Chapter One

Introduction to Microprocessors

Outline of The Chapter

 Introduction to microprocessors
 General architecture of microcomputer system
 Evolution of Intel microprocessors
 Architectural compatibility
 Hardware and software
 Introduction to microprocessors

 It is a multipurpose, programmable logic device that reads
binary data from storage device (memory),
 accept binary data as input from input devices and
 processes the data according to the instructions and provides
results as an output.
 A typical programmable device comprises of the three
components microprocessor, memory and I/O devices.
 Cont.…
 These three components work together or interact with each
other to perform a given task;
Hardware=the physical components of the system
Program= is the set of instruction written for the microprocessor
to perform a given task, and
Software = is a set of programs.
 Microprocessor is a computer Central Processing Unit (CPU) on
a single chip. contains millions of transistors connected by
wires.
 How does Microprocessor Work
 The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then
Execute. Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a
sequential order.
 The microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory,
then, decodes it and executes those instructions till STOP
instruction is reached.
 Later, it sends the result in binary to the output port.
 Between these processes, the register stores the temporarily data
and ALU performs the computing functions.
 Microprocessor is a digital device on a chip which can fetch
instructions from a memory, decode and execute them i.e. performs
certain arithmetic and logical operations, accept data from input
device, and send results to output devices.
 The Process through which the processor controls the execution of
instructions is referred as the fetch-decode-execute cycle. It
consists of three steps


Microcomputer?

 A microprocessor interfaced with memory and Input/ Output
devices forms a Microcomputer.
 The basic building blocks of microcomputers are:
Microprocessor/CPU
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Control Unit
Register Array
Peripheral Unit
Input
Output
Memory Unit
RAM
ROM


General architecture of microcomputer system

When we raise about the architecture of microcomputer system f irst we
must identify the components of the system
Input Unit
-Through this unit data and instructions are fed to the memory of the
computer.
-The basic purpose of this unit is to read the data into the machine.
-The program from the memory is read into the machine along with the input
data which are required to solve or compute the problem by the machine.
Memory Unit
-The memory unit of a digital computer consists of devices which are
capable of storing information.
-The memory of a computer is used for storing two distinct type of
information such as data to be processed by the computer and program
through which the result of the desired problem is obtained.
-Computer program and data are stored in the Memory Unit.
 Cont.…
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
-This unit is used for performing arithmetic operations such as Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplications, division and other logical operations on the
data.
-The control unit guides ALU which of the operations are to be performed.
The sequence of the instructions is controlled by the control unit.
Control Unit
-It controls all other units and also controls the f low of data from one unit
to another for performing computations.
-It also sequences the operations.
-It instructs all the units to perform the task in a particular sequence with
the help of clock pulses.
-Keeps all other parts of the systems (registers, ALU, Memory and I/O)
working together in right time sequence.
-It provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the operations.
 Cont.…
Registers
Used to hold/store the intermediate results/data when certain
operations/computations are ongoing. Suppose there are 10
instructions written in the program and there after the execution of
four instructions some data has been produced or some output
has been produced which has to be used in the remained program.
So that intermediate result is going to be temporarily stored in
some storing components i.e., Register Array.
Output Unit
After processing of the data in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit, the
results are displayed to the output world through this unit. In a
computer system Registers Arrays, ALU and Control Unit are
combined in one unit called Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Cont.…
Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller



Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

 In 1978, intel corporation introduced a 16-bit microprocessor called
the 8086.
 This processor was improvement over the previous generation
8080/8085 series intel microprocessors in several ways.
 First the 8086’s capacity of 1MB of memory exceeded the
8080/8085’s capacity of handling maximum of 64KB of memory.
 Second, the 8080/8085 was an 8-bit system, meaning that the
microprocessor could work on only 8-bits of data at a time.
 The data which is larger than 8-bit is broken into 8-bits pieces to be
processed by the processor when we compare with 8086 is a 16-bit
microprocessor.
 Third, the 8086 was a pipelined processor, but 8080/8085 is not
support pipelined.
 Although pipelining was a common feature of minicomputer and
mainframe computers, intel was a pioneer in putting pipeline in a
single-chip microprocessor.
 Classification of Microprocessors:
Based on their specif ic ation, application and architecture
microprocessors are classified.
Based on size of data bus:
 4-bit microprocessor = 4004.
 8-bit microprocessor = 8008, 8080, 8085 (but, there d/t in the
Clock speed (Hz)).
 16-bit microprocessor = 8086, 8088, 80186, 80286 (but, there
d/t in the Clock speed (Hz)).
 32-bit microprocessor = 80386, 80486, Pentium I, Pentium III,
Pentium IV, Dual core (but, there d/t in the Clock speed (Hz)).
 64-bit microprocessor = Core 2 Duo, i3, i5 and i7 (but, there d/t
in the Clock speed (Hz)).
 Cont.…
Based on application:
 General-purpose microprocessor- used in general computer system
and can be used by programmer for any application. Examples, 8085
to Intel Pentium.
 Microcontroller- microprocessor with built-in memory and ports and
can be programmed for any generic control application. Example,
8051.
 Special-purpose processors- designed to handle special functions
required for an application. Examples, digital signal processors and
application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chips
Based on architecture:
 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) processors
 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) processors


Hardware and software

 A computer system is divided into two categories: Hardware and Software.
 Hardware refers to the physical and visible components of the system
such as a monitor, central processing unit (CPU), random access memory
(RAM), mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, graphics card, sound
card, speakers, motherboard, and keyboard
 Software, on the other hand, refers to a set of instructions which enable
the hardware to perform a specific set of tasks.
 The software must be installed in the hardware to function properly and
similarly, the hardware must be present for the tasks to be performed.
 Both are interdependent, yet they are also different from each other.
 An essential tool for programming a microprocessor is an Integrated
Development Environment (IDE).
 This is software that is developed by the creators of the microprocessors
which will compile the code into a language the machine can understand.
 Once you have an IDE setup, you can begin writing your code.
 Differences between Hardware and Software

Hardware Software
Hardware is further divided into four main categories: Software is further divided into two main categories:
Input Devices, Output Devices, Secondary Storage Application Software and System Software
Devices, and Internal Components
D eveloped using instructions using a progra mming
Developed using electronic and other
language
materials
Hardware is physical in nature and hence one can touch and The software cannot be physically touched but still can be
see hardware used and seen

When damaged, it can be replaced with a new component When damaged it can be installed once more using a
backup copy

Hardware cannot be infected by Viruses The software can be infected by Viruses