Dr.K.

Santhy
Associate Professor
Department of Materials and Metallurgical and Engineering
Institution of Technology and Engineering
Indus University
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Unit I : Fundamentals of Metal forming
 Yield criteria
 Von-Mises equation
 Classification of metal forming processes
 Mechanics of metal working
 Flow curve for materials
 Temperature in Metal Working, Hot working, Cold
working & Warm working,
 Strain rate effect of metallurgical structure and non-
metallic inclusion on the manufacturing process,
 Workability, Residual stresses, Annealing of cold-
worked metals.
Unit I : Fundamentals of Metal forming
 Introduction to Metal forming
 Classification of metal forming processes
 Mechanics of metal working
 Yield criteria
 Von-Mises equation
 Flow curve for materials
 Temperature in Metal Working
 Hot working
 Cold working
 Warm working,
 Strain rate effect of metallurgical structure and non-metallic
inclusion on the manufacturing process
 Workability
 Residual stresses
 Annealing of cold-worked metals.
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpieces
Classification of Metal Forming:
 Plastic deformation processes
 Metal removal or machining process
Differentiation of Plastic deformation and
metal removal process

Plastic Deformation Metal removal or machining process

Volume and mass of metal are Volume and mass of metal are non
conserved conserved
Metal is displaced from one location to Metal is removed to get required shape
another
Mechanical properties are controlled
during process.
Classification of Plastic Deformation Process:

Based on the type of force applied to get desired shape,

 Direct-compression-type processes
 Indirect-compression processes
 Tension type processes
 Bending processes
 Shearing processes
Direct Compression Process
The applied force is
perpendicular to the
direction of metal
flow.

Indirect Compression Processes

Primary force Tensile  indirect compressive force by
reaction between workpiece and die
Tension type processes
Tensile forces applied on a metal
sheet which is wrapped to a
contour of a die.

Bending processes
The application of bending
movements to the sheet

Shearing processes
The application of shearing
forces to rupture the metal in
the plane of shear.
 Primary mechanical working processes or
Processing operations: Plastic working processes
which reduce an ingot or billet to simple shape like
sheet, plate and bar. Ex. Rolling, extrusion

 Secondary mechanical working processes or

fabrication: Forming methods  final finished
shape . Ex: wire drawing, tube drawing
 Rolling, Open die
Compressive forming, closed die
forming forming, Indenting,
Pushing through a die
Pulling through a die,
Combined tensile
deep drawing, flange
& compressive
forming, spinning upset
forming
bulging

Stretching, Expanding,
Metal Forming Tensile Forming
Recessing

Bending with linear tool

Forming by
motion , Bending with
bending
rotary with tool motion

Forming by Joggling, twisting,

shearing Blanking, Coining
Deformation process:
 The deformation zone is concerned with
the distribution of stress, strain and
particle velocities, and with overall
pressure required to perform the operation.
 The applied force must develop yielding in
the material but the stresses must not
locally create fracture. Since metallurgical
phenomena such as strain hardening,
recrystallisation and fracture are important
under high strain rate and/or high
temperature.
 The flow stress of the materials is function
of strain, strain rate and temperature.
 The friction along the interface between
work piece and die or tools and heat
transfer from the workpiece to
the die are important.
Mechanics of Metal Working
Metal working occurs to plastic deformation which is
associated with analysis of complex stress distribution
Assumption:
 Elastic strain is neglected
 Strain hardening is neglected
 Metal is considered as isotropic and homogeneous
 Friction between workpiece and die are neglected.
The strain is expressed in terms of true strain due to large
deformation. In the plastic deformation process, volume is
conserved. The constant volume relationship is,
ε1 + ε2 + ε3 =0
Compressive stresses and strains predominate in metal
working processes. Consider initial height h0 is
compressed to h1, the axial compressive strains is,
True Strain:

Conventional Strain:
e = -ve indicating compressive strain. In metal working,
compressive stresses and strains are defined
Determine the engineering strain, true strain, and
reduction for (a) a bar which is doubled in length and (b)
a bar which is halved in length.
 For a bar which is double in length, L2 = 2L1

 For a bar which is halved in length, L2 = L1/2

Determine the engineering strain, true strain, and reduction for (a) a bar which
is doubled in length and (b) a bar which is halved in length.

