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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: MATH 4-1S-2022-2023

College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang

Bachelor of Science in
DEGREE PROGRAM COURSE NO. MATH 4
Electrical Engineering
SPECIALIZATION Electrical COURSE TITLE Differential Equations
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME FRAME 9 hrs. WK NO. 1-3 IM NO.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Definition and Classification of Differential Equations

II. LESSON TITLE

I. Definitions and Classifications of Differential Equations
II. Order and Degree of Differential Equations
III. Elimination of Arbitrary Constant
IV. Family of Curves

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This lesson provides the students an understanding on the different characteristics of Differential
Equations.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. distinguish a differential equation from other forms of mathematics equations;
2. give the definitions of the different kind of differential equations;
3. identity differential equations as to different classifications;
4. identity and solve the arbitrary constants appearing in the equation;
5. explain the meaning of the families of curves with their graphs;
6. trace the curves given the mathematical sentence;
7. write the general equation of the family of curves given; and
8. determine the differential equations of the families of curves applying the concepts of the past lesson.

V. COURSE CONTENT

1 Definition and Classification of Differential Equations

INTRODUCTION
Equations that contain derivatives or differentials of one or more functions are called differential
equations. The study of differential equations originated in the investigation of laws that govern the
physical world and were first solved by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who referred to them as fluxional
equations. The term differential equation was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) who, along
with Newton, is credited with inventing the calculus. Many of the techniques for solving differential
equations were known to mathematicians of the seventeenth century, but it was not until the nineteenth
century that Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) a general theory for differential equations that was
independent of physical phenomena.

To build mathematical models is necessary to represent problems in physics, chemistry, biology,

physiology, economics and engineering to look for an unknown quantity that satisfies an equation. These
models often use differentiation as a procedure to search for the unknown value.

Our aim is to find methods for solving differential equations.

As indicated above. A differential equation is an equation that contains a derivative or a differential of one
or more functions. The following are some examples of differential equations:

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𝑑𝑦
1. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑 𝑦
2. = 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑏
𝑑2𝑥
3. 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0
4. 𝑦𝑑𝑥 – 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
5. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 – 4𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑2𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1
6. 𝐿 2 + 𝑅 + 𝑖 = 𝐸𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑 𝑑 𝑐
𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
7. + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
5
𝑑2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
8. [ 2] – 𝑣 + 𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
9. 3 + 𝑥 – 5𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Hence, a differential equation, based on the above examples, involves derivatives of the unknown
function.

An equation which involves one or more derivatives with respect to a particular variable, that variable is
called an independent variable if the derivatives of that variable occur, it is called dependent variable.
The equation,
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable.

As a technique of memorizing, the independent variable is the denominator and the dependent variable
is the numerator. Hence, in the above example, the independent is x and the dependent variable is y.

In the equation,
𝑑2𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1
𝐿 2
+ 𝑅 + 𝑖 = 𝐸𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑐

the dependent variable (DV) is i; the independent variable (IV) is t; and L, R, C, E and ω are called the
parameters.

𝜕𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
The equation, + = 0 has one DV and two IVs.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦
The equation (𝑥 2
+𝑦 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0 can be rewritten as 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 ( ) = 0. Here, y is a DV in
2 )𝑑𝑥–
𝑑𝑥
the first form and became IV in the second form.

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1.1.1 ORDER
Order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative appearing in the equation. In the
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
equation 𝑥 + 3𝑦 [ ] + 𝑦 = 0 is an equation of order 2. It is also an equation of a “second order”.
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
Generally, the equation 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦’, … , 𝑦 𝑛 ) = 0 is called an nth–order ordinary differential equation.

1.1.2 DEGREE
Degree of the differential equation is the exponent of the highest ordered derivative appearing in the
equation.

