CHAPTER ONE

THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1.1 Properties of Operational Amplifier

An Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP) is a multi-stage amplifier with high gain (typically 200,000),
in which feedback is added to control its overall response characteristics. It consists of a complex
arrangement of resistors, transistors, capacitors and diodes, and is treated as a single device. The
Op-Amp is used to perform several different functions and it forms the basic building block of
many electronic circuit applications. The name “operational amplifier” originates from the use of
this type of amplifier to perform specific electronic circuit functions or mathematical operations
of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation, and integration, by using voltage
as an analogue of another quantity. This is the basis of the analogue computer where op-amps
were used to model the basic mathematical operations.

An operational amplifier can amplify signals having frequency ranging from 0 𝐻𝑧 to about
1 𝑀𝐻𝑧. This means that op-amps can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals.
Generally, they are thought of as universal “gain blocks” whose function within a circuit could be
defined with the addition of external components. For example, with the addition of two resistors,
an amplifier with a defined gain can be produced. Likewise, a simple low-pass filter could be
produced with a single resistor and a capacitor.

Presently, the Op-Amp is the most versatile and widely used of all linear integrated circuits; it is
now more of a circuit building block, and uses relatively low supply voltages. For example, the
OP-Amp can now be a complete amplifier circuit constructed as an IC on a single silicon chip.
There are other packages that are available commercially in several forms. Inside these packages
are a number of transistors and other components integrated to form a unit. A typical one is the
eight-pin dual in-line package (or DIP), which is depicted in Figure 1.1:

Balance 1 8 No connection

Inverting input 2 7 V+

Non-inverting input 3 6 Output

V- 4 5 Balance

Figure 1.1: A Typical Op-Amp Pin Configuration

Op-amps are also used in phase shifting, voltage regulation, analog computer operations, in
instrumentation and control systems, oscillator circuits, pulse generators, square-wave generators,
triangular-wave generators, comparators, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters (ADC
and DAC); voltage-to-current converters, current-to-voltage converters, sample-and-hold circuits
etc.
A typical op-amp symbol as shown in Figure 1.2 has five important terminals. These are:

1
 i. The inverting input, pin 2
ii. The non-inverting input, pin 3
iii. The negative power supply V-, pin 4
iv. The output, pin 6
v. The positive power supply V+, pin 7

V+
7

Inverting input 2 -
6 Output
Non-inverting input 3 +

4 1 5
V-
Figure 1.2: A typical op-amp circuit symbol (741 op-amp IC)

From Figure 1.2, a few important points about an op-amp can be drawn:
1. The op-amp has two input terminals, the inverting input (-) and the non-inverting input
(+), and one output terminal.
2. The word ‘non-inverting’ means that if a signal is applied at this terminal of the op-amp
it will appear with the same polarity at the output (output in phase with the input signal).
3. An input applied to the inverting terminal will appear inverted at the output (output 1800
out of phase with the input signal).
4. The op-amp amplifies the difference between the voltages applied at the non-inverting
input and the inverting input. The difference between the two voltages acts as input to
the op-amp. This input difference could be denoted as 𝑉 .
5. The typical op-amp operates with two dc supply voltage, one positive and the other
negative. Usually, these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic symbol for
simplicity but are always understood to be there.
In Figure 1.2, this op-amp is an eight-pin type, but terminals (pins) 1 and 5 are of little
importance to us at the moment, even though such pins could be used for frequency
compensation. Terminal 8, however, is unused.

1.2 The Ideal Op-Amp

An op-amp is said to be ideal if it possesses the following characteristics:
i. It has infinite gain (open loop voltage gain, 𝐴 = ∞). Infinite voltage gain means the
voltage difference (Vin) required between the two inputs to produce any output voltage is
zero.
ii. It has infinite input resistance (impedance). The input resistance is the resistance measured
between the inverting and non-inverting terminals (𝑅 = ∞).
iii. The output resistance seen looking back into output terminals is zero (impedance, R out =
0), that is, output voltage, Vout is independent of the load resistance connected between the
output terminals.