 For a bar which is double in length, L2 = 2L1

 For a bar which is halved in length, L2 = L1/2

The mechanics of metal working process is the ability to
predict stress, strain and velocity at every point of
deformed work piece. There are three theory for
mechanics of metal working. They are
 The static equilibrium of force equations
 The levy-Mises equations (express relationship
between stress and strain rate)
 The yield criterion
Scalar: a quantity with magnitude only
(e.g. temperature, time, mass).
Vector: a quantity with magnitude and direction
(e.g. force, velocity, acceleration).
Tensor: a quantity with magnitude and direction, and with
reference to a plane it is acting across
(e.g. stress, strain, permeability).
Components of Stress
Components of Stress : On a real or imaginary plane through a
material, there can be normal forces and shear forces. These
forces create the stress tensor. The normal and shear stress
components are the normal and shear forces per unit area.

Normal Stress Shear Stress

σ τ

Note: It should be remembered that a solid can sustain a shear

force, whereas a liquid or gas cannot. A liquid or gas contains a
pressure, which acts equally in all directions and hence is a scalar
quantity.
Normal stress
 A normal stress (compressive or tensile) is one in which
the force is normal to the area on which it acts.

F z
F
X
Y
Area Area
Shear stress z
X

 With a shear stress, the Y

force is parallel to the

area on which it acts.
 Two subscripts are required to define a stress.
 The first subscript denotes the normal to the plane on
which the force acts.
 The second subscript identifies the direction of the
force.
 Example:
F F
 xx  x  x  xy  x  xy
Ax A y
Normal Stress Shear Stress
 z z
z

y y
y

x x
x
X plane Z plane Y plane
 z σz z
z
τzx τzy

τy
τxz z
τxy σy
τyx
σx y y
y

x x
x
X plane Z plane Y plane
 Three normal stress

 xx  yy  zz
(Repeated subscript)

 Six shear stress

 xy  xz

 yx  yz

 zx  zy Shear stress are simplified as,

(Mixed subscript)  xy  yx
 xz  zx
Totally, nine components are  yz  zy
required to represent the point
stress
Therefore, only six components are required to
represent point stress
 Stress involve both forces and area, they are represented by
Tensor
 Nine components of stress are needed to describe a state of
stress fully at a point.
 Tensor notation is used to represent the state of stress
Uniaxial tension X2

F X1 F

A
X3

Choosing sensible axes, with one (x1) along the axis of the
rod, σ11 = σ1=σx and all other σij = 0:



 0 0
 
 0 0 0
 
 
 0 0 0 

(σ>0 for tension)

Uniaxial tension X2

F X1 F

A
X3



 0 0
 
 0 0 0
 
 
 0 0 0 

(σ<0 for compression )

Hydrostatic Compression
σ



 0 0 
 
 0  0 (  0)
 

 0 0  

 τ
Pure Shear

τ
τ

τ
τ12 = τ21 = τ and all other τij = 0, so we have:



0  0
 
 0 0
 
 
0 0 0
 
Sign convention for shear stress
• A shear stress is positive if it points in the positive direction
on the positive face of a unit cube. (and negative direction
on the negative face).
• A shear stress is negative if it points in the negative
direction of a positive face of a unit cube. (and positive
direction on the negative face).
State of stress in two dimensions (Plane stress)
 Plane stress is a stress condition in
which one of the primary direction
stresses are zero.
 In a thin plate where load will be on
the plane of the plate and there will
be no stress acting perpendicular to
the surface of the plate.
 The stress system consists of two
normal stresses σx and σy and a shear
stress τxy.
Yield Criteria
 Detecting mathematical relationship between combination
stresses and plastic yielding.
 For unidirectional tension, yielding take places when stress
σ=F/A reaches the critical value.
F F

A
 If stress acts on multiaxial, then yield depends on
combination of all the stress.
 Yielding in ductile material is predicted by two criteria.
 Von Mises yield criterion (Distortion energy criterion)
 Tresca yield criterion ( Maximum shear stress)
 Von Mises or Distortion Energy Criterion
Yielding occurs when the second invariant of the stress
deviator J2 > critical value k2.
J2=k2

Where J2 
1
6
 
 1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2 & k is constant

For uniaxial tension,  1   0 ,  2   3  0 where σ0 is yield stress.

