Module 1

Unit II. Soil-Plant Relationships

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 1

Learning Objectives The Essential Elements

 Identify the essential
elements for plant
Introduction
growth
 Describe the profile A plant needs essential nutrient elements to complete
distribution of elements its life cycle. Inadequate amount of these elements will
 Discuss the roles of limit plant growth and will ultimately affect its yield.
essential elements in
Excessive amount will also be toxic and is a detriment
plant nutrition
to plant growth and development. This lesson
 Discuss the Biochemical
classification of nutrient explores the essential elements, their profile
elements. distribution, role and its biochemical classification.

Section12.1
Activity
Activity The Essential Elements

The importance and role of nutrient elements can be better understood by identifying them first.
In this activity you will be able to identify the essential elements needed for plant growth. There
are 17 essential elements needed by plants to complete its life cycle. Identify the elements in the
following categories:

1. Macronutrient elements
2. Micronutrient elements

Analysis
1. Describe the forms of these elements absorbed by plants?
2. Describe the functions of each nutrient elements in plants.
 The Essential Elements
____________________________________________________________________________________
Essential Elements Required for Plant Growth
There are currently 17 elements considered essential for plant growth. They include:
• Essential Elements Derived from Air: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
• Essential Elements Derived from Soil:
o Macronutrients: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Calcium,
Magnesium
o Micronutrients: Boron, Chlorine, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum,
Nickel, Zinc

17 Essential Elements, form absorbed by plants and their function(s)

Element Form absorbed by plants
Carbon (C) CO2
Hydrogen (H) H2O
Oxygen (O) O2, H2O
Nitrogen (N) Ammonium (NH4+), Nitrate (NO3-)
Phosphorus (P) Orthophosphate ions (HPO42), (H2PO4-)
Potassium (K) Potassium ion (K+)
Calcium (Ca) Calcium ion (Ca2+)
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium ion (Mg2+)
Sulfur (S) Hydrogen Sulfate (HSO4-), Sulfate (SO42-)
Iron (Fe) Ferrous iron (Fe2+), Fe(OH)2+, Ferric iron (Fe3+)
Zinc (Zn) Zinc ion (Zn2+)
Manganese (Mn) Manganese ion (Mn2+)
Copper (Cu) Copper (cupric) ion (Cu2+), Copper hydroxide ion (Cu(OH)+
Nickel (Ni) Nickel ion (Ni2+)
Boron (B) H3BO3 (boric acid), H2BO3-, HBO3-2, BO3-2, BO3-3, B4O7-2
Chlorine (Cl) Chloride ion (Cl-)
Molybdenum (Mo) MoO42-, HMoO4-

When does an element become essential, toxic?

 A chemical element is essential for plant growth when the plant is unable to complete its
life cycle without it, when no other element can take its place, and when the element is
directly involved in the plant's nutrition
 Iodine and selenium are essential for animals but not for plants. Plants, however, take
up these elements so they are in animal feeds and forages (in some unusual cases, in
toxic amounts for grazing animals).
Roles of essential elements in plant nutrition
Elements Roles/functions

Carbon major component of organic compounds; presence defines “organic

Hydrogen major component of organic compounds
Oxygen major component of organic compounds

Group 1 Nutrients that are part of carbon compounds

Nitrogen Constituents of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids and coenzymes,

hexosamines, etc

Sulfur Component of cysteine, methionine, and thus proteins; constituents of lipoic

acid, coenzyme A, thiamine pyrophosphate, glutathione, biotin, adenosine-5-
phosphosulfate, and 3-phosphoadenosine

Group 2 Nutrients that are important in energy storage or structural

Integrity

Phosphorus Component of sugar phosphates, nucleic acids, nucleotides, coenzymes,

phospholipids, phytic acids, etc. Has a key role in reactions in which ATP is
involved