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 iv. It should have infinite bandwidth (flat frequency response from dc to infinity Hz). Thus,
any frequency signal can be amplified without attenuation.
v. The voltage gain remains constant over a wide frequency range.
vi. Zero voltage output level for a zero input level, i.e. offset voltage is zero.

vii. It has infinite slew rate (the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect to time
– specified in 𝑉/𝜇𝑠)
viii. Insensitivity to power supply voltage variations

Table 1.1 Characteristics of an Ideal Operational Amplifier

S/N Characteristics Value

1. Voltage Gain ∞
2. Input Resistance ∞
3. Output Resistance 0
4. Bandwidth ∞
5. Offset Voltage 0
6. Slew Rate ∞

V1 i1 -

Vin Rin = ∞ AVin Vo

Ro = 0
A=∞

V2 i2 +

Figure 1.3: An ideal operational amplifier

From Figure 1.3, 𝑉 is the differential input voltage, which is the difference between the voltage
between non-inverting terminal and ground (V2) and the voltage between inverting terminal and
ground (V1). That is
𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉 (1.1)

The op-amp senses the difference between the two inputs, multiplies it by the gain A, and causes
the resulting voltage to appear at the output. Thus the output Vo is given by

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 (1.2)

Or
𝑉 = 𝐴(𝑉 − 𝑉 ) (1.3)
For circuit analysis, two important characteristics of the ideal op-amp are taken into consideration.
These are:

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Assumption 1
The currents into both input terminals are zero
𝑖 = 0; 𝑖 =0 (1.4)

This is as a result of the infinite input resistance.

That is,
𝑖= = =0
This means that an open circuit exists between the terminals and current cannot flow into the op-
amp.
This does not necessarily mean the output current is zero (due to i+ and i- from V+ and V-
respectively).

Assumption 2
The voltage across the input terminals is negligibly small
𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉 ≃0

⇒𝑉 =𝑉 (1.5)

This assumption emanates from the fact that for the ideal op-amp, voltage gain, 𝐴 = ∞, and from
equation 1.2,

𝑉 = , thus 𝑉 = 0

In effect, the current into the two input terminals of an ideal op-amp is zero, and there is also
negligibly small voltage between the input terminals.

Although it is impossible to realise the ideal operational amplifier, its conceptual use allows us to
understand the basic performance to be expected from a given analog circuit and serves as a model
to help in circuit design. Once the properties of the ideal amplifier and its use in basic circuits are
understood, then various ideal assumptions can be removed in order to understand their effect on
circuit performance.

1.3 The Practical Operational Amplifier

Modern integrated circuit (IC) op-amps approach parameter values that can be treated as ideal in
many cases, but in practice no op-amp can be ideal. All devices have limitations and the IC op-
amp is no exception. Op-amps have both voltage and current limitations.
Thus characteristics of a practical op-amp are:
 High voltage gain (typical range = 10 to 107)
 High input resistance (typical range = 106 (typical bipolar op amp) to 1012Ω, (typical JFET
op amp).
 Low output resistance (10 to 100 Ω)

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 i1
V1 -

Ri AVin Vo
Vin Ro
n

V2
i2 +

Figure 1.4: A Practical operational amplifier

1.4 Open-Loop Voltage Gain (Aol)

The voltage gain, A of an amplifier describes the relation between changes in the input signal and
changes in the output signal. When an op-amp is operated without any connection between the
output and any of the inputs (i.e. without feedback), it is said to be in the open-loop condition.

-
Vi Vo
+

Figure 1.5: Open-loop operational amplifier

Open-loop voltage gain is the internal voltage gain of the op-amp measured in the differential
mode. This represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components. The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design and can range all
the way to 200,000 or even more. This is not a well-controlled parameter. The open-loop voltage
gain is sometimes referred to as large signal voltage gain.
𝐴 = (1.6)

The following are the three open-loop operational amplifier configurations:

(a) non-inverting amplifier
(b) inverting amplifier
(c) differential amplifier

(a) Non-inverting
𝑅
𝑉
+
𝑉
𝑉 -
𝑣

Figure 1.6: Open-loop Non-inverting operational amplifier

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In the non-inverting configuration as could be observed in the open-loop non-inverting amplifier
in figure 1.6, input is applied at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp whilst the inverting
terminal is grounded.
Now open-loop gain, 𝐴 = (from (1.6))

Thus 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑉 − 𝑉 ) (1.7)
But from figure 1.6, 𝑉 = 0
And if source resistance R is assumed very small, then it can be neglected
Thus 𝑉 = 𝑣
⟹ 𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑣 − 0)
Or 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑣 (1.8)
Equation (1.8) shows that the output is A times larger than the input and in phase with the input.

(b) Inverting amplifier

𝑅
𝑉
-
𝑉
+
𝑉
𝑣

Figure 1.7: Open-loop Inverting Operational Amplifier

Figure (1.7) is an open-loop inverting amplifier. In inverting configuration, input is applied to

the inverting terminal of the op-amp whilst the non-inverting terminal is grounded.
Thus 𝑉 = 0
But from equation (1.7), 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑉 − 𝑉 )
Thus if source resistance R is neglected, then
𝑉 =𝑣
⟹ 𝑉 = 𝐴 (0 − 𝑣 )
Or 𝑉 = −𝐴 𝑣 (1.9)

From equation (1.9), the output is A times larger than the input and out of phase with the input.