EXAMPLE
𝑑𝑦
1. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 degree one
𝑑𝑥
3
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
2. ( 2 ) + 2𝑏 ( ) +𝑦 =0 degree three
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
3. 𝑦" + (2𝑦′)2 − 𝑦 = 4𝑥 degree one
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: MATH 4-1S-2022-2023
4. 𝑦𝑦" + 2𝑥 3 = 0 degree one
5. 𝑦 ′ + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 2 = 𝑄(𝑥) degree one

1.1.3 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Ordinary Differential Equation is an equation where there is only one independent variable, i.e.,
only one kind of denominator.

EXAMPLE
𝑑2𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1
1. 𝐿 + 𝑅 + 𝑖 = 𝐸𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑2 𝑑 𝑐
2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2. 𝐿 2 + 2𝑦 =2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
3. + 7 [ ] − 8𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
4. 2𝑦" + 3𝑦′ = 2𝑥
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5. 2 +3 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1.1.4 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Partial Differential Equation is an equation where two or more independent variables, i.e., two or
more kind of denominator.

EXAMPLE
𝑑2v 𝑑2v
1. + = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
2. 𝑥 +𝑦 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑2𝑢 𝑑2𝑢 𝑑2𝑢
3. = ℎ( 2 + 2 )
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 2
𝑑 𝑢
4. = ℎ2 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔
5. 𝑥 =𝜔+𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
6. = 16 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡

1.1.5 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Linear Differential Equation is an equation in which all derivatives that appear in the equation
have either ascending or descending order. The definition implies that an ordinary differential
equation is linear if the following conditions are meet:
• The unknown functions and its derivatives algebraically occur to the first degree only.
• There are no products involving either the unknown function and its derivatives or two or
more derivatives.
• There are no transcendental functions of y, y’. y’’, and so on.

EXAMPLE
1. 𝑥 2 𝑦" + 𝑥𝑦′ + (𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 )𝑦 = 4𝑥 3
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
2. 2𝑥 ( 2 ) + 2𝑦 ( ) = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑤 𝑑𝑤
3. ( 2 ) − 𝑥 +𝑤 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑠 𝑑𝑠
4. 4 2 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑥
5. 𝑦 + 𝑥 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: MATH 4-1S-2022-2023
1.1.6 NON-LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Non-linear differential equation has distorted order by way of intervening order.

EXAMPLE
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
1. + 3𝑎 ( ) −𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2. 4𝑥 + (𝑦′)2 + 2(𝑦")2 = 0
3. 𝑦𝑦 ′ + 3𝑥 = 0
4. 𝑦" + 5𝑦 = cos 𝑦
5. 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

State whether the equation is ordinary or partial, linear or non-linear, and give its order and
degree.
Ordinary/ Linear/
Differential Equations DV IV Order Degree
Partial non-linear
𝑑𝑦
1. + 𝑘 2𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
2. 𝑦’ + 𝑃(𝑦) = 𝑄(𝑥)
3. 𝑦’” – 3𝑦’ + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑖
4. 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐸
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 3
5. + 2𝑥 ( ) =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑣 𝑑2𝑣
6. + =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
2 2
𝑑 𝑤 𝑑 𝑤
7.
2 + 𝑎2 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑣 3
8. + 2𝑏 ( ) +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
9. 2y” + 4y’ − 2y = 2x 2 + 3 cos 𝑥
10. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
11. (1 − 𝑥)𝑦’ = 𝑦 3
12. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
13. 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑦
14. 𝑦 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
15. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 – 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑4𝑦
16. = −𝑤𝑥
𝑑𝑥 4
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑥
17. 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
3 4
18. 𝑥(𝑦”) + (𝑦′) – 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑣
19. 𝑣𝑃 =
𝑑𝑥
20. 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

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1.2 ELIMINATIONS OF ARBITRARY CONSTANT
Eliminating arbitrary constants in an equation entails different methods. This depends on the way in which
the constants enter the relation. A method that is application for one problem may be poor for another.
The key here is the familiarization of the different formulas of existing derivatives. Hence, we recall here
that:
𝑑𝑥(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢;
𝑑𝑥(𝑢/𝑣) = (𝑣𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢𝑑𝑣)/𝑣 2;
𝑑𝑥(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢;
𝑑𝑥(𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥(𝑒 𝑢 ) = 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠

Generally, the following are rules to follow:

1. The number of arbitrary constants guides the number of derivatives to be done, unless otherwise
the arbitrary constant is fixed.
2. Eliminate the arbitrary constant/s by addition, subtraction, division, substitution, and etc.

