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Chapter 4

Transmission
Line
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2 A perspective to Transmission Lines

(Voltage Pers.)
(Length Pers.) (Design Pers.)

Short MED Long

HVDC HVAC Electrical Mechanical
<50 km 50-150 Km >150km

HV :110 KV -365 KV
EHV : 365 – 800 KV
UHV: above 800 KV
(Run Pers.)

Overhead Underground

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3 Components of Transmission Line

Components: (1) conductors, (2) insulators, (3) support structures, (4) shield wires.
Conductors: (1) Copper; (2) Aluminum. The advantages of using aluminum conductors over copper
conductors are given below.
(1) - They have low cost (2) - Less Resistance and corona loss. (3)- Less weight
Disadvantages: But aluminum has less tensile strength high coefficient of expansion and large area
which restricts its use alone as a conductor.
To increase the tensile strength: different core used
Types of aluminum conductors
 AAC. All Aluminum Conductor.
 AAAC. All Aluminum Alloy Conductor.
 ACSR. Aluminum Conductor with Steel reinforcement.
 ACAR. Aluminum Conductor with Alloy reinforcement.
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The ACSR conductors are more commonly used as they have following advantages,
4
1. They have low corona loss.
2. Skin effect is to Deduce extent.
3. Due to high mechanical strength, the line span can be increased. This minimizes cost of
erection and maintenance.
4. These conductors are inexpensive as compared to copper conductors having equal Resistance
without reduction in efficiency, useful life span and durability.
The conductors used in transmission system are stranded except for small cross section. These
conductors are electrically in parallel and spiraled together. Due to use of stranded conductors,
the skin effect is Reduced.
NOTE: Skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low ( less than 50 Hz) and conductor
diameter is less than 1.0 cm
Skin Effect. The tendency of current to move outward the surface of conductor.
Skin effect depends upon the following factors:
1. Nature of material
2. Diameter of wire
3. Frequency
4. Shape of wire
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5 The conductor size is decided based on its current carrying ability and voltage level on which it is
working. The total number of strands N for n layers of strands in a conductor for uniform each strand
are given by,
𝑵 = 𝟑𝒏𝟐 − 𝟑𝒏 + 𝟏
The overall outer diameter D if the diameter of one strand is d is given by

𝑫 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒅

INSULATORS: Insulators for transmission lines above 69 kV are typically suspension-type insulators,
that consist of a string of discs constructed of porcelain, toughened glass, or polymer.

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 SUPPORT STRUCTURES: Transmission lines employ a variety of support structures. Figure 4.2 shows a self
6 supporting, lattice steel tower typically used for 500- and 765-kV lines. Double-circuit 345-kV lines usually have self-
supporting steel towers with the phases arranged either in a triangular configuration to reduce tower height or in a
vertical configuration to reduce tower width (Figure 4.3). Wood frame configurations are commonly used for voltages
of 345 kV and below (Figure 4.5).

SHIELD WIDES: Shield wires located above the phase conductors protect the phase conductors against lightning. They
are usually high- or extra-high-strength steel, Alumoweld, or ACSR with much smaller cross section than the phase
conductors. The number and location of the shield wires are selected so that almost all lightning strokes terminate on the
shield wires rather than on the phase conductors. Figures 4.2, 4.3, and 4.5 have two shield wires. Shield wires are
grounded to the tower.
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Parameters of
TL

Conductance, G Resistance, R Inductance, L Capacitance, C

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8  ELECTDICAL FACTODS :

• Type of Conductors • Size of Conductors

• Number of Bundle conductors per • Sufficient Thermal Capacity of conductors to meet
phase emergency overload and SC current.
• Number of insulators • Number, type and location of shield wires
• Tower footing Desistance • Line height to control ground-level electric field
• Conductors spacing and types

 MECHANICAL FACTODS:
 Mechanical design focuses on the strength of the conductors, insulator strings, and support structures.
 ENVIDONMENTAL FACTODS
 Environmental factors include land usage and visual impact.
 ECONOMIC FACTODS
 The optimum line design meets all the technical design criteria at lowest overall cost, which includes
the total installed cost of the line as well as the cost of line losses over the operating life of the line.
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9 RESISTANCE
 DC Resistance: The dc Resistance of a conductor at a specified temperature T is

 𝑅 , = Ω 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 is cmil ,

1 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 10 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 𝜋⁄4 𝑠𝑞 𝑚𝑖𝑙
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐴= 𝐷 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷 1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 1000𝐷 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚𝑖𝑙
4 4 4 4

 OR A = 𝑑 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = 𝑑 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙

.