(c) Differential amplifier

In the case of differential amplifier, inputs are applied at both the non-inverting and inverting
terminals. The amplifier obtained its name from the fact that the difference between the two input
signals is amplified, hence the difference or differential amplifier.

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 𝑅
𝑉
-
𝑉
+
𝑉
𝑣 𝑅
𝑅
𝑣

Figure 1.8: Open-loop Differential amplifier

From equation (1.7)

𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑉 − 𝑉 )
If the two source resistances are neglected,
Then 𝑉 = 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑣
Thus 𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑣 − 𝑣 ) (1.10)

From equation (1.10), it can be observed that the output, 𝑉 is 𝐴 times the difference between
the two input voltages.

Example 1.1
The op-amp shown in Figure 1.9 is an open-loop differential amplifier with the following
specifications: 𝐴 = 2 × 10 ; 𝑅 = 2 𝑀Ω; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 75 Ω.

𝑅
-
𝑉
+
𝑉 𝑅
𝑅
𝑉

Figure 1.9: An Open-loop operational amplifier for Example 1.1

Determine the output voltage in each of the following cases.

(i) 𝑣 = −7 𝜇𝑉 𝑑𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 5 𝜇𝑉 𝑑𝑐
(ii) 𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑉 and 𝑣 = 10 𝑚𝑉

Solution 1.1
(i) 𝐴 = 2 × 10 ; 𝑣 = −7 𝜇𝑉 𝑑𝑐; 𝑣 = 5 𝜇𝑉 𝑑𝑐
𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑉 −𝑉 )
= 2 × 10 × (5 × 10 + 7 × 10 )
= 2.4 𝑉

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(ii) 𝐴 = 2 × 10 ; 𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑉 = 20√2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝑉;
𝑣 = 10 𝑚𝑉 = 10√2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝑉 −𝑉 )
= 2 × 10 × (10√2 × 10 − 20√2 × 10 ) sin 𝜔𝑡
= −2828 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝑉

1.5 Closed Loop Operational Amplifier Configuration

An open-loop op-amp cannot be used in linear applications. However, an op-amp can effectively
be used in linear applications by introducing feedback from the output to the input. An op-amp
that uses feedback is called a closed-loop amplifier.
The amplifier configuration as observed in Figure 1.10 consists of the op-amp and an external
feedback circuit that connects the output to the inverting input.

+
Vi Vo
-

Negative
feedback
network

Figure 1.10: A Closed-loop operational amplifier

If the signal fed back is out of phase by 180 with respect to the input, then the feedback is a
negative feedback. On the other hand, if the signal fed back is in phase with that at the input, then
the feedback is a positive feedback.
Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in electronics, particularly in operational
amplifier applications. It is a wiring technique where some of the output voltage is sent back to
the inverting terminal. This voltage can be “sent” back through a resistor, capacitor, or complex
circuit or simply can be sent back through a wire.

1.6 Closed-Loop Voltage Gain (Acl)

This is the voltage gain of an op-amp with negative feedback. The closed-loop voltage gain is
determined by the component values in the feedback circuit. This, unlike that of the open-loop
voltage can be controlled by the component values in the feedback circuit.
With negative feedback, the overall closed-loop voltage gain 𝐴 , can be reduced and controlled
so that the op-amp can function as a linear amplifier. In addition to providing a controlled, stable
voltage gain, negative feedback also provides for control of the input and output resistances and
amplifier bandwidth.

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Review Questions
a) What are the connections to a basic op-amp?

b) What are some of the characteristics of a practical op-amp?

c) How does the voltage gain of a practical op-amp differ from an ideal op-amp?

d) What is the op-amp input indicated by +?

e) The op-amp is a high-gain amplifier that has high output resistance and low input
resistance. True/False

f) For an ideal op-amp, the current into each of its two input terminals is zero, and the voltage
across its input terminals is negligibly small. True/False

g) In an amplifier circuit, negative feedback will ………..…… the gain of the amplifier.
i. Increase ii. Decrease iii. Not alter

1.7 Inverting Amplifier

This is an op-amp which is connected in a closed-loop configuration in which the output signal is
applied through a resistor to the inverting input (-).