1
J 2  [2 02 ]  k 2
6
2 02  6k 2
 02  3k 2
1 2
0  k2
3
 1 2
0  k2
3
1
6
 2 2 2

J 2   1   2    2   3    3   1   K 2

1
6
 2 2

2 1 2
 1   2    2   3    3   1    0
3

0 
1
2

 1   2    2   3    3   1 
2 2

2 1/ 2

The yielding occurs when,

0 
1
2

 1   2    2   3    3   1 
2 2

2 1/ 2
For pure shear stress (torsion test), σ1=-σ3 =τ, σ2=0

1
6

J 2   1   2    2   3    3   1 
2 2 2

 12   12  4 12  6k 2
 1  k

The yield will occurs if,

1

 0   1   2    2   3    3   1 
6
2 2

2 1/ 2

Comparing uniaxial tensile and torsion stress, yield stress for

torsion is less than uniaxial tensile stress.
J2 can be represented as,
1
6

J 2   1   2    2   3    3   1   6( xy2   yz2   xz2 )
2 2 2

Then
0 
1
2
 2 2 2 2 2

2 1/ 2
 1   2    2   3    3   1   6( xy   yz   xz )
The yielding occurs when,

0 
1
2
 2 2 2 2 2 2 1/ 2
 1   2    2   3    3   1   6( xy   yz   xz ) 
Problem: Stress analysis of a spacecraft structural
member gives the state of stress shown below. If the
part is made from 7075-T6 aluminium alloy with
σ0=500MPa, will it exhibit yielding? If not, what is the
safety factor?
 0 
1
2
 2 2 2 2 2

2 1/ 2
 1   2    2   3    3   1   6( xy   yz   xz )

Safety factor = 500/224=2.2

Von Mises yield criterion implies that yielding is
independent of normal or shear stress. It depends on a
function of all three values of principal stress.
Maximum Shear Stress or Tresca Criterion
Yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress τmax
reaches the value of shear stress in the uniaxial-tension
test.  
 max  1 3
2
σ1 > σ3
For uniaxial tension,    ,    0
1 0 2 3
Therefore, 1   3  0
 max  
2 2
Pure stress condition, σ1=-σ3 =σ0, σ2=0
Then  max 
1   3

 1  ( 1 )
0
2 2
Problem: Stress analysis of a spacecraft structural
member gives the state of stress shown below. If the
part is made from 7075-T6 aluminium alloy with
σ0=500MPa, will it exhibit yielding? (try with Tresca
criterion)
Problem: Stress analysis of a spacecraft structural
member gives the state of stress shown below. If the
part is made from 7075-T6 aluminium alloy with
σ0=500MPa, will it exhibit yielding? (try with Tresca
criterion)

Calculated value is less than the yield strength.

True Stress-Strain Diagram
ε1-ε2  recoverable elastic strain
ε2-ε3  anelastic behaviour (depends on the metal, temperature and
time)
(b) Unloading from plastic strain and reloading the curve bend over
as the stress approaches to the original value
(c) Yeild stress on reloading is less than the original yield stress.
σb<σa. The dependence of yield stress on loading path and
direction is called the Bauschinger effect.
Flow Curve

True stress-strain curve is called as flow curve.

(Flow curve is the stress-strain curve for a material in the
plastic range.)
From flow curve, flow stress determined by

  K n

K is the stress at ε=1.0

n is the strain hardening coefficient
a) Flow curve for rigid material. Completely rigid ( zero
elastic strain) until the axial stress equals to σ0.
where upon the material flows plastically at a
constant flow stress (n=0). Ex.: highly cold worked
ductile material.
b) Perfectly plastic material has elastic and plastic
region. Ex.: Plain carbon steel
c) Ideal plastic material has both elastic and plastic
region.
 Flow curves indicates
whether metal is readily
deformed at given
conditions, i.e., strain
rate, temperature
 Flow curve is strongly
dependent on strain rate
and temperature.
Flow curves of some metals at room
temperature
Effect of strain rate & temp. on flow stress

Flow curves of CuZn28

Flow stress of Al (Flow stress vs Strain)

 If temperature increases flow stress decreases

 If strain rate increases, flow stress increases
Strain hardening occurred when an iron wire has been drawn
to a specific true strain

True stress-strain curve for iron wire deformed by wire

drawing at room temperature
Flow Stress Determination
Stress required for continuous deformation is called as flow
stress or forming stress or pressure.
p  o g ( f )h(c)

Where o - The stress which require to overcome the flow

resistance of the material. It is function of strain,
temperature and strain rate.
g( f) – An expression for the friction at the tool workpiece
interface.
h(c) - a function of the geometry of tooling and geometry of
deformation.