Resistivity depends on the conductor metal. Annealed cooper is the international standard for measuring
resistivity 𝜌(or conductivity 𝜎, where 𝜎 = 1⁄𝜌) or conductivity. Resistivity of conductor is listed in Table
4.3. As shown, hard-drawn aluminum, which has 61% of the conductivity of the international standard,
has a resistivity at 20 𝐶 ° 𝐶 of 17 Ωcmil/ft. or 2.83 × 10 Ω𝑚.

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Conductor Resistance depends on the following factors:

1. Spiraling: Spiraling makes the strands 1 or 2% longer than the actual conductor length.

2. Temperature: 𝜌 =𝜌 ×

3. Frequency (“skin effect”)

4. Current magnitude—magnetic conductors
The ac Resistance or effective Tesistance of a conductor is 𝑅 =
As frequency increases, the current in a solid cylindrical conductor tends to crowd toward the conductor surface
with smaller current density at the conductor center. This phenomenon is called skin effect. MSS

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11 EXAMPLE 4.1: Stranded conductor: dc and ac Resistance

Table A.3 lists a 4/0 copper conductor with 12 strands. Strand diameter is 0.1328 in. For this conductor:
a. Verify the total copper cross-sectional area of 211,600 cmil.
b. Verify the dc Resistance at 50 𝐶 ∘ of 0.302 Ω/𝑚𝑖 . Assume a 2% increase in Resistance due to spiraling.
c. From Table A.3, determine the percent increase in Resistance at 60 Hz versus dc.
SOLUTION:
1000 𝑚𝑖𝑙
A = 12𝑑 = 12 0.1328 𝑖𝑛 = 12 0.1328 𝑖𝑛 × = 211,600 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙
𝑖𝑛
50 + 241.5
𝜌 = 10.66 × = 11.88 Ω − 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑙/𝑓𝑡
20 + 241.5
( . )( × . )
𝑅 , = = 0.302 Ω/𝑚𝑖
,

c. From Table A.3, 𝑅 , ° = 0.303 ; 𝑅 ° = 0.278 ; 𝑅 ° = 0.276

𝑅 , ° 0.303 𝑅 , ° 0.278
= = 1.003 = = 1.007
𝑅 ° 0.302 𝑅 ° 0.276
Thus, the 60-Hz Resistance of this conductor is about 0.3 to 0.7% higher than the dc Resistance. The variation of
these two ratios is due to the fact that Resistance in Table A.3 is given to only three significant figures. MSS

11

12 CONDUCTANCE
Conductance accounts for real power loss between conductors or between conductors and ground. For
overhead lines, this power loss is due to leakage currents at insulators and to corona. Insulator leakage
current depends on the amount of dirt, salt, and other contaminants that have accumulated on insulators,
as well as on meteorological factors, particularly the presence of moisture. Corona occurs when a high
value of electric field strength at a conductor surface causes the air to become electrically ionized and to
conduct.
 INDUCTANCE: SOLID CYLINDRICAL CONDUCTOR
The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a constant permeability 𝜇 can be obtained by determining the
following:
1. Magnetic field intensity H, from Ampere’s law
2. Magnetic flux density B = 𝜇𝐻
3. Flux linkages λ L = 𝜆/𝐼
4. Inductance from flux linkages per ampere L = 𝜆/𝐼 𝜇 = 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 𝐻/𝑚
𝐼 𝐴 𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑥
= = =
𝐼 𝐴 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 𝑟

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13 Inductance of Line (Cont.)

Inductance of a conductor due to external flux linkage

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14

Finally, consider the array of M solid cylindrical conductors shown in Figure . Assume that each
conductor m carries current Im referenced out of the page. Also assume that the sum of the currents is
zero—that is,

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15
INDUCTANCE: SINGLE-PHASE TWO-WIRE LINE AND 3-PHASE 3-WIRE
LINE WITH EQUAL PHASE SPACING


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16 Inductance of Composite Conductors

𝐼 1 1 1 1 𝐼 1 1 1 1
𝜆 = 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑙𝑛 − 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑙𝑛 𝑊𝑏𝑡/𝑚
𝑛 𝑟 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝑚 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 …𝐷
𝜆 = 2 × 10 𝐼𝑙𝑛 𝑊𝑏𝑡/𝑚
𝑟 𝐷 𝐷 …𝐷

𝜆 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 …𝐷 𝐿 + 𝐿 + 𝐿 + ⋯+ 𝐿
𝐿 = = 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 𝐻 ⁄𝑚 𝐿 = 𝐻 ⁄𝑚
𝐼 ⁄𝑛 𝑟𝐷 𝐷 …𝐷 𝑛