𝐼 𝑅

𝐼 𝑅
𝑷 𝑖 𝑉
-
𝑉 𝑉
𝑖
+
𝑉 𝑉

Figure 1.11: Inverting amplifier

In Figure 1.11, the non-inverting input is grounded. 𝑉 is connected to the inverting input through
𝑅 , whilst the feedback resistor, 𝑅 is connected between the inverting input and output. This
means the output is fed back through 𝑅 to the inverting input. This represents a negative feedback.
Now, applying the concept of an ideal op-amp, where the input resistance is infinite, this means
there is no current in or out of the inverting input. If there is no current through the input resistance,
then there must be no voltage drop between the inverting and non-inverting inputs.
𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 ≃ 0 [refer to equation (1.1)]
Or 𝑉 =𝑉 [refer to equation (1.5)]
It could be said from equation (1.1), that a virtual short-circuit exists between the two terminals.

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The word ‘virtual’ is used to clarify the fact that, the two input terminals are not actually shorted.
Thus a virtual short circuit means that whatever is the voltage at non-inverting terminal will
automatically appear at the inverting terminal due to the infinite gain.
But the non-inverting input (𝑉 ) is grounded and its voltage is zero. Therefore deducing from
equation (1.5), the inverting input terminal (𝑉 ) is at ground potential or the voltage is zero (0 V).
This zero voltage at the inverting input terminal is referred to as virtual ground (𝑽𝒈 ). The virtual
ground means that the terminal is not actually connected to the ground, even though, the voltage
at the terminal is zero.

Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law at point P (Summing Point)

𝐼 −𝐼 −𝑖 =0
Since there is no current at the inverting input, then 𝑖 = 0

Thus, the current through 𝑅 (𝐼 ) and that through 𝑅 (𝐼 ) are equal.

⇒𝐼 =𝐼

But 𝐼 = and 𝐼 =

⇒ =

Now 𝑉 = 0

⇒ = or =

∴𝐴 = =− (1.11)

From equation (1.11),

(i) 𝐴 has a negative sign, thus the output has different polarity from that of the input.
(ii) 𝐴 depends only on the external resistors

Example 1.2
𝑅

5 𝑘Ω
- 𝑉
+
𝑉

Figure 1.12: for Example 1.2

(a) Given the op-amp configuration in the Figure 1.12, determine the value of 𝑅 required to
produce a closed-loop voltage gain of -40

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 (b) Calculate:
i. The output voltage, Vo
ii. The current through the 5 kΩ resistor, if Vi = 0.8 V.
(c) If the input remains 5 kΩ, and 𝑅 is 90 kΩ. What will be the closed-loop voltage gain
produced and the new output voltage?

Solution 1.2
(a) 𝑅 = 5 𝑘Ω; 𝐴 = −40; 𝑉 = 0.8𝑉

Now 𝐴 = −
⇒ 𝑅 = −𝐴𝑅 = −(−40) × 5 = 200 𝑘Ω

(b)
(i) =𝐴
or 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 = −40 × 0.8 = - 32 V

.
(ii) 𝑖 = =
= 160 µA

(c) 𝑅 = 5 𝑘Ω; 𝑅 = 90 𝑘Ω
𝐴=− =− = −18

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 = −18 × 0.8 = −14.4 𝑉

1.8 Non-Inverting Amplifier

This is an op-amp that is connected in a closed-loop configuration in which the input signal is
applied to the non-inverting input. A part of the output is applied back to the inverting input
through the feedback circuit. This also represents a negative feedback.
𝑅
+
𝑉
- 𝑅
𝑉 𝑅 -
𝑉
+

𝑅 𝑉

Figure 1.13: Non-inverting amplifier

From Figure 1.13, the input voltage 𝑉 is applied directly at the non-inverting input terminal, whilst
the resistor 𝑅 is connected between the ground and the inverting terminal.

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At the inverting terminal,
𝐼 =𝐼

⇒ =

or =

𝐴 = 1+ (1.12)

From equation (1.12),

(i) A does not have a negative sign, thus the output has the same polarity as the input.
(ii) A depends only on the external resistors

1.9 Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Amplifier)

This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier where all of the output voltage is fed back to
the inverting input by a straight connection, that is, the output follows the input. In the voltage
follower, the feedback resistor, 𝑅 = 0 (short circuit), or 𝑅 = ∞ (open circuit) or both.

-
𝑉
+

Figure 14: Voltage follower

The straight feedback connection produces a voltage gain of approximately 1, that is

𝐴 = 1+ , but 𝑅 = 0; or 𝑅 = ∞
Hence 𝐴 = 1 + 0 = 1
Such a circuit has a very high input resistance and very low output resistance. These features make
it useful as a buffer (intermediate-stage) amplifier to isolate one circuit from another, for example,
a high-resistance from low-resistance load.

