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UNIT II
COMPUTER NETWORKS
NETWORK
A network is a collection of interlinked nodes by means of a communication
system.
Need / Advantages / application of network
1.Resource sharing: Programs, data and peripherals can be shared to
anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location of the resources
2.Reliability: A file can be copied in 2 or 3 different computers, so that if
one system crashes , the file is available in another system.
3.Reduced overall cost :It greatly reduces the cost since the resources can
be shared. PC’s have better price, data can be stored in the file server
machine.
4.Communication medium: The changes at one end can be noticed at
another and hence it speeds up the cooperation among them.
Disadvantages of networks
a)File security
b)If networks are badly managed
c)If files and software are held centrally if the server fails
d)Some networks can be complicated and cost also will increase to manage
it.
ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork)
In 1969, the US govt. formed an agency named ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency NETwork) to connect computers at different
universities and US defense.
NSF Net
* The National Science Foundation created a new, high capacity network
called NSF net which was more capable than ARPANET. NSF net allowed
only the academic research on its network.
INTERNET (INTERconnection NETwork)
* The internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. It connects
many smaller networks together and allows all the computers to exchange
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information with each other.

Elementary Terminology of Networks
1)Nodes (Workstations): The computers that are attached to a network and
are seeking to share the resources of the network.
2)Server: A computer that facilitate the sharing of data, software and
hardware resources on the network.
→ Non-dedicated Server: On small networks, a workstation takes up
server job as when situation arise, most of the time it will work as the
normal node. The small networks using such a server are known as PEER-
TO-PEER networks.
→ Dedicated Server: On bigger network installations, there is a computer
reserved for servers job and its only job is to help workstations access data,
software and hardware resources. The networks using such a server are
known as MASTER-SLAVE networks.
3)NIU (Network Interface Unit)
NIU is an interpreter that helps to establish communication between the
server and workstations. It is also called Terminal Access Point (TAP) and
Network Interface Card (NIC).
4) MAC Address: The physical address assigned by NIC manufacturer.
(Media Access Control).It is a unique 12 digit ( 6 digits for manufacturer
code and 6 digits for serial no.) hexadecimal number assigned to each NIC .
MAC address of an NIC never changes. Eg) 00:A0:C9:14:C8:35
5)IP Address: IP Address is a numerical identification and logical address
that is assigned to devices connected in a computer network. An IP Address
is used to uniquely identify devices on the Internet and so one can quickly
know the location of the system in the network. IP address is a group of 4
bytes (32 bits) each of which can be a no. from 0 to 255. IP address settings
of a node can be changed by the user .Eg) 59.177.134.72
Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
→ Circuit Switching:
In this, the complete physical connection between 2 computers is
established and then data are transmitted from the source computer to the
destination computer. The telephone system is a common example of a
circuit switched n/w.
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→ Packet Switching: It is a form of store and forward switching system

in which messages are subdivided into short packets are stored at the
switching nodes and then transmitted onwards to their destination.A packet
switching system deletes the message from memory as soon as its correct
receipt at the next node is acknowledged.

1 What was the role of ARPANET in the Computer Network?(1mk)(2010)

2 Expand the abbreviations : ARPANET (1/2mk)(2009)

3 Name two switching techniques used to transfer data between two terminals
(computers). (1mk)(2009)

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10 The following is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal

values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0-255(known as octets)
separated by decimal points. 140.179.220.200, what is its importance?
(2017 sp)

11 What is an IP Address? (1mk)(sp 2015)

DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

Data channel
A channel is the medium used to carry information or data from one point to
another.
Bandwidth
The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time is
known as bandwidth.
For digital devices , the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per
second(bps) or bytes per second .For analog devices, the bandwidth is
expressed in cycles per second ie Hertz (Hz).
Kilohertz – thousand cycles per second
Megahertz – thousand KHz
Gigahertz – thousand MHz
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Terahertz – thousand GHz

Data transfer rates
It represents the amount of data transferred per second by a communication
channel.
Bits per second (bps) - It refers to the speed at which data transfer is
measured.
* The rate of a thousand bits per second is known as kbps (kilo bits per
second)
* A rate of thousand bytes per second is known as Kbps (Kilo bytes per
second)
* A rate of a million bits per second is known as mbps (Mega bits per
second)
* A rate of a million bytes per second is known as Mbps (Mega bytes per
second)
Gbps- Giga bytes per second
Tbps-Tera bytes per second
1 Which of the following is not a unit for data transfer rate?(1mk)(2010)
i)mbps ii)kbps iii)sbps iv)gbps
2. Rearrange the following terms in increasing order of data transfer rates.
Gbps, Mbps , Tbps , Kbps, bps