Boron Indirect evidence of carbohydrate transport; involved in nucleic acid synthesis

essential to cell division in apical meristems

Group 3 Nutrients that remain in ionic form

Potassium Required as a cofactor for 40 or more enzymes; Has a role in stomatal

movements; maintains electroneutrally and a major contributor to osmotic
potential in plant cells

Calcium Constituent of the middle lamella or cell walls and a binder of phospholipids in
membranes; acts as a “second messenger” in metabolic regulation via Ca-
calmodulin complex

Magnesium Required nonspecifically by a large number of enzymes involved in phosphate

transfer; a constituent of the chlorophyll molecule

Manganese Required for activity of some dehydrogenase, decarboxylases, and required

nonspecifically by other cation-activated enzymes; required for photosynthetic
evolution of oxygen

Chlorine Required for the photosynthetic reactions involved in O2 evolution

Group 4 Nutrients that are involved in redox reactions

Iron Constituent of cytochrome and nonheme iron proteins involved in

photosynthesis, nitrogen fixatioin, respiration and chlorophyll synthesis

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 3
 Copper An essential component of ascorbic acid oxidase, trosine, cytochrome oxidase
and plastocyanin

Zinc Essential constituent of alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenae,

carbonic anhydrase, and other enzymes

Molybdenum A constituent of nitrate reductase; plays a role in breakdown of purines; form

essential part of an oxidase to form abscisic acid

Biochemical classification of nutrients

Classification of plant nutrients according to biochemical function (Mengel and Kirby, 1979)

Nutrient elements Biochemical function

C,H,O,N,S • Major constituent of all organic
materials, e.g. carbohydrates, amino
acids, chlorophyll assimilated by
carboxylation and oxidation-
reduction processes
P,B,Si • Involved in energy transfer reactions,
e.g. (sugar phosphates)
• esterification with alcohol groups in
plants
K, Na, Mg, Ca, Mn, Cl • nonspecific functions establishing
osmotic potentials, e.g. K+ in
stomatal movement;
• special contributions to structure and
function of enzyme protein, e.g. Mg
as a co-factor
Fe, Cu, Zn, Mo • Present predominantly in prosthetic
groups of enzymes, e.g. nitrate,
reductase, nitrogenase

Section 2.2 Test Your Knowledge

Application

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 Module 1

Unit II. Soil-Plant Relationships

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 2

Learning Objectives Nutrient Availability and Mechanism of

Nutrient Uptake
 Discuss the factors
affecting nutrient
availability Introduction
 Discuss the mechanism of
nutrient uptake A fertile soil contains all the major nutrients for basic
plant nutrition such as the micronutrients and
micronutrients. Fertile soil is not the ultimate basis for
productivity. Productivity is dependent on soil fertility
and adaptation of plant to the environment. This
lesson introduces the basic concepts in plant nutrition.
The topics includes the relationship of soil fertility to
plant type, soil nutrients versus plant needs, soil
solution and plant needs and the nutrient supplying
power of soil.

Section 2.3
Activity 1 Symbiosis with plants and soil microorganisms
Application

Some soil microorganisms aid plants in their uptake of nutrients from the soil. Soil
microorganisms such rhizobia and mycorrhiza are some of soil organisms that have
symbiotic relationship with the plant roots. This activity will enable you to be
familiarized with the soil organism with symbiotic please watch this video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v88gbtKBTv4 and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-x12sUNVYg

Analysis
1. Compare the differences between mycorrhiza and rhizobia.
2. How does these microorganisms aid plants in their uptake of nutrients?

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 5
Availability of nutrients
Availability is a term which describes in a general way the relative ease in which a nutrient
element is supplied by the soil to the plant. Nutrient availability to plants is determined both by
factors which affect the ability of the soil to supply the nutrients.
The availability of nutrients is dependent on the following factors:

• Intensity factor. The concentration of the nutrient in the soil solution.

• Capacity factor. The ability of the soil to replenish the ions in the soil solution as they
are absorbed by the root.
• Rate factor. The rate of replenishment of the nutrients in the soil solution as they are
absorbed by plant roots.