Alternatively, as the voltage Vi at the non-inverting by definition is the same as the voltage at the
inverting, then from Figure 1.14, the output voltage, Vo = Vi

But = = =1 (1.13)

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Example 1.3
60 kΩ

5kΩ
-
Vo

40 mV

Figure 1.15: For Example 1.3

(i) Determine the closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier
(ii) Find the output of the circuit
(iii) Calculate the current through the feedback resistor.

Solution 1.3

𝑅 = 5 𝑘Ω; 𝑅 = 60 𝑘Ω; 𝑉 = 40 𝑚𝑉

(i) 𝐴 = 1+ = 1+ = 13

(ii) 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 = 13 × 40 = 520 𝑚𝑉
( )×
(iii) 𝑖 = = = 8𝜇𝐴
×

1.10 Comparator
It is a device which is used to sense when a varying signal reaches some threshold value. The
comparator compares two input voltages or signals and produces an output in either of two states
indicating the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs. For example, a comparator can
be used to determine when an input voltage reaches or exceeds a certain defined level; or indicate
whether or not a pulse has an amplitude greater than a particular value. The circuit for the
comparator as seen in Figure 1.16 is the simplest or basic circuit, since no additional external
components are needed.

-
𝑉
+

Figure 1.16: The comparator

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 In this circuit, the inverting input (-) is grounded to produce a zero-level, whilst the input signal
voltage is applied to the non-inverting input (+).
A very small difference voltage between the two inputs results in the output voltage going to its
limits (very large Vo). This is as a result of the high open-loop voltage gain.
For example, voltage difference, Vdiff (Vin) = 0.20 mV, Aol = 100,000

Since 𝐴 = ,

Then 𝑉 = 100,000 × 0.20 × 10 = 20 𝑉

Again, for 741 IC op-amp, if A is differential voltage gain of the op-amp, the minimum input
voltage that produces saturation is 𝑉 = .
for a range of ±15 𝑉, and 𝐴 = 100,000, 𝑉 = ±13.5 𝑉
.
∴𝑉 = = 135 𝜇𝑉

In effect, the comparator can detect very small changes, and thus can be said to be used in
comparing two signals.

t
Vi 0 t

(a) Sinusoidal input voltage

+Vo(max)

Vo t

-Vo(max)

(b) Square output voltage

Figure 1.17: The comparator as a zero-level detector

When a sinusoidal input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input, Figure 1.17 depicts the
outcome. Positive part of the sinewave results in an output of maximum positive level whilst
negative sinewave results in an output of maximum negative level.

14
1.10.1 Non-zero Level Detection
This is a modification to Figure 1.16, and can be used to detect positive and negative voltages.

Vref

Figure 1.18: Fixed reference voltage connected to inverting input

This is done by connecting a fixed reference voltage 𝑉 to the inverting input. When the input
voltage Vin is lower than 𝑉 , the output is at the maximum negative level but goes to the
maximum positive state when Vi exceeds 𝑉 .

𝑉
V0in 0
t

+Vo(max)

Vo 0 t
-Vo(max)

Figure 1.19: The Comparator as a Non-zero Level Detector

1.11 Summing Amplifier (Adder or Summer)

It is a circuit that combines several inputs and produces an output voltage which is proportional
to the negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages.
𝑅
𝑅
𝑉
𝑅
𝑉
𝑂
-
𝑉 𝑉
𝑅
+
𝑉
𝑅
Figure 1.20: Summing Amplifier with Four Inputs

15
The summing amplifier is a variation of the inverting amplifier, and it is taking the advantage of
the fact that the inverting configuration can handle many inputs at the same time.
Since point O is a virtual ground just as in an inverting amplifier, then current entering each op-
amp is zero.

Thus

𝑖 = , 𝑖 = , 𝑖 = ,𝑖 = 𝑖 =

Applying KCL, 𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖

= + + +
But 𝑉 = 0

⇒ = + + + or =− + + +

𝑉 =− 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 (1.14)

NB:
If the four input resistors are the same, that is 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅

𝑉 =− (𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 ) (1.15)
= −𝐴(𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 )
Thus the output voltage is proportional to the negative of the sum of the input voltages.
But if 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅, then the output voltage

𝑉 = − (𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 ))
𝑉 = −(𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 )) (1.16)
Hence the output is exactly equal to the sum of the input voltages.