𝜆 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 …𝐷
𝐿 = = 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 𝐻 ⁄𝑚
𝐼 ⁄𝑛 𝐷 𝑟 𝐷 …𝐷

𝐿 𝐿 +𝐿 + 𝐿 + ⋯+ 𝐿
𝐿 = = 𝐻 ⁄𝑚
𝑛 𝑛

… … … …
𝐿 = 2 × 10 × 𝑙𝑛 𝐻 ⁄𝑚
… … … …
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17 Example: Determine the MGR of stranded conductor with radius r

𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 = 0.7788 𝑟

𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =
𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =2r

𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 = 2 3r

𝐷 =𝐷 =𝐷 = 4r

𝐺𝑀𝑅 = 𝑟 × 2𝑟 × 2 3r × 4𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑅 = 𝑟 0.7788 × 2 × 3 = 2.176𝑟

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18 Inductance of Composite Conductors

Example 4.2: Evaluate Lx , Ly, and L in H/m for the single-phase two-conductor line

×
𝐺𝑀𝐷 = 𝐺𝑀𝐷 = 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 ;𝐷 𝐷 ;𝐷

= 4 × 4.3 3.5 × 3.8 2 × 2.3 = 3.189 𝑚

𝐺𝑀𝑅 = 𝐷 ×𝐷 ×𝐷 𝐷 ×𝐷 ×𝐷 𝐷 ×𝐷 ×𝐷

= 0.7788 × 0.03 0.5 2 1.5 = 0.3128 𝑚

𝐺𝑀𝑅 = 𝐷 ×𝐷 𝐷 ×𝐷 = 0.7788 × 0.04 0.3 = 0.0.09667 𝑚

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19
𝐺𝑀𝐷 3.189
𝐿 = 2 × 10 × 𝑙𝑛 = 2 × 10 × 𝑙𝑛 = 4.644 × 10 𝐻 ⁄𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑅 0.3128
.
𝐿 = 2 × 10 × 𝑙𝑛 = 6.992 × 10 𝐻 ⁄𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
.

𝐿 = 𝐿 = 4.664 + 6.992 × 10 = 1.164 × 10 𝐻 ⁄𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

IDUCTANCE OF 3- PHASE LINES WITH EQUILATERAL SPACING

1 1 1
𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 0 𝜆 = 2 × 10 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 𝑊𝑏𝑡/𝑚
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

1 1 1 1
𝜆 = 2 × 10 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 = 2 × 10 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 − 𝐼 𝑙𝑛
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

𝐷
= 2 × 10 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 𝑊𝑏𝑡/𝑚
𝐷
𝜆 𝐷
𝐿 = = 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 𝐻 ⁄𝑚
𝐼 𝐷 MSS

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20

lNDUCTANCE OF 𝟑 − ∅ LINES WITH UNSYMMETRICAL SPACING

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21 Example 4.3: Inductance and inductive reactance: single-phase line

A 1 − ∅ line operating at 60 Hz consists of two 4/0 12-strand copper conductors with 5 ft spacing between
conductor centers. The line length is 20 miles. Determine the total inductance in H and the total inductive
reactance in ohm.

Solution: The GMD between conductor centers is Dxy= 5 ft. Also, from Table A.3, the GMD of a 4/0 12-strand
copper conductor is Dxx =Dyy=0.01750 ft.

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22

EXAMPLE 4.4: Inductance and inductive reactance: three-phase line

A completely transposed 60-Hz three-phase line has flat horizontal phase spacing with 10 m between adjacent conductors.
The conductors are 1,590,000 cmil ACSR with 54/3 stranding. Line length is 200 km. Determine the inductance in H and
the inductive reactance in ohm.

Solution: From Table A.4, the GMD of a 1,590,000 cmil 54/3 ACSR conductor is

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23 Bundled Conductor

 EXAMPLE 4.5: Calculate the inductive reactance of the system given below

From Table A.4, the GMD of a 795,000 cmil 26/2 ACSR conductor is

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CAPACITANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

24

Recalling following helps to determine the capacitance of a conductor

1. Electric field strength E, from Gauss’s law
2. Voltage between conductors
3. Capacitance from charge per unit volt (𝐶 = )

According to Gauss Law:

𝑞
𝜀𝐸 2𝜋𝑥 = 𝑞 → 𝐸 = 𝑉/𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜀 = 8.854 × 10 𝐹/𝑚
2𝜋𝜀𝑥
where D = the normal component of electric flux density, E=the normal component of electric field
strength, and ds denotes the differential surface area.