Metal working processes involve large plastic strains, it is

possible to measure using flow curve or flow stress
experimentally. But it require more facilities.
Metal working involves large plastic strain.
 Using flow curve, it is desirable to measure if true strain is
between 2.0 to 4.0.
 Many process involves high strain rate (  100sec1 ) which
is not possible to measure in ordinary laboratory test.
 Also, many metal working process take place in elevated
temperature. Flow stress is depends on strain-rate and
temperature and independent of strain.
 In test, flow stress is obtained under controlled conditions
of temperature and constant true strain rate.
 In tension test, necking limits uniform deformation to true
strains<0.5. Depends on the strain rate, necking limit is
also varies.
Since flow stress is obtained by compression test to avoid
necking.

Consider a short cylinder of diameter D0 and initial height h0 is

compressed. By controlling, the friction between specimen and
anvil, the specimen reached height h and diameter D.
By law of constancy of volume,
D02h0 = D2h
During the deformation, the frictional resistance occurs in the
contact of specimen with anvil, where undeformed metals are
created near the anvil surfaces. This leads to a barreled
specimen profile.
The cone shaped undeformed metal
zone approaches each other and
overlab, then they raise the force
required for deformation.
Using low value of D0/ho , barreling and
non uniform deformation can be
minimized. Practical limit for D0/ho ~ 0.5.
Below this value , the specimen buckles
instead of barreling.

The friction at the specimen and die

interface can be minimized by using
smooth, hardened platens, grooving the
ends of the specimen to retain the
Figure : The load deformation
lubricant. Teflon sheet for cold curves for compression test
deformation and glass for hot deformationwith different values of D0/ho
are effective lubricants.
When friction is not present the uniaxial compressive force
required to produce yielding is
P=σoA P -force
The true compressive stress p produced by this force is P is,
4P
p p-stress
D 2

Using constant volume relationship, D02h0 = D2h

4 Ph
p
Do2 ho
Where Do and ho are initial diameter and height, h is height
of the sample.
The true compressive strain is,
ho
 c  ln
h
In a compression test, the true strain rate is continuously
increases with the deformation.
Strain rate ≤ 10 s-1  servo controlled testing machine –
constant true strain rate.
1 ≤ strain rate ≤ 103 s-1  Cam plastometer - constant
true strain rate.
 Temperature in Metal forming /Working Process
The methods used to mechanically shape metals into other product forms are
called Working Processes which is classified as
 hot-working,
 cold-working
 warm working
Hot working (0.6-0.8Tm)
Definition : Deformation under conditions of temperature and strain rate such
that recrystallisation process take place simultaneously with the deformation.
Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion

Cold working (< 0.3Tm)

Definition : Deformation carried out under conditions where recovery processes
are not effective.
Examples : rolling, forging, extrusion, wire/tube drawing, swaging, coining
Effect of temperature on cold working
Hot Working
 Hot working involves deformation at temperatures where
recrystallisation can occur (0.6-0.8 Tm) and at high strain
rates in the range 0.5 to 500 s-1.
 Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting
point on absolute scale
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above
0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this
level
 Hot working processes such as rolling, extrusion or forging.
(Normally cast ingot is converted into wrought product).
Hot Working
 The strain in hot working is large compared with tension or
creep tests.
 Hot torsion test is used for studying metallurgical changes in
hot working.
Advantages: In hot working,
 energy required to deform the metal is less and also
deformation take place without cracking.
 Due to rapid diffusion, chemical homogeneities is also
maintained in the cast ingot structure.
 Blow holes and porosity are eliminated by welding together of
these cavities
 The coarse columnar grain of the casting are refined into
smaller equiaxed recrystallized grains.
 It result in an increase in ductility and toughness over the cast
state.
 Disadvantages: In hot working,
 high temperatures are usually involved, surface of metal react with
furnace atmosphere. Due to corrosion, considerable amount of metal
may be lost.
 Highly reactive metal, like Ti undergo severely embrittlement by
oxygen. Since those metals require inert atmosphere or protected from
the air by a suitable barrier.
• In steel, surface undergoes
decarburization which require
extensive surface finishing by
removal of decarburized layer.
Rolled-in oxide makes difficult for
good surface finished.