Example 1.4
Calculate 𝑉 and 𝑖 in the op-amp circuit in Figure 1.21.

5 𝑘Ω
20 𝑘Ω

- 𝑉
3.5 𝑉
4 𝑘Ω +

6𝑉

Figure 1.21 for Example 1.4

16
Solution 1.4
For a summer of two inputs
𝑉 =− (3.5) + (6) = −44 𝑉

𝑖 = = = 2.20 𝑚𝐴
×
Note: Specifically for the example above, 𝑖 = −𝑖

Example 1.5
Find 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 in the op-amp circuit shown in Figure 1.22.
15 𝑘Ω 30 𝑘Ω

12 𝑘Ω
- 𝑖
𝑉
6 𝑘Ω +
1.5 𝑉
−2 𝑉 10 𝑘Ω
1.2 𝑉

Figure 1.22 is for Example 1.5

Solution 1.5
For a summer of three inputs
30 30 30
𝑉 =− (1.5) + (−2) + (1.2) = −4 𝑉
15 12 6
Current 𝑖 is the sum of the currents through the 30 kΩ and 10 kΩ resistors. Both resistors have
voltage, 𝑉 = −6 𝑉 across them, since 𝑉 = 0

Hence 𝑖 = + = −0.133 − 0.4 = −0.533 𝑚𝐴

× ×

1.12 Cascaded Op-Amp Circuits

Since op-amp circuits are modules or building blocks for designing complex circuits, it is often
necessary in practical applications to connect the circuits in cascade. This is a head-to-tail
arrangement of two or more op-amp circuits such that the output of one is the input of the next.

+ +
V1
Stage 1 Stage 2 V3 = A2V2 Stage 3
V2 = A1V1 Vo = A3V3
- A1 A2 A3 -

Figure 1.23: A three – stage cascaded connection

17
When the circuits are cascaded, each circuit in the string is called a stage. The original input signal
is increased by the gain of the individual stage.

At the end of stage 3,

The output Vo, with respect to the input, V1 can be derived from:
𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 (𝐴 𝑉 ) = 𝐴 𝐴 (𝑉 ) = 𝐴 𝐴 (𝐴 𝑉 ) = (𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 )𝑉 (1.17)

Example 1.6
Find Vo and io in the circuit in Figure 1.24.
12 𝑘Ω 𝑖
15 𝑘Ω
7 𝑘Ω
6 𝑘Ω -
𝑏 𝑉
𝑎
-
+
+

4 mV

Figure 1.24: for Example 1.6

Solution 1.6
The circuit consists of two non-inverting op-amps cascaded.
At the output of the first op-amp: 𝑉 = 1 + × 4 = 14 𝑚𝑉

At the output of the second op-amp: 𝑉 = 1 + × 14 = 38 𝑚𝑉

Example 1.7
For the circuit in figure 1.25, find 𝑉 .
25 𝑘Ω
40 𝑘Ω
100 𝑘Ω
20 𝑘Ω
20 𝑘Ω
- -
+
6𝑉 10 𝑘Ω +

4𝑉
𝑉
2𝑉

Figure 1.25: Circuit for Example 1.7

18
Solution 1.7
Starting with the 4 − 𝑉 input, its output, 𝑉 is given by
𝑉 =− ×4𝑉 =− × 4 = −8 𝑉
This then leads to a 3-input summing amplifier.
Hence the output voltage 𝑉 can be obtained using
𝑉 =− ×6+ × (−8) + ×2
= −[24 − 40 + 20] = −4 𝑉

1.13 Difference Amplifier (Subtractor)

This is a circuit whose output is proportional to the difference of two input signals. In other words,
the difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two inputs but rejects any signals
common to the two inputs. It is also sometimes known as the subtractor.
𝑅

𝑅
-
𝑉
+
𝑉
𝑉

Figure 1.26: Difference amplifier

Considering the op-amp circuit in figure 1.26, inputs are applied to both the inverting and the non-
inverting terminals.
By applying the principle of superposition, the output
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 (1.18)
Where 𝑉 is the output produced by 𝑉 and 𝑉 is the output produced by 𝑉
Thus for the inverting terminal,
𝑉 =− 𝑉

For the non-inverting

𝑉 = 1+ 𝑉

Since 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉
=− 𝑉 + 1+ 𝑉

or 𝑉 = 1+ 𝑉 − 𝑉 (1.19)

19
Now if 𝑅 ≫ 𝑅 , then ≫1

Thus 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉

or 𝑉 = (𝑉 − 𝑉 ) (1.20)

Now, if 𝑅 = 𝑅 (from 1.20)

Then 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉
Thus the difference amplifier becomes a subtractor.