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The cables that connect 2 or more work stations are the communication channels
or transmission media.
* Guided media include cables (Twisted pair cables , coaxial cable, optical fibre)
* Unguided media include waves through air, water or vacuum.(Radio wave,
Microwave, Infrared, Satellite)
GUIDED MEDIA
1.Twisted pair Cable
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* most common form of wiring

* voice grade medium (VGM)
* consists of two identical wires wrapped together in a double helix
* the wires come in pairs
* the pairs of wires are twisted around each other.
Advantages
* simple, easy to install and maintain
* physically flexible
* low weight and easily connected
* very inexpensive
Disadvantages
* unsuitable for broadband applications
* incapable of carrying a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
* encounters high interference
* can support max upto 10Mbps

2.Coaxial Cable

* a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields, each
separated by some kind of plastic insulator.
* The cable is finally surrounded in a water proof, flexible sheath
* It is widely used for television signals
Advantages
* The data transmission characteristics of coaxial cables are considerably better
than those of twisted pair cables.
* used as the basis for a shared cable network
* used for broadband transmission, several channels can be transmitted
simultaneously.
* Offer higher bandwidth upto 400 Mbps
Disadvantages
* Expensive compared to twisted pair
* Coaxial cables are not compatible with twisted pair cables.
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3.Optical fibres

* It consists of thin strands of glass or glass like material which are so

constructed that they carry light from a source at one end of the fibre to a detector
at the other end.

→ Core: glass or plastic through which light travels

→ Cladding: covering of the core that reflects light back to the core
→ Sheath: protective coating, which protects the fiber cable from hostile
environment.
Advantages
* immune to electric and magnetic interference
* highly suitable for harsh industrial environment
* Secure transmission and has a very high transmission capacity.
Disadvantages
* They are the most expensive of all the cables
* Connecting two optical fibres together is a difficult process
* Because of noise immunity , optical fibre is virtually impossible to tap.
* Installation problem, fibre optics are very fragile and need special care.

UNGUIDED MEDIA
1.Radio wave –

The transmission making use of radio frequencies (3 KHz – 3 GHz) is termed as

radio-wave transmission. It is easy to generate , can travel long distances and can
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penetrate buildings easily. These waves are omnidirectional , so transmitting and

receiving antennas need not be aligned.
Any radio setup has 2 parts
* transmitter: it takes some sort of message, encodes it onto a sine wave and
transmit it with radio waves
* receiver: It receives the radio wave and decodes the message from the sine
waves it receives.
Advantages
* Radio-wave transmission offers mobility.
* It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
* Cheaper than digging and laying cables
* Freedom from land acquisition
Disadvantages
* It is an insecure communication
* It is susceptible to weather effects like rains thunder, storm etc

2.Microwave

Frequency ( 300 MHz – 300 GHz).Microwave signals are used to transmit data
without the use of cables. It is a direct line of sight transmission. The waves
travel in straight lines . It cannot penetrate any solid object. It is used for
wideband communications systems.
The microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver and the
atmosphere. The transmitting and receiving antennas have to be aligned each
other.
Advantages
* If offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
* microwave have the ability to communicate over oceans
* Cheaper than digging and laying cables
* Freedom from land acquisition
* Ease of communication over difficult terrain
Disadvantages
* It is an insecure communication
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* Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited in case of microwaves

* The cost of design, implementation and maintenance of microwave links in
high
* It is susceptible to weather effects like rains thunder, storm etc

3.Infrared

Frequency (300 GHz to 400THz).This type of transmission uses infrared light to

send data.
The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a
room but will not penetrate walls.Eg) Remote control

1 Differentiate between communication using optical fiber and Ethernet cable

in context of wired media of communication technologies. (2mk)
(2017)
2 Out of the following, which is the fastest (i) wired and (ii) wireless medium
of communication?
Infrared, Coaxial Cable, Ethernet Cable, Microwave, Optical fiber (1mk)
(2016)
3 Write two advantages of using an optical fibre cable over an Ethernet cable
to connect two service stations, which are 200 m away from each other.
(1mk) (2013)
4 Give any two advantage of using Optical Fibres.(1mk)(2014)
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NETWORK DEVICES
1.MODEM
Internal modem External modem

It is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect & communicate with other
computers via telephone lines. A device which converts digital signal to analog
& vice versa. (modulator/demodulator)
Modulation is the process of sending data on a wave.
Modems come in 2 varieties:
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i. Internal modems: modems that are fixed within the computer

ii.External modems: modem that are connected externally to a computer as other
peripherals are connected.

2.RJ-45 (Registered Jack-45)

It is an 8-wire connector which is commonly used to connect computers on

LANs especially ethernets.