• Structure and properties of hot worked metals are not uniform

throughout hot worked metals. In the surface, the metal will have a finer
recrystallized grain size than core due to temperature gradient in cooling.
Cold Working:
 Strength and hardness of cold working of metal increases
obviously decreases the ductility.
 When cold working is excessive, metal undergoes fracture
before end shape and size.
 In order to avoid fracture, intermediate annealing is
required to restore ductility.
 The repeated cold working and anneanling sequence is
called as cold-work-anneal cycle.
 The need of annealing operation increases the cost of
forming by cold-working.
 Some of reactive metals requires annealing in vacuum or
inert atmosphere to avoid corrosion.
 By suitable cold work anneal cycle, desired degree of strain hardening
is possible.
 In cold working products like strip and wire in different tempers
(annealing)is done based on the degree of cold reduction.
 The cold worked condition is described as the annealed (soft)
temper: quarter-hard, half-hard, three-quater-hard, full-hard, and
spring temper. Each temper condition indicates a different
percentage of cold reduction following the annealing treatment.
Warm Working
 Warm working is the plastic deformation of a metal at
temperatures below the temperature range for
recrystallization and above room temperature.
 It has the advantages of both hot and cold working into one
operation.
Ex: Forging of steel which require fewer forging steps,
reduced forging loads and lower energy (due to elimination
of annealing steps) the cold forging.
When compared to hot forging, improved dimensional
control, higher quality surfaces and lower energy costs.
 For better warm working requires proper lubricant and
selection of material and die design.
 Cold working Hot working
Strain hardening is nor relieved in cold Strain hardening and distorted grain
working structure produced by deformation
are rapidly eliminated by the
formation of new strain free grains
due to recrystallisation
Limited deformation is possible. Since Very large deformation is possible due
recovery processes is not effective. to recovery processes which take place
along with deformation
The flow stress increases with Hot working takes place, at constant
deformation flow stress.
Energy required for deformation is high Energy required for deformation is
than hot working. much less than cold working.
Possibility for fracture is high in cold Possible for fracture is less than cold
working. In intermediate annealing is working
necessary for cold working to avoid
fracture.
Increases the strength and hardness but Ductility of materials maintained as
decreases the ductility such.
Temperature in Metal working
The temperature of the work-piece in metal working depends on,
 The initial temperature of the tools and the material
 Heat generation due to plastic deformation
 Heat generated by friction at the die/material interface
 Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies and
surrounding environment.
For a frictionless deformation process, the maximum increases in
temperature is
Up 
Td  
c c
Where Up = the work of plastic deformation per unit volume
ρ = the density of workpiece
c = the specific heat of the workpiece
β = fraction of deformation work converted into heat. Typically
β=0.95. The remaining work stored in the material as energy
associated with the defect structure.
The temperature increase due to friction is given by

pAt
Tf 
cV
Where µ = friction coefficient at material/tool interface
p = stress normal to interface
ν = velocity at the material /tool interface
A = surface area at the material /tool interface
∆t = time interval of consideration
V = volume subjected to the temperature rise
 The average instantaneous temperature of the deforming
materials at the interface is given by,

 ht
T  T1  (T0  T1 ) exp( )
c

where, h- heat transfer coefficient between the material and

the dies
δ - material thickness between the dies.
T0 - work piece initial temperature
T1 - die initial temperature
The final average material temperature at a time ‘t’ is,
Tm  Td  T f  T
Problem: Compare the temperature rise when a cylinder
of Al and Ti is quickly deformed to  = 1.0 at room
temperature.
Problem: Compare the temperature rise when a cylinder
of Al and Ti is quickly deformed to  = 1.0 at room
temperature.
Friction and Lubricants
 The frictional force developed between tools and
workpiece which place major role in metal working,
 The frictional coefficient μ,
  p