Figure 1.27 is a variation of Figure 1.26 with introduction of additional resistors to the non-
inverting side of the op-amp.
𝑅

𝑅
𝑎
-
𝑏 𝑉
+
𝑉 𝑅 =𝑅
𝑉 𝑅 =𝑅

Figure 1.27: Difference amplifier

Let 𝑉 and V be the voltages at nodes a and b respectively.

Applying KCL to node a,

𝑅2
⟹𝑉 = +1 𝑉 − 𝑉
𝑅1

Applying KCL to node b,

= or 𝑉 = 𝑉

But 𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅2 𝑅4
⟹𝑉 = +1 𝑉 − 𝑉 (1.21)
𝑅1 𝑅3 +𝑅4

Now if 𝑅 = 𝑅 and R = R

Then 𝑉 = (𝑉 − 𝑉 )

And if 𝑅 = 𝑅
Then 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉

20
Example 1.8
If in a difference amplifier circuit, 𝑅 = 10 𝑘Ω; 𝑅 = 20 𝑘Ω; 𝑉 = 5 𝑉 and 𝑉 = 6 𝑉, find the
value of the output voltage.

Solution 1.8

𝑉 = (1 + )𝑉 − 𝑉

= 1+ 6− ×5 = 8𝑉

Example 1.9
The circuit in Figure 1.28 is a difference amplifier. Find 𝑣 given that 𝑣 = 5 𝑉 and 𝑣 = 10 𝑉.
20 𝑘Ω

5 𝑘Ω
-
+
𝑉 10 𝑘Ω
10 𝑘Ω 𝑉
𝑉

Figure 1.28: for Example 1.9

Solution 1.9
For the difference amplifier,
𝑅 𝑅4
𝑉 = 𝑅2 + 1 𝑅3 +𝑅4
𝑉 − 𝑉
1

Where 𝑅 = 5 𝑘Ω; 𝑅 = 20 𝑘Ω; 𝑅 = 10 𝑘Ω; 𝑅 = 10 𝑘Ω; 𝑣 = 5 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 10 𝑉.

20 10
Thus 𝑉 = 5 + 1 10+10
× 10 − ×5
=5𝑉

1.14 Op-Amp Integrator

The op-amp integrator is a circuit whose function is to produce an inverted output (voltage) which
is proportional to the area under the curve of the input function (voltage). This is the integral of
the input voltage.
From Figure 1.29, it could be observed that the integrator is similar to that of the inverting
amplifier except that the feedback component is a capacitor C instead of a resistor 𝑅 . The
capacitor forms an RC circuit with the input resistor.

21
 𝐶
𝐼𝐶
𝑅
-
𝐼𝑅 𝑉
+
𝑉

Figure 1.29: An ideal op-amp integrator

Just like the inverting amplifier, the inverting input is at virtual ground, thus input current through
𝑅 (𝐼 ) is the same as Ic through C.
Now
𝐼 = =

The displacement current relation is used to find Ic

That is
( )
𝐼 =𝐶 =𝐶

( )
𝐼 =𝐶 = −𝐶

But 𝐼 = 𝐼

⟹ = −𝐶 or 𝑑𝑉 = − 𝑉 𝑑𝑡

Thus 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 (1.22)

As could be observed in equation (1.22), the input signal is integrated at the output.

Example 1.10
The integrator in Figure 1.29 has resistance, 𝑅 = 50 𝑘Ω and capacitance, 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹. Determine
the output voltage when a dc voltage of 20 mV is applied at time, 𝑡 = 0.

Solution 1.10
𝑅 = 50 𝑘Ω; 𝐶 = 5 𝜇𝐹; 𝑉 = 20 𝑚𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0
𝑉 =− ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡

= − ∫ 20𝑑𝑡 = −80𝑡 𝑚𝑉
× × ×

Example 1.11
If 𝑉 = 20 cos 4𝑡 𝑚𝑉, 𝑉 = 10 sin 2𝑡 𝑚𝑉 and 𝑉 = 5𝑡 mV, find Vo in the op-amp circuit in
figure 1.30. Assume that the voltage across the capacitor is initially zero

22
 2 𝑀Ω 10 𝜇𝐹

200 𝑘Ω
-
250 𝑘Ω +
𝑉
𝑉

Figure 1.30: for Example 1.11

Solution 1.11
This is a summing integrator and
𝑉 =− ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡

1 1
=− 6 −6 ∫ 20 cos 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − 5 −6 ∫ 10 sin 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 −
2×10 ×10×10 2×10 ×10×10
∫ 5𝑡 𝑑𝑡
× × ×

= − sin 4𝑡 + cos 2𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑚𝑉

1.15 Op-Amp Differentiator

The op-amp differentiator is a circuit that produces an inverted output signal (voltage) which is
proportional to the rate of change of the input signal (voltage).
𝑅
𝐼
𝐼 𝐶
-
𝑉
+
𝑉

Figure 1.30: An ideal op-amp differentiator

The differentiator is an inverse mathematical operation to that of the integrator.
In the circuit, the capacitor and the resistor are interchanged, thus making the capacitor the input
element.