𝑞 𝑉 𝐹
𝜀𝐸 2𝜋𝑥 = 𝑞 → 𝐸 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜀 = 8.854 × 10 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
2𝜋𝜀𝑥 𝑚 𝑚

𝑞 𝑞 𝐷
𝑉 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀𝑥 2𝜋𝜀𝑥 𝐷
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𝑞 𝐷 1 𝐷
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2𝜋𝜀 𝐷 2𝜋𝜀 𝐷

4.9 CAPACITANCE: 𝟏 − 𝝓 𝟐 − 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 and 𝟑 − 𝝓 𝟑 − 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 Line with Equal Phase

Spacing

For single-phase two-wire line as shown. With 𝑘 = 𝑥, 𝑖 = 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑥 , 𝑦

1 𝐷 𝐷 𝑞 𝐷 𝐷 𝑞 𝐷. 𝐷 𝑞 𝐷
𝑉 = 𝑞𝑙𝑛 − 𝑞𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝐷 𝐷 2𝜋𝜀 𝐷 𝐷 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑟

𝑞 𝑞 𝜋𝜀 𝜋𝜀
𝐶 = = = = 𝐹⁄𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑉 𝑞 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟

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26
F𝐨𝐫 𝟑 − 𝝓 𝟑 − 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 Line with Equal Phase Spacing
With 𝑘 = 𝑎, 𝑖 = 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐

1 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 1 𝐷 𝑟 𝐷
𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝐷 𝐷

= 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛
Similarly With 𝑘 = 𝑎, 𝑖 = 𝑐, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
1 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 1 𝐷 𝐷 𝑟 1 𝐷 𝑟
𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝐷 𝐷 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝐷

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27
4.10 CAPACITANCE: STRANDED CONDUCTORS, UNEQUAL PHASE
SPACING, BUNDLED CONDUCTORS

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28
EXAMPLE 4.6 Capacitance, admittance, and reactive power supplied:
single-phase line
A single-phase line operating at 60 Hz consists of two 4/0 12-strand copper conductors with 5 ft spacing
between conductor centers. The line length is 20 miles. determine the line-to-line capacitance in F and the
line-to-line admittance in S. If the line voltage is 20 kV, determine the reactive power in kvar supplied by
this capacitance.
SOLUTION
The GMD between conductor centers is Dxy= 5 ft. Also, From Table A.3, the outside radius of a 4/0 12-
strand copper conductor is
0.552
𝑟= = 0.276 𝑖𝑛 = 0.023 𝑓𝑡
2

𝜋 8.854 × 10
𝐶 = = 5.169 × 10 𝐹/𝑚
𝑙𝑛 5⁄0.023

𝐹 𝑚
𝐶 = 5.169 × 10 × 1609 × 20 𝑚𝑖 = 1.66 × 10 𝐹
𝑚 𝑚𝑖
𝑌 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 = 𝑗 2𝜋60 1.66 × 10 = 𝑗6.27 × 10 𝑆 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑄 = 6.27 × 10 20 × 10 = 25.1 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑅

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29 EXAMPLE 4.7 Capacitance and shunt admittance; charging current and

reactive power supplied: three-phase line
Determine the 𝐶 capacitance-to-neutral in F and the shunt admittance-to-neutral in S. If the line voltage is 345 kV,
determine the charging current in kA per phase and the total reactive power in Mvar supplied by the line
capacitance. Assume balanced positive-sequence voltages.
SOLUTION: From Table A.4, the outside radius of a 795,000 cmil 26/2 ACSD conductor is

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30 Effect of Earth on Capacitance: 3-Phase -Conductor

Taking into account the transposition, we

can write the equation for Vab at position 1.
1 𝐷 𝐻 𝑟 𝐻 𝐷 𝐻
𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛 +𝑞 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛 +𝑞 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝐻 𝐷 𝐻 𝐷 𝐻

Similar equations for Vab can written for the positions 2 and 3. and same for Vba
and Vca in each positions. Knowing that 𝑉 = we can find that
2𝜋𝜀 Comparing this equation with the
𝐶 = 𝐹 ⁄𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝐷 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 previous we found, a difference of
𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛
𝑟 𝐻𝐻 𝐻
𝑙𝑛 is seen

Note: the conductors are very high above the ground, then 𝐻 =𝐻 ,𝐻 = 𝐻 and 𝐻 = 𝐻 . Then
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 ≅ 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 and we can obtain the previous equation, that is 𝐶 = 𝐹 ⁄𝑚 MSS
𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙

30

15
 12/24/2023

31 Example 4.8: Effect of earth on capacitance: single-phase line.

If the single-phase line in Example 4.6 has flat horizontal spacing with 18-ft average line height,
determine the effect of the earth on capacitance. Assume a perfectly conducting earth plane.

MSS

31

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