where τ – shear stress between tool and workpiece

p – normal stress between tool and workpiece
 Average deformation pressure increases with frictional
coefficient.
 Surface finish of workpiece depends on tool surface.
 In cold working, smooth tool produce shiny surface finish and
vice versa. Rough tool with lubricant produce dull and matte
surface.
 Ploughing: Hard surface of the tool penetrate the softer surface and
displace the volume of metal proportional to the length of sliding and
cross sectional area of the asperity.
 The plouging force is related to the flow properties of workpiece and size
and shape of the asperity
 Smooth dies are important to avoid ploughing
 Pick up: The inadequate lubrication in metal working transfer the
workpiece material to the tools. Metal transfer occurs in two ways.
 If lubricant film is decreases at the interface of a rough tool surface.
 If the lubricant breaks down under high pressure.
 Wear: Due to many sliding cylces, tool surface undergoes wear. Chief
wear mechanism  abrasion by hard oxide particles on the workpiece.
 Fatigue: Due to buildup and release of the interface pressure, surface
fatigue take place on the tool.
 Crack: Thermal stresses arising from heating and cooling of the tools.
Functions of a lubricant in metal working:
 Reduces deformation load
 Raises the unifrom deformation of workpiece
 Controls surface finish
 Minimizes metal pickup on tools
 Minimizes tool wear
 Thermally insulates the workpiece and the tool
 Cools the workpiece and/or tools
Properties of Lubricants
 Lubricant has to function over a wide range of pressure,
temperature and sliding velocities
 Lubricant must have spreading and wetting characteristics
 Should have thermal stability and resistance to minor
contaminates.
 Good lubricant produces a harmless residue which does
not affect subsequent heat treatment or welding
 Lubricant should be easily removed
 Lubricant should be nontoxic, free of fire hazard and
inexpensive
Types of Lubricants
Boundary Lubricants:
 Thin organic film physically absorbed or chemisorbed
on the metal surface.
 They are polar substances
Ex.: Fatty acids, alcholols and fatty oil derivatives
 The film formed by these lubricants have a low shear
strength
 They are pressure and temperature dependent
 μ vary from 0.1 to 0.4
Full Fluid Film lubrication:
 Tool and surfaces are fully separated by fluid film
 These lubricants are used in high speed wiredrawing and
rolling.
 Fluid film thickness is quite high which completely avoid
wear.
 μ vary from 0.001 and 0.02
Mixed Film Lubrication:
 Boundary lubricants with extreme pressure additives
Conversion coatings:
To retain the lubricant in the workpeice , a base like oxides,
phosphates or chromates applied on the workpeice surface.
These coatings also have lubricating properties.
Deformation Zone Geometry
 During deformation, materials flow through a channel
i.e. Dies.
 The basic feature of each channel is ratio of the mean
thickness to the length of the deformation zone.

 h
L
 The value of ∆ vary with respect
to geometry
Parallel indenters
(Plane-strain compression)
 Tube drawing over a mandrel
Drawing or extrusion of strip or wire

The die pressure increases the greater

the ratio of h/L and neglects friction.

The smaller h/L ratio the greater the

effect of friction at the tool-workpiece
interface
Rolling
Workability
The extent to which a material can be deformed in a
specific metal working process without the formation of
cracks.
It depends on two factors such as
1. Properties of materials which can be obtained from
lab testing
2. Parameters of the deformation process like die
geometry, lubrication conditions and workpiece
geometry
Cracks which occurs during the process are classified
under three categories such as
1. Cracks at free surface
2. Cracks at surface due to interface frictions
3. Internal cracks

Examples of cracks in metalworking (a) free

surface crack (b) surface crack from heavy die
friction in extrusion, (c) centre burst or chevron
cracks in a drawn rod.
 Internal cracks develop due to secondary tensile
stresses (∆=h/L which is very high)
 Temperature gradient
 In ductile material, during deformation formation and
growth of holes around second phase particles leads to
ductile fracture.
Residual Stress
Residual stresses is generated by non-uniform plastic
deformation when external stresses are removed.
Ex: in rolling process, the surface grains in the sheet are
deformed and tend to elongate, while the grain in the
centre are unaffected.

(a) Inhomogeneous
deformation in rolling of
sheet, (b) resulting
distribution of longitudinal
residual stress over
thickness of sheet.
 Due to continuity of the sheet, the central fibres tend
to restrain the surface fibres from elongating while the
surface fibres tend to stretch the central fibres.
 Residual stress pattern consisting of high compressive
stress at the surface and tensile stress in the centre
 The residual stress in a body must be in equilibrium.
The area under the curve subjected to compressive
residual stresses must balance the area subjected to
tensile stress.
 Residual stresses are only elastic stresses. The
maximum it can reach up to yield stress of the
material.
 Residual stress can be relieved partially or completely by
heating to a required temperature. Slow cooling from the
annealing temperature is important.
 Differential strains that produce residual stresses can be
reduced by substantially at room temperature by plastic
deformation.
 Sheet, plate, and extrusions are often stretched several
percent beyond the yield stress to relieve differential strains
by plastic deformation.
 Cold-drawn rod and tube are relieved by roller strainghtening
 Residual stress calculation is difficult by analytical
methods. Since it is mostly determined by experimental
techniques. They are,
 Destructive techniques (XRD, Neutron diffraction method,
synchrotron diffraction method)
 Non destructive techniques (Hole drilling strain gauge method)
 Strain rate effect
 Strain rate is also called ad deformation velocity
 The three principal effects in high strain rate metalworking,
 The flow stress of the metal increases with strain rate
 The temperature of the workpeice is increases due to
adiabatic heating
 Improved lubrication at the tool metal interface, when
lubricant film is maintained.