Mechanisms by which nutrients are made available to plant roots

The principal mechanism by which the nutrient ions reach the root-soil interface are:

• Mass flow. When the nutrients

dissolved in soil water is
transported to the root
surface
• Diffusion. Movement of
nutrients from higher to lower
concentration; it is the
movement of nutrient ions
through the soil water and from
exchange site to exchange sites
along the surface of soil
particles.
o As plant roots absorb
nutrients from the surrounding soil solution, a diffusion gradient is set up.
o A high plant requirement or a high root “absorbing power” results in a strong
sink or a high diffusion gradient favouring ion transport.
o Mainly 3 soil factors which influence the movement of nutrient ions into the root
through diffusion namely:
▪ diffusion coefficient;
▪ concentration of the nutrient in the soil solution; and
▪ buffering capacity of the solid phase of the soil for the nutrient in the soil
solution phase.
• Contact exchange. A process wherein there is an intimate contact with soil surfaces so
that ions are exchange directly between the soil particles and the root surface
• Root interception. The nutrients are absorbed by the roots as they ramify through the
soil

Conditions Affecting Level and Availability of Plant Nutrients

• Soil texture
• Soil structure
 • Organic matter content
• Soil water
• Soil pH

Nutrient Mobility in Soils

• Nutrient mobility in the soil affects the ease of its uptake by plants, and the
likelihood of its leaching through the soil.
Mobility of nutrients within the soil is influenced by:
1. soil physical properties - soil texture and structure,
2. soil chemical properties such as CEC and AEC and pH
3. soil conditions such as moisture

Nutrient Mobility Within the Plant

• Mobile Nutrients - have the ability to move from older leaves to younger leaves
where they are needed for growth.
o Ex: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and molybdenum.
• Immobile nutrients - do not have the ability to move from old to new growth
o Ex: calcium, sulfur, boron, copper, iron, manganese, and zinc.

❖ If the deficiency symptoms show up on the younger, new growth, we know that
the deficient nutrient is immobile.
❖ if deficiency symptoms appear in older mature leaves, we know that the deficient
nutrient is mobile.

Mobility of nutrients in soil and within the plant

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 7
 Section 2.4 Test Your Knowledge
Application

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 Module 1

Unit II. Soil-Plant Relationships

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 3

Learning Objectives Relationship between soil nutrient supply

and plant growth
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to:
Introduction
 Discuss the
relationship of soil The extent to which plant growth processes are
nutrient supply to dependent upon the current uptake of available
plant growth using nutrients will depend upon the amounts and
models and equations availability of soil nutrients. This lesson explores the
 Discuss the Linear relationship between soil nutrient supply and plant
Response Plateau growth. Linear Response Plateau Model will be discuss
Model (LRP) at the beginning of this lesson followed by the
 Discuss Leibig’s Law discussion on Leibig’s Law of Minimum. The last part
of Minimum will explain Mitscherlich’s Equation.
 Explain Mitscherlich’s
Equation

Section 2.5
Activity 1 The Barrel Concept
Application

A traditional barrel is made up of wood panels, if one of the panels break in a certain
spot, liquid will only be filled up to that spot regardless of how much liquid you pour into
it. This concept is the same is true with the ability of plants to uptake nutrients. To better
understand the barrel concept please watch the video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1_G104W6AU

Analysis
3. Explain how the barrel concept relates to nutrient supply and plant
growth.