Let us use the above rules and formulas in the following examples:

EXAMPLE
𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑐
Solution:
here both the first and the second terms are products. Recall that
𝑑𝑥(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
then
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 0
from here, combine similar terms:
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
then factor out dx and dy, we have.
(𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚)𝒅𝒙 + (𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎

EXAMPLE
𝑥𝑦 2 − 1 = 𝑐𝑦

Solution:
The arbitrary constant c is a coefficient of y. The c can be eliminated in two ways. First, take the
derivative outright then solve for c. Substitute the value of c in the original equation and simplify.
Thus,
𝑥𝑦 2 − 1 = 𝑐𝑦
𝑥(2𝑦 𝑑𝑦) + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 0 = 𝑐𝑑𝑦
2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 =
𝑑𝑦
Substitute in the original equation
2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑦 2 − 1 = [ ]𝑦
𝑑𝑦
0 = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥
𝟎 = (𝒙𝒚𝟐 − 𝟏)𝒅𝒚 + 𝒚𝟑 𝒅𝒙
Alternative Solution
Solve for c outright.
𝑦 2 − 1 = 𝑐𝑦
𝑥𝑦 2 − 1
𝑐=
𝑦
take, the derivative,
𝑦[2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥] − [𝑥𝑦 2 − 1]𝑑𝑦
0=
𝑦2
0 = 2 xy dy + y dx − xy 2 dx − xy 2 dx + dy
2 3

0 = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑥
𝟎 = (𝒙𝒚𝟐 − 𝟏)𝒅𝒚 + 𝒚𝟑 𝒅𝒙
Notice that whichever method is need, the answer is the same.
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EXAMPLE
𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡; 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Solution:
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐1 (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡) 𝑤𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡) 𝑤𝑑𝑡
divide both sides by dt, we have
𝑑𝑥
= −𝑐1 𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡
take the second derivative because there are 2 arbitrary constants. We have
𝑑2𝑥
= −𝑐1 𝑤 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 − 𝑐2 𝑤 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥
= −𝑤 2 (𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
in which the quantity inside the parenthesis is actually x. Thus,
𝑑2𝑥
= −𝑤 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
+ 𝒘𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐

EXAMPLE
y = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥

Solution:
y = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥 (1)
This is an equation with two arbitrary constants.
y’ = 0 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥 . 3
y’ = 3𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥 (2)
take the second derivative.
y” = 3𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥 . 3
y” = 9𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥 (3)
From (3), solve for 𝑐2 and substitute results in (2)
y”
𝑐2 = 3𝑥
9𝑒
Thus,
y”
y’ = 3 [ ] 𝑒 3𝑥
9𝑒 3𝑥
y”
y’ =
3
3y’ – y” = 0
𝐲” – 𝟑𝐲’ = 𝟎

EXAMPLE
y = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 .

Solution:
This is an equation with two arbitrary constants.
y = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (1)
y’ = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (2)
y” = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (3)
From (1) and (2), eliminate c1.
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦’ = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (4)
Also, eliminate 𝑐1 in (2) and (3) multiply by -1
𝑦’ = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦” = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 ′ − 𝑦" = −2𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (5)
equate 4 and 5
𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = −(𝑦 ′ − 𝑦")
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𝑦 – 𝑦’ + 𝑦’ – 𝑦” = 0
𝒚 − 𝒚" = 𝟎