Very high strain rate induces,

• metal cracking
• plastic instability in cold working
• hot shortness in hot working

Flow stress depends on strain rate and temp.

 The true strain is represented as,
d 1 dh 
   
dt h dt h

Where h – instantaneous height

υ – the formation velocity
 h varies with axial distance, the average or mean strain rate is used.
L
1
   dx

L0
where L – length of contact between tool and workpiece
 The mean strain rate in terms of the time,
tf
1
t   dt
tf 0
Where tf – the element to travel through the die
 For large reductions (like hot extrusion), strain rate depends on strain
rate sensitive of materials which is represented as,
1/ m
 1 ln R

rmp o   d 
m

 ln R
Where R=A0/A is the deformation ratio
m – strain-rate sensitivity (always < 0.1, for hot working 0.1 – 0.2)
Typical values of velocity encountered in different testing
and forming operations

 Normal forming velocity with small deformation zone

produce very high strain rates.
Ex: wire drawing (strain rate 105 S-1)
 Metal working which utilize very high velocities as 200ms-1,
then the processes are called as High Energy Rate Forming
(HERF).
 These process use exploding gas or conventional explosive to
produce high particle velocities.
 Explosive hardening, grain distortion may or may not take
place( depends of the material)
 superplasticity forming:
 strain-rate sensitivity 0.3 < m < 1.0
 Deformation temperatures > 0.4Tm
 Grain size of material of the order of 1 µm
 Superplastic material have limiting stain rate above which it
is no longer superplastic material.
(Strain rate < 0.01ms-1,)
 Low flow stress 5 to 40MPa.
Effect of strain rate & temp. on flow stress

Flow curves of CuZn28

Flow stress of Al (Flow stress vs Strain)

 If temperature increases flow stress decreases

 If strain rate increases, flow stress increases
 Effects of metallurgical structure on working processes
 During deformation, material undergoes strain hardening.
 The dislocation structure of strain hardened metal was shown in
below which consists of cellular substructure with cell walls
composed of dislocation.
 For large plastic strains like wire drawing and rolling of cold
worked structure have highly elongated grains containing
relatively equiaxed dislocation cell structure.
 The dislocation cell structure decreases with plastic strain.
 The relationship between flow stress and dislocation cell size ‘d’
for cold drawn iron wire is,
Rolling direction

 o  a  md 1
a and m are material constants.
 Severely cold worked metal characterized Fibrous texture in rolled sheet

by crystallographic texture. (preferred orientation of grains

along the maximum strain direction is called as texture)
 Presence of preferred orientation causes anisotropy of
mechanical properties
 The development of texture is the
formation of deformation bands or shear
bands
 Deformation bands: are regions of
distortion where a portion of grains have
rotated towards another orientation to
accommodate the applied strain. When
these regions are extend across many Shear band formation in
compression of a cylinder
grains then they are called as shear bands.
 Shear bands associated with plastic
instability in compression.
 In metal forming, the following mechanism are active
for recovery and recrystallization.
 Process which occur during deformation is called
dynamic processes. (mechanisms for hot working)
 Dynamic recovery
 Dynamic recrystallization
 Process in between the deformation or after deformation
is completed is called as static processes.
 Static recovery
 Static recrystallization
Dynamic recovery:
 Basic mechanism is annihilation of pairs of
dislocations during straining.
 The low dislocation densities associated with
deformation due to cross slip, climb and
dislocation unpinning at nodes in this
temperature region.
 This mechanism leads the microstructure to
elongated grains , inside with a well
developed fine-grain substructure, in the
order of 1 to 10µm . a) Dynamic recovery
 The sub-grain boundaries undergoes broken b) Dynamic recrystallization

up and reformed during deformation.

