
exactly the same positions in another data unit are also
Burst - 2 or more bits in the data or consecutive bits
damaged, the LRC checker will not detect an error.
Checksum
- another simple form of redundancy error checking
- each character has a numerical value assigned to it
- arithmetic sum of the numerical values of all the
characters in the message
- The checksum is appended to the end of the message

Checksum = Check + Sum

Sender Side - Checksum Creation
Receiver Side - Checksum Validation

Checksum Creation
1. Break the original message into ‘k’ number of blocks
with ‘n’ number of bits for each block.
2. Sum all the ‘k’ data blocks.
3. Add the carry to the sum, if any.
4. Do 1’s Complement to the sum = Checksum.

Checksum Validation
1. Collect all the data blocks including the checksum
value.
2. Sum all the data blocks and validate the checksum
value.
3. If the resulting value of the validation is all 1’s, data is
ACCEPTED; Else, REJECTED.

Performance of Checksum
The checksum detects all errors involving odd numbers of
bits.
It detects most errors involving an even number of bits.
If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the
corresponding bit or bits of opposite value in a second
segment are also damaged, the sums of those columns
will not change and the receiver will not detect error(s).

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

- most reliable redundancy checking technique
- convolutional coding scheme
- 99.999% of all transmission errors are detected
- the entire data stream is treated as a long continuous
binary number
- a systematic code

𝑮(𝒙)
= 𝑸(𝒙) + 𝑹(𝒙)
𝑷(𝒙)
G(x) = message data unit / polynomial
P(x) = generator polynomial (divisor)
Q(x) = quotient
R(x) = remainder (CRC code)

1. Find the length of the divisor ‘L’.

2. Append ‘L-1’ bits to the original message.
3. Perform binary division operation.
4. Remainder of the division = CRC.
Note: CRC must be L-1 bits.
PRELIMS 𝑀𝐼 =
∆𝑓 ∆𝑓
1.5 = 1000 ∆𝒇 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛
GPRS - General Packet Radio Service; 2.5G 𝑓𝑎
EDGE - Enhanced Data GSM Evolution; 2.75G 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓𝑏
HSPA - High Speed Packet Access; 3G 7500 = 𝑓𝑚 + 2000 𝑓𝑚 = 5500 𝐻𝑧
LTE - Long Term Evolution; 4G 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓
PSTN - Public Switched Telephone Network 5500 = 𝑓𝑐 + 1500 𝒇𝒄 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
- most widely used data communication code
3. Calculate the bandwidth, minimum and maximum
Baseband - transmitting the data signal directly over the
frequencies assuming optimal FSK modulation, sending
medium
300Hz-3kHz - Voice Frequency Range baud and bit rate at 3 Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10
Morse code - not binary code MHz.
Given:
Solving 𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑑 = 𝑓𝑏 = 3 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑐 = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧
What is the bandwidth required to transmit at a rate of 10 𝑀𝐼 = 1 (𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑆𝐾)
Mbps in the presence of a 28-bd S/N ratio? Solution:
Given: 𝑓𝑏 3 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝑓𝑎 = = = 1.5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝑓𝑏 = 10 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 𝑆/𝑁 = 28 𝑑𝐵 2 2
∆𝑓 ∆𝑓
Solution: 𝑀𝐼 = 𝑓 1 = 1.5 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝑎
𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 ∆𝑓 = 1.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
28 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 𝑃 = 630.96 𝐵𝑊 = 2(∆𝑓 + 𝑓𝑏 ) = 2(1.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 3 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠)
𝑆
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 𝑁) 𝑩𝑾 = 𝟗 𝑴𝑯𝒛
10 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 630.96) 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 1.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 11.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑩 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓𝑏 = 11.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 3 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛
What is the minimum bandwidth required to transmit a 56 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑐 − ∆𝑓 = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 1.5𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 8.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
kbps binary signal with no noise? 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓𝑏 = 8.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 3 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
Given: 𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓. 𝟓 𝑴𝑯𝒛
𝑓𝑏 = 56 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
Solution: 4. A carrier signal with center frequency of 49kHz and an
𝑓𝑏 = 2𝐵 amplitude of 5V is to be modulated by a modulating signal
56 𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠 = 2𝐵 with 1.5kHz frequency using ASK. Determine the following
𝑩 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑯𝒛 if the modulating signal's ON voltage is equal to IV and
OFF voltage is equal to -1V.
1. Determine how much time in seconds would it take to Given:
send 150000 bits of information over a channel with a 𝑓𝑐 = 49 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝐴 = 5 𝑉 𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏 = 1.5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
bandwidth of 2000 hertz and a channel constant of k =10. Solution:
k is a constant which is just directly proportional to a. Modulated ASK ON signal equation
information capacity. 𝑉𝑚 = 1 𝑉
Given: 𝐴
𝐶 = 150000 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐵 = 2000 𝐻𝑧 𝑘 = 10 𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = [1 + 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡]
2
Solution: 5
𝐶 = 𝑘𝐵 × 𝑇 𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = [1 + 1][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋(49 𝑘𝐻𝑧)𝑡]
2
150000 = (10)(2000) × 𝑇 𝑻 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒔 𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (𝒕) = 𝟓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝑽

2. Determine the center frequency and the peak shift of b. Modulated ASK OFF signal equation
the carrier if it is to be modulated using BFSK with a 𝑉𝑚 = −1 𝑉
modulation index of 1.5, an input bit rate of 2000 bits per 𝐴
second and a maximum frequency of 7500 Hz. Express 𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = [1 + 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡)][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡]
2
your answer in hertz. 5
𝑉𝑎𝑠𝑘 (𝑡) = [1 + (−1)][ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋(49 𝑘𝐻𝑧)𝑡]
Given: 2
𝑀𝐼 = 1.5 𝑓𝑏 = 2000 𝑏𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 7500 𝐻𝑧 𝑽𝒂𝒔𝒌 (𝒕) = 𝟎
Solution: c. Modulation Index
𝑓𝑏 2000 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 5 − 0
𝑓𝑎 = = = 1000 𝑏𝑝𝑠 𝑀𝐼 = =
2 2 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 5 + 0
𝑴𝑰 = 𝟏