EXAMPLE
y = A 𝑒 2𝑥 + Bx 𝑒 2𝑥

Solution:
This is an equation with two arbitrary constants but with a product term.
y = A 𝑒 2𝑥 + Bx 𝑒 2𝑥 (1)
y’ = 2A 𝑒 2𝑥 + B(2x𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑥 )
y’ = 2A 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 Bx 𝑒 2𝑥 + B𝑒 2𝑥
y’ = 2y + B𝑒 2𝑥 (2)
y” = 2y’ + 2 B𝑒 2𝑥 (3)
Multiply (2) by 2 and subtract (3) from the result.
2y’ = 4y + 2B𝑒 2𝑥
y” = 2y’ + 2 B𝑒 2𝑥
2y’ – y “ = 4y – 2y’
𝟎 = 𝐲” – 𝟒𝐲’ + 𝟒𝐲

EXAMPLE
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥

Solution:
This is an equation with to arbitrary constants with two product terms.
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 (1)
2𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝑐1 [𝑒 (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥)3 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 ∙ 2 ] + 𝑐2 [𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 ∙ 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 ∙ 2𝑒 2𝑥 ]
2𝑥 2𝑥

𝑦′ = − 3𝑐1 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 + 3𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥

2𝑥

𝑦′ = 2𝑦 − 3𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 3𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 (2)

𝑦" = 2𝑦’ − 3𝑐1 [𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥)3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 ∙ 2𝑒 2𝑥 ] + 3𝑐2 [𝑒 2𝑥 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥) 3 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
∙ 2𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦" = 2𝑦’ – 9𝑦 – 6𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 6𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 (3)

Considering (2) and (3) multiply (2) by 2

2𝑦′ = −4𝑦 − 6𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 6𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
𝑦" = 2𝑦’ – 9𝑦 – 6𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 6𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
2𝑦’ − 𝑦" = 4𝑦 – 2𝑦’ + 9𝑦
𝟎 = 𝒚” – 𝟒𝒚’ + 𝟏𝟑𝒚

EXAMPLE
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥

Solution:

This is an equation with two arbitrary constants.

y = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 (1)
y’ = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 (2)
y” = 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 (3)

solve for c1 in (2) and c2 in (3) and substitute them in (1)

𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 = y”
𝑐1 = 𝑦 ′ − 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑐1 = 𝑦 ′ − y"
from 1
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 = (𝑦’ – 𝑦”)𝑥 + 𝑦”
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦’ – 𝑥𝑦” + 𝑦”
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦’ + 𝑦”(1 − 𝑥)
𝑦 – 𝑥𝑦’ – 𝑦” (1 − 𝑥) = 0
𝒚 – 𝒙𝒚’ + 𝒚”(𝒙 − 𝟏) = 𝟎

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EXAMPLE
y = 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 .

Solution:
This is an equation with two arbitrary constants.
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (1)
𝑦’ = 2𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (2)
𝑦” = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (3)
add (1) and (2) to eliminate c2
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦’ = 2𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑐1 𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝑐1 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) (4)
Also, add (2) and (3) to eliminate c2
𝑦’ = 2𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦” = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 " = 2𝑐1 𝑥 + 2𝑐1
𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 " = 2𝑐1 (𝑥 + 1) (5)
solve for c1 in both (4) and (5)
𝑦 + 𝑦’
𝑐1 = 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥
𝑦′ + 𝑦”
𝑐1 =
2𝑥 + 2

Equate c1 and c1
𝑦 + 𝑦’ 𝑦′ + 𝑦”
2 =
𝑥 + 2𝑥 2𝑥 + 2
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)( 𝑦’ + 𝑦”) = (𝑦 + 𝑦’)( 2𝑥 + 2)
𝑥 2 𝑦’ + 𝑥 2 𝑦" + 2𝑥 𝑦’ + 2𝑥𝑦” = 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦’ + 2𝑦’
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)𝑦” + 𝑥 2 𝑦’ − 2𝑦’ = 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦
𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝒚” + (𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐)𝒚’ – 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝒚 = 𝟎

EXAMPLE
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 .