 It occurs in metals having high stacking-fault
energy such as Al, α-Fe and most bcc metals.
Formation of low angle grain boundaries
Dynamic recrystallization:
 Dislocation annihilation occurs only when
the dislocation density reaches high level.
Since the rate of strain hardening is high
until recrystallization begins.
 When first recrystallization, the flow curve
become unstable.
 When dynamic recrystllization
accompanied by localized deformation
leads to catastrophic strain localization. a) Dynamic recovery
Because dislocation densities and flow b) Dynamic recrystallization

stresses are higher in dynamic

recrystallization since more susceptible to
internal crack and cavity formation during
deformation.
 Once dynamic recrystallization begins, the grain boundary
migration tends to isolate the cavities to prevent joining up
to cause catastrophic failure.
 It predominant softening mechanism in the hot working
for all fcc metals except Al.
 Static recovery: Occurs b/w intervals of deformation which
decreases the density of dislocation. But decreases in the
flow stress is relatively small.
 It is responsible for the formation of recrystallization
nuclei.
 Static recrystallization: time duration is only 0.1 to 0.01sec
even in highest working temperatures.
 If deformation temp. reduced the recrytsllization time
gradually increases to 100sec. To avoid recrystallization, the
working materials is cooled rapidly and gain the strength.
 Other factor which affect recrystallizations are prestrain,
strain rate and alloy composition.
 Two softening mechanism which produce the low flow
stress for hot working are static recrystallization or
dynamic recovery, depending on the stacking fault energy.
 Dynamic recoverystatic recrystallization
Dynamic recovery + rapidly cooling  avoids static recrystallization
and dynamic recovery structure is maintained. Ex: Al-Mg alloys
 Dynamic recrystallization  static recrystallization
(rapidly)
it is not possible to retain dynamic recrystallization
structure due to rapid static recrystallization.
Two phase alloys
 Second phase is hard and more massive (like super alloys)
 Second phase tend to fracture during deformation
 Softer matrix extruding into the voids created by this
fracturing.
 Second phase is ductile, failure usually occurs by matrix
pulling apart between particles.
 If second phase particles are softer then, during deformation it
will distorted and oriented towards working direction.
 If second phase particles are brittle, then during
deformation second phase particles are broken into
fragments which will oriented parallel to the working
direction. During cold working shows mechanical fibering
is observed in wrought products.
Strain induced phase transformation or precipitation:
 In some alloys, during deformation phase
transformation or precipitation reaction occurs which
increase the flow stress required for deformation and
decreases the ductility.
 Example: austenitic stainless steels based on Cr:Ni
ratio austenite phase is unstable. During cold
working, the austenite phase transforms to ferrite
along the slip lines.
 Grains size:
Grain size influence
the strength and
fracture toughness

 In hot working, obtained by low finishing temperature and a

rapid cooling rate from working temperature.
 In steel, cooling after hot deformation austenite transforms into
ferrite. Ferrite grain size is depends on austenite grain size.
 Fine austenite grain size is promoted by large reduction in final pass and
working at the lowest possible temperature in austenite phase field.
 The optimization of mechanical properties possible by
appropriate thermo mechanical treatments.
Annealing of cold worked metals
To revert back to the precold worked properties and
structure, heat treatment such as annealing treatment is
done.
Stages of Annealing
 Recovery
 Recrystallisation
 Grain growth

~0.3Tm ~0.5Tm
Recovery
 Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by
virtue of dislocation motion, as a result of enhanced atomic
diffusion at the elevated temperature.
 Physical properties such as electrical thermal conductivity
and the like are recovered to their precold worked states.
Recrystallization
 Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free
and equiaxed grains.
 The driving force to produce this new grain structure is the
difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
 During recrystallization, the metal becomes softer, weaker
and more ductile.
 Recrystallization process depends on both time and
temperature.
 Recrystallization temp. depends on material, strain,
dislocation density, impurities.
 Presence of impurities increases the recrystallization
temp.
 Plastic deformation is more, more number of nuclei
which gives finer grain size. Also driving force is more
for recrytsallization.
Grain Growth
 After recrystallization is complete, the strain free grain
continues to grow during grain growth.

 Grain growth does no need to be preceded by recovery and

recrystallization.

 Grain growth occurs by the migration of grain boundaries.

Note:
Performed as
cold, warm and
hot working
Rolling

Forging
Bulk Deformation
Extrusion

Wire and bar drawing

Metal forming
Bending

Sheet Metal working Shearing

Deep and cup
Mainly drawing
by cold
working