3.Ethernet: it is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox corporation along with

DEC and Intel. It uses bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of up
to 10Mbps.

4.Ethernet Card: Ethernet cards are either built in or external devices that allow
you to physically connect a Ethernet LAN cable to a network. The function is to
allow your computer to receive a network address (called an IP address) so the
computer can successfully communicate on the network and perhaps even access
the Internet via the LAN.

5.HUB

A hub is an electronic device that connects several nodes to form a

network and redirects the received information to all the connected nodes in
broad cast mode.
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6.SWITCH

A switch is an intelligent device that connects several nodes to form a

network and redirects the received information only to the intended nodes.

7.REPEATER

A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long
distance transmission.
8.GATEWAY

It is a device ( that connects dissimilar networks) which is used to connect

different types of networks and perform the necessary translation so that the
connected networks can communicate properly.
9.ROUTER
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A router is a network device that is used to separate different segments in a

network to improve performance and reliability. A router can handle
different protocols and it works with IP address.

10.WiFi CARD

WiFi cards are small , easily portable cards that allow your desktop or laptop
computer the capability to connect to the internet through a wireless network .

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks vary in size, complexity and geographical spread.
Classification on the basis of geographical spread.

1.Personalized Area Networks (PAN)

It is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an

individual person, typically within a range of 10m.
Eg: connect 2 cell phones through Bluetooth.

2.Local Area Networks (LAN)

Area coverage is 1-10km.These are computer networks confined to a localized
area such as an office or factory.

3.Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

Area coverage is 100 kms or so.These are computer networks spread over a city.
Eg: A cable TV
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4.Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A wide area network is a group of computers that are separated by large distance
and tied together.
These are the networks spread over large distances, say across countries or
continents.
Differentiate between LAN and WAN
LAN WAN
(i) Diameter of not more than a Span entire countries
few kilometers
(ii) LANs have a high data transfer WANs have a lower data
rate. transfer rate .
(iii) Complete ownership by a Owned by multiple
single organization organization
(iv) Very low error rates Comparatively higher error
rates
(v) High speed (1000 mbps) Less speed (150 mbps)

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the topology.

Factors to consider in making the choice of media.

1.Cost: For a network to be cost effective, one would try to minimize installation
cost. This may be achieved by using well understood media and also to a lesser
extent by minimizing the distances involved.
2.Flexibility: The topology should allow for easy reconfiguration of the network.
This involves moving existing nodes & adding new ones.
3.Reliability: Fault detection and isolation.

What are the most popular topologies?

1.Bus or linear topology.
All devices on network are connected to a single continuous cable called a bus.
Transmission from any station travels the length of the bus in both directions and
can be received by all other stations. The bus has terminators at either end which
absorb the signal, removing it from the bus.
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Advantages Disadvantages
* Short cable length Fault diagnosis is
difficult
* Simple wiring layout Fault isolation is difficult
* Resilient architecture Repeater configuration
* Easy to extend Nodes must be intelligent

2.Star topology
Each workstation is directly linked to a central node. Any communication
between the stations must pass through the central node.

Advantages Disadvantages
* Easy of service Long cable length
* One device per connection Difficult to expand
* Central control Central node
dependency
* Problem diagnosis is easy

3.Tree topology
The network is shaped as an inverted tree with the central root branching and
sub-branching to the extremities of the network.
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Advantages Disadvantages
* Short cable Node failure is network failure
length
* Easy to More difficult to configure & wire
expand/extend than other topologies
* Isolation fault detection is difficult
1 Differentiate between PAN and LAN types of networks. (1mk) (2016)
2 Illustrate the layout for connecting 5 computers in a Bus and a Star
topology of networks. (1mk) (2015)
3 Which type of network (out of LAN, PAN and MAN) is formed, when
you connect two mobiles using Bluetooth to transfer a video? (1mk)
(2014)
4 Write one advantage of BUS Topology of network. Also, illustrate how
4 computers can be connected can be connected with each other using
star topology of network.(1mk)(2012)
5 In networking , what is WAN? How is it different from
LAN?(1mk)(2011)(2009)
6 Write any 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of BUS
topology.(1mk)(sp2015)

7 Identify the type of topology on the basis of the following:

i.Since every node is directly connected to the server, a large amount of
cable is needed which increases the installation cost of the network
ii.It has a single common data path connecting all the nodes. (2017 sp)
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8 Daniel has to share the data among various computers of his 2 offices
branches situated in the same city. Name the network(out of LAN,
WAN, PAN and MAN) which is being formed in this process. (2017
sp).

9 Differentiate between BUS Topology and Star Topology of Networks.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Star Topology over BUS
Topology?(2 mk)(2018)

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
A network protocol is a set of rules for communication among networked
devices. Protocol generally includes rules of how and when a device can send or
receive the data.

1. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

The TCP part is responsible for dividing the file/message into packets on the
source computer. It is also responsible for reassembling the received packets at
the destination or recipient computer.
The IP is responsible for handling the address of destination computer.

2.Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

It is the set of rules or protocol that governs the transfer of hypertext between two
or more computers. Hypertext is the text that is specially coded using a standard
system called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

3.File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

It is the standard and simplest internet protocol to exchange files between
computers on the internet. It is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Advantages of FTP are:
* It is very useful to transfer files from one network in an organization to
another.
* It is an effective way to get a geographically dispersed group to co-operate on
a project.
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4.Point to Point Protocols (PPP)

PPP is the internet standard for transmission of IP packets over serial lines. The
point to point protocol is currently the best solution for dial up internet
connections.

REMOTE LOGIN
Remote login means to connect the network at a remote station without any
network. This remote login takes place through Telnet.

5.Telnet
Telnet is a network application that is used to login to one computer on the
internet from another.

ELECTRONIC MAIL PROTOCOLS

6.SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
It is the most popular protocol for transferring e-mail on the Internet.
7.POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
It is the most recent version of a standard protocol for receiving email.

8.Protocols for chat and video conferencing

VOIP protocol (Voice over internet protocol)

9. https: HTTPS stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It is the protocol
where encrypted HTTP data is transferred over a secure connection. By using
secure connection ,the privacy and integrity of data are maintained and
authentication of websites is also validated.
Some examples of sites that use HTTPS include banking and investment
websites, e-commerce websites etc

1 Tarini Wadhawa is in India and she is interested in communicating with her

uncle in Australia.She wants to show one of her own designed gadgets to
him and also wants to demonstrate its working without physically going to
Australia.Which protocol out of the following will be ideal for the same? (1
Mk ) (2019)
i)POP3 ii)SMTP iii)VoIP iv)HTTP
Ans)VoIP
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2 Write the expanded names for the following abbreviated terms used in
Networking and Communications: (2 Mk) (2019) i)Mbps ii)WAN
3 Which protocol helps us to transfer files to and from a remote computer?
(1mk) (2016)
4 What is the difference between HTTP and FTP? (1mk) (2013)
5 Expand the abbreviation : HTTP (1/2 mk)(2009)
6 What is protocol? Which protocol is used to copy a file from / to a remotely
located server? (1 mk)(2009)
7 Name the protocol (1mk)(sp 2015)
Used to transfer voice using packet switched network
(Ans) VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
9 What is HTTP? (1mk)(sp 2015)

10 Which protocol is used to creating a connection with a remote

machine?(1mk)(2014)
11 Expand SMTP. (2017 sp)
12 What out of the following , will you use to have an audio-visual chat with an
expert sitting in a far-away place to fix-up a technical issue?
i)VoIP ii) FTP (1mk)(2012)

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WEB SERVICES
www – World Wide Web is a system of Internet servers that supports hypertext
to access several internet protocols on a single interface.
HTML- Hyper Text Markup Language is a document layout and hyperlink
specification language for developing web pages. HTML is made up of tags.
XML-eXtensible Markup Language which allows to create application specific
structured documents by allowing creation of new tags. These structured
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documents can be presented in human – understandable manner in different

ways . it is a meta language used to define other languages.
Difference between HTML and XML
HTML
1. HTML document formats and displays web pages data
2. HTML tags are predefined
3. HTML tags may not have closing tag
4. HTML tags are not case sensitive
XML
1. XML carry data along with their descriptions
2. XML tags are not predefined
3. XML tags must have a closing tag
4. XML tags are case sensitive.
Domain Name - A domain name is a away to identify and locate computers
connected to the internet. No two organizations can have the same domain name.

URL - Uniform Resource Locator, Each file on the internet has a unique address
called URL
Eg)

Website - A web site is a collection of web pages belonging to a particular

person or organization.

Web Browser - A web browser is a program that your computer runs to

communicate with web servers on the internet, which enables it to download and
display the web pages that you request.
Eg) Netscape Navigator, Microsoft Internet explorer

Web Server- Web servers are computers that deliver (serves up) Web pages.
Every Web server has an IP address and possibly a domain name.

Web Hosting-Web hosting is the process of storing a web site on a web server
and it is accessible on the internet.

1 Give one suitable example of each URL and Domain Name (1mk)(2012)
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2 Differentiate between XML and HTML. (1mk)(2011)

3 Identify the Domain name and URL from the following. (1mk)(sp2014)
http://www.income.in/home.aboutus.hml
4 What is Web Hosting? (1mk)(sp2014)
5