Solution:
This is an equation with two arbitrary constants.
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (1)
𝑦’ = 2𝑥 + 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (2)
y “ = 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 (3)
add (1) and (2)
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦’ = 2𝑥 + 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦’ = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑐1 (𝑥 + 1) (4)
add (2) and (3)
𝑦’ = 2𝑥 + 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 “ = 2 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 “ = 2(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐1 (5)
solve for c1 in both (4) and (5)
𝑦 + 𝑦’ − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑐1 =
𝑥 + 1
𝑐1 = 𝑦’ + 𝑦" − 2(𝑥 + 1)
Equate c1 and c1
𝑦 + 𝑦’ − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
= 𝑦′ + 𝑦” − 2(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥+1
𝑦 + 𝑦’ − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦’ + 𝑥𝑦” − 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦’ + 𝑦" − 2𝑥 − 2
2

−𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 – (𝑥 + 1)𝑦” – 𝑥𝑦’ + 𝑦 = 0
−𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 = (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝒚” + 𝒙𝒚’ – 𝒚
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In each of the following. Eliminate the arbitrary constants.

1. 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑐
2. 𝑐𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 0
3. 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽) ; ; 𝜔 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
4. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 2
5. ℎ
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 + ; ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑏 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑏
6. 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 2
7. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
8. 𝑦 = 𝑐1+ 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥
9. 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑐1𝑒 3𝑥
10. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
11. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥
12. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
13. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑥 ; 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
14. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 3 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥
15. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑧
16. 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 0
17. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 3 + 𝑐2 𝑒 3𝑥
18. 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑐
19. 𝑦 = 5 − 𝑐1 𝑒 −3𝑥
20. 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

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1.3 FAMILIIES OF CURVE
The general equation of a circle (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2, represents circles with coordinates at the center as h
and k and with radius r. if the constants h, k, and r are treated as arbitrary constants, and eliminated as
in the preceding lesson, the results is called the differential equation of the family of circles represented
by the general equation. Of course, this depends on the location of its center whether it is at the first
quadrant, it is lying along the x-axes or y-axes of lying along the line y = mx and other locations.

Hence, an equation involving a parameter, as well as one or both of the ordinates of a point in a plane
may represent a family of curves, one curve corresponding to each value of the parameter. For instance,
the equation y = mx may be interpreted as an equation of a family of straight lines passing through the
origin. Figure 1 shows several members of this family.

𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑚3 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑚4 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑚5 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑚6 𝑥
F
i
In this example, the elimination of m is easily performed. Differentiating the equation with respect to x,
we have
𝑦’ = 𝑚
substituting m = y’ in the original equation, we have
𝑦 = 𝑦’𝑥
recall that
𝑑𝑦
𝑦’ =
𝑑𝑥
then the equation becomes
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0
the resulting differential equation represents a family of straight lines passing through the origin.
The equation
(𝑥 – ℎ) 2 + (𝑦 – 𝑘) 2 = 𝑟 2
represents a family of circles. However, if its center is specified to be at the origin, the values of h and k
are zero. Hence, the equation can be reduced to
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟 2.
This is in an equation with one arbitrary constant (r), hence the curves can be shown as
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑦
is in equation with one arbitrary constant. Differentiating it with respect to x, we have 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥
is the differential equation of the family of circles with center at the origin. The family has the following
equations:

𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 12
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 22
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 32
and so on.

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F
i
The curves below are parabolas represented by the equation
(𝑥 – ℎ)2 = 4𝑎 (𝑦 – 𝑘).
However, h and k are zero because the vertex is exactly located at the origin. The equation then becomes
𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦
Differentiating it with respect to x, we have
2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑎 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 = 4𝑎
𝑑𝑦
substituting 4a in the original equation, we have
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎
is the differential equation of a family of parabola with vertex at the origin and is open upward

F
i
A parabola with vertex at C(h, k) at the first quadrant and whose axis is parallel to the x-axis can be
represented by the graph on Figure 4. The equation of the family is
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎 (𝑥 – ℎ)