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 9
Linear response-and –plateau (LRP) model based on the law of the minimum
Linear response to the principal limiting element halts abruptly when another factor
becomes limiting but resumes its linear response when the limitation is corrected.
Eventually, yield is limited by the genetic capability of the plant when all the growth
factors are adequately supplied.
Law of the minimum
In 1843, Justus von Liebig wrote
“… by the deficiency or absence of
one necessary constituent, all
others being present, the soil is
rendered barren for all those
crops to the life of which that one
constituent is indispensable”. In
other words, growth of plants is
limited by the nutrient present as
the lowest percentage of its
minimum requirement.
Mitcherlich’s equation

“Law of diminishing returns”

The law of diminishing returns is actually a fundamental concept in economic theory
which demonstrates curvilinear relations between the independent and dependent
variables. Plant yields and soil nutrient supply also exhibit such curvilinear relations
which can be described by quadratic, square root, and logarithmic equations. Another
important equation that follows diminishing returns is a logarithmic function with
added constants to adjust the interpretation of plant response in accordance with
variations in native soil fertility. This equation, named after its proponent (1909) is
called Mitcherlich’s equation.

Mitcherlich’s equation
When all growth factors except one are adequately supplied, adding increments of the
limiting growth factor (e.g. a plant nutrient) will produce a smaller increment of growth
than the preceeding increment. This relation is expressed as:
dy= (A-y)C
dx
where:
dy = is yield increase from the increment of growth factor dx,
 A = is a maximum yield attainable as the result of adding an unlimited amount of the
growth factor, y is the yield obtained after any given quantity of the factor x has been
applied and is a proportionality constant which depends on the native of the growth
factor.
By the integration, equation 1 takes the form:
log (A-_y) = log A – Cx

Section 2.6 Test Your Knowledge

Application

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MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 11
 Module 1

Unit II. Soil-Plant Relationships

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 4

Learning Objectives The Macronutrients: Nitrogen,

Phosphorus, Potassium and Sulfur
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to: Economy of Soils
 Identify the soil Introduction
macronutrients and
their role in plant Macronutrients are the most limiting factors in the growth
nutrition and development of plants. Plants required large amount of
these nutrient throughout its life cycle. This lesson will
explore the characteristics, functions and sources of
macronutrients.

Section 2.7
Activity 1 The Macronutrients
Activity

Macronutrients are needed by plants in large amount. Out of 17 essential elements, 6 of

them are macronutrients. These nutrient elements are sourced either from atmosphere,
from soil or artificially manufactured. This activity will enable you to identify the sources
of these macronutrients. Research on the sources of the following nutrient elements:
1. Nitrogen
2. Phosphorus
3. Potassium
4. Sulfur

Analysis
1. How abundant are these nutrient elements in nature?
Major sources of nutrients in the soil

Nitrogen
• Between 97% and 99% of soil nitrogen is tied up in organic matter

Phosphorus
• soil P is provided by the weathering of the mineral apatite, which is a calcium
phosphate mineral
• as apatite weathers, it gives off primary orthophosphate (H2PO4-) and
secondary orthophosphate (HPO4-) ions that can be used by plants
• between 25% and 90% of all phosphorus in the soil is part of soil organic
matter

Potassium
• potassium comes from feldspars and micas
• weathering released potassium directly into the soil solution as the potassium
cation; this ion can be easily taken up by plant roots
• little potassium becomes part of soil organic matter

Calcium
• comes from the weathering of minerals and rocks including feldspars, apatite,
limestones and gypsum
• most soils contain enough Ca to supply plant needs
• calcareous soils are produced from high-lime parent materials

Magnesium
• resembles calcium chemically and in its action in soil
• weathers from minerals limestone, dolomite and gypsum
• high leached, coarse soils are most likely to need fertilization with magnesium,
especially if they have been limed with low magnesium lime

Sulfur
• most soil sulfur comes from the weathering of sulfate minerals such as gypsum
• organic matter contains 70-90% of the soil sulfur
• since it is readily leached, surface layers of soil are often low in sulfur

Nitrogen
• Management of N requires an understanding of the Nitrogen Cycle.
• Nitrogen is dynamic in the soil and forms change depending on the soil
conditions.

Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen (N2)

• Haber-Bosch process
o Used by fertilizer companies to manufacture most nitrogen carriers

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 13
 o Fixation of N2 to form NH3
o Uses natural gas (CH4), atmospheric N2, and steam (H2O) to produce NH3
gas as follows:
o 7CH4 + 10H2O + 8N2 + 2O2 → 16NH3 + 7CO2
• Symbiotic fixation by Rhizobia and other microorganisms that live on the
roots of legumes and certain nonleguminous plants.
• N2 + 16ATP + 8e- + 10H+ → 2NH4+ + H2 + 16ADP 16Pi
• Atmospheric electrical discharges
o lightning converts N and O gas to NO,
o then NO combines with oxygen to form NO2.
o NO2 mixes with water in the atmosphere to form NO3-
o NO3- enriched rain water then falls into the ground.
• Fixation by free-living soil microorganisms like the cyanobacteria (e.g.,
Anabaena) that are autotrophic (requiring only light, water, N2, CO2, and salts)
and certain heterotrophic bacteria.
Loss of N can occur as:
• leaching of NO3- ,
• volatilization of NH4+ to NH3 (high pH soils),
• NH4+ → NH3 + H+
• immobilization by plant or microbe uptake,
• Denitrification
o reduction of NO3- to gaseous forms of N (NO, N2O, N2) by
chemoautotrophic bacteria
o alternating aerobic and anaerobic cycles or adjacent aerobic and
anaerobic zones
• NH4+ and NO3- forms taken up by plants
o 2NH4+ + 4O2 → 2NO3-+ 4H+ + 2H2O
 Figure 2.2.3. The nitrogen cycle

Management practices to improve Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and minimize

losses:
1. Avoidance of excessive or untimely inputs, either with manure or fertilizer;
2. Keeping the field green under cover crops, avoiding fallow periods

Nutrient management and optimization implies that:

1. Fertilizer N should be applied at optimal rates according to a fertilizer plan
that takes all N sources into consideration;
2. Application should be timed to crop needs and development stage, when
appropriate through split application-applying outside the growing season
should be avoided and no fertilizer N should be applied prior to fallow
period;
3. Adjustment of fertilizer plans to correct for unexpected N losses due to
heavy rains ;
4. The supply of nutrients should be balanced so that the N utilization is not
hindered by deficiencies of other nutrients;
5. Application equipment should be monitored and adjusted to ensure
precision and control of the amounts of nutrients supplied, and good quality
fertilizers

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 15
Phosphorus
• Phosphorus is low in total amount in the soil
• low in solubility
• readily fixed by Fe and Al at low pH and Ca at high pH.
• H2PO4- and HPO4-- forms taken up by plants

Ways to manage P availability:

• control pH (lime acid soils)
• Place fertilizer in bands near the seed,
• Maintain organic matter levels for P release and to avoid P tie up by
microorganisms

Figure 1.2.4. The phosphorus cycle

Potassium
Potassium (K+) is a problem in:
4. acid soils
5. soils with low CEC
6. coarse textured soils
7. with irrigation or high rainfall where leaching can readily occur.
Sources of Potassium
8. minerals like feldspars and micas (90% of Soil K)
9. K is fixed inside of clay minerals ( 9% of soil K)
 10. K is on the soil exchange sites ( 1%)
11. K is in the soil solution (0.1%)

Sulfur
• Organic sulfur constitutes more than 90% of the total sulfur present in most
surface soils
• Inorganic form account for less than 25% of the total sulfur in most agricultural
soil
Microbiologically mediated transformations:
a. Oxidation and reduction reactions
b. Mineralization and immobilization reactions
c. Volatilization reactions
Microbial oxidation of inorganic S compounds
• mediated by chemoautotrophic and chemoheterotrophic microorganisms
Sequence of reactions:
S0 S2O3-2 S4O6-2 SO4-
elemental sulfur Thiosulfate Tetrathionate Sulfate

Sulfur oxidizers:
• Thiobacillus sp. - unicellular; chemoautotrophs
• Purple and green sulfur bacteria -Phototrophs
• Include wide range of chemoheterotrophic bacteria actinomycetes and
fungi
• Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Micrococcus, and Pseudomonas-other heterotrophic
bacteria
• Other sulfur bacteria