From Figure 1.30,

Because of virtual ground, 𝑉 = 0

23
Also, since the current to the input of the op-amp is zero, then
𝐼 =𝐼
Where Ic = current through capacitor and IR = current through feedback resistor.
But Ic, using the displacement current equation is

𝐼 =𝐶 , where 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉
𝑑
=𝐶 (𝑉 − 0) = 𝐶 𝑉
𝑑𝑡

and 𝐼 = =

Thus =𝐶 𝑉

or 𝑉 = −𝑅𝐶 𝑉 (1.23)

Thus for the differentiator as could be seen from equation (1.23), the input signal is differentiated
at the output.

Example 1.11
Find Vo in Figure 1.31 if Vi is a sinusoidal voltage of peak value 10 mV, and 𝑓 = 500 𝐻𝑧.

100 kΩ

5 𝜇𝐹
-
𝐶 𝑉
+
𝑉

Figure 1.31: for example 1.11

Solution 1.11
𝑉 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡
= 10 sin 2𝜋 × 500 𝑡 = 10 sin 1000𝜋 𝑡
But 𝑉 = −𝑅𝐶 𝑉
= −10 × 5 × 10 (10 sin 1000𝜋𝑡)
𝑉 = −5000𝜋 cos 1000𝜋 𝑡 𝑚𝑉

24
Problems
P.1. Calculate the voltage gain of Figure 1.32 [11]

Figure 1.32: for P. 1

P.2. Calculate the input voltage, V1, if 𝑅 = 100 Ω; 𝑅 = 1 𝑘Ω, and 𝑉 = 550 𝑚𝑉

Figure 1.33 for P2 [50 mV]

P.3 Calculate the output voltage in Figure 1.34, if R1 = R2 = R3 = 100 , Rf = 1 k , and V1 =

V2 = V3 = 50 mV.

Figure 1.34 for P3 [-1.5 V]

P.4 Calculate the output voltage in Figure 1.35 if 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 700 𝑚𝑉.

Figure 1.35 for P4 [0 V]

25
P.5 Calculate the input voltage if the final output, Vo, is 20.40 V.

Figure 1.36 for P5 [0.34 V]

P. 6 For the circuit in Figure 1.37, determine the value of 𝑉 in order to make 𝑉 = −16.5𝑉.

10 𝑘Ω 50 𝑘Ω
2𝑉
20 𝑘Ω
𝑉 -
𝑉
50 𝑘Ω +
−1 𝑉

Figure 1.37 for P6

P. 7 For the circuit in Figure 1.38, determine the output voltage given that 𝑉 = 1 𝑉 and 𝑉 =
1 𝑉.
30 𝑘Ω

2 𝑘Ω
-
𝑉
+
𝑉 2 𝑘Ω
𝑉 20 𝑘Ω

Figure 1.38 for P7

26
 Assignment
Q1. Find 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 in the differential amplifier in Figure A1.
2 𝑘Ω 4 𝑘Ω

- 𝑖
1 𝑘Ω
+
10 𝑉 +
3 𝑘Ω 5 𝑘Ω 𝑉
8𝑉
−

Figure A1 for Q1

Q2.
(i) An op-amp integrator has 𝑅 = 100 𝑘Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 100 𝑛𝐹. If the input voltage is
𝑣 = 20 cos 100𝑡 𝑚𝑉, obtain the output voltage.
(ii) If the positions of R and C are interchanged, determine the output.

Q3.
Determine 𝑉
2.4 𝑘Ω 48 𝑘Ω
45 𝑘Ω

3.5 𝑉 6 𝑘Ω
- 25 𝑘Ω
-
16 𝑘Ω + 𝑉
2.5 𝑉 +
36 𝑘Ω
−1.5 𝑉 24 𝑘Ω

24 𝑘Ω 60 𝑘Ω

−3 𝑉
-
25 𝑘Ω +

4𝑉

Figure A2 for Q3

27