It is an equation with three arbitrary constants. As rule, we take up to the third derivative to eliminate the
three arbitrary constants.
2(𝑦 – 𝑘)𝑦’ = 4𝑎
(𝑦 – 𝑘)𝑦’ = 2𝑎
Taking the second derivative, we have
𝑦𝑦” + 𝑦’𝑦’ – 𝑘𝑦’ = 0
the third derivative of the same equation is:
𝑦𝑦” + 𝑦”𝑦’ + 𝑦’𝑦” – 𝑘𝑦’” = 0
solving in the original equation, we have
yy” + 3y’y”
yy” + (y ′ )2 − y” = 0
y’”
yy”y’” + (y ′ )2 y’” – yy”y’” – 3y’(y” )2 = 0
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(y” )2 y’” – 3y’(y” )2 = 0
y’y’” − 3(y” )2 = 0
is the differential equation of the family of parabolas with center with on h and k with axis parallel to the
x-axis.

𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘)

F
i

In each exercise, obtain the differential equation of the family of plane curves described and
sketch several representative members of the family.
1. Straight lines through the fixed point(h, k); h and k not to be eliminated.
2. Straight lines with slope and y-intercept equal.
3. Straight lines with slope and y-intercept not equal.
4. Straight lines with slope and x-intercept equal.
5. Straight lines with slope and x-intercept not equal.
6. Straight lines at a fixed distance p from the origin.
7. Straight lines at a distance p from the origin.
8. Circles with center at (3,5)
9. Circles with center on the x-axis
10. Circles with radius r and tangent to the x-axis
11. Circles tangent to the y-axis
12. Circles with radius unity. Use the fact that the radius of curvature is one.
13. All circles
14. Parabolas with vertex on the x-axis, with axis parallel to the y-axis, and with distance from
focus to vertex fixed as a.
15. Parabola with vertex and focus on the x-axis
16. Parabola with vertex and focus on the y-axis
17. Parabola with axis parallel to the x-axis
18. Parabola with axis parallel to the y-axis
𝑥2 𝑦2
19. The confocal central conics + = 1 with a and b held fixed
𝑎2 +⋋ 𝑏2 +⋋
20. The Cubic’s c𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (x – a) with a held fixed
21. The Cubic’s c𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (x – a) with c held fixed
22. The Cubic’s c𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 (x – a)
23. The quadratics 𝑐 2 𝑦 2 = x(x – a) with a held fixed
24. The quadratics 𝑐 2 𝑦 2 = x(x – a) with c held fixed
25. The quadratics 𝑐 2 𝑦 2 = x(x – a)
𝑥 2 (x – a)
26. The strophoids 𝑦 2 =
x−a
𝑥3
27. The scissoids 𝑦 2 =
𝑎−𝑥
28. The scissoids r = a sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃
29. The stropoids r = a(sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃)
30. The trisectrices of Maclaurin r = a (4 cos 𝜃 − sec 𝜃 )

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References

A) Book/Printed Resources

Arthur David Snider, Edward B. Saff, R. Kent Nagle. (2017). Fundamentals of Differential Equations,
8th Edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Incorporated, Rights andContractsDepartment, 501
Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116.

Bird, J. (2020). Higher Engineering Mathematics, 6th Edition. Oxford, UK: Elsevier's Science and
Technology Rights Department.

Earl D. Rainville, Phillip E. Bedient. (1989). Elementary Differential Equations. Quezon City: EDCA
Publishing and Distributing Corporation, 388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City.

Zill, D. G. (2012). A first Course in Differential Equations with Applications, 9th Edition. California, USA:
Cengage Learning.

B) e-Resources

http://www.soton.ac.uk/~cjg/eng1/modules/modules.html

http://www.mit.opencourseware.com

http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/advance-engineering-mathematics/advance-engineering-
mathematics

http://ecereviewcourse.blogspot.com/p/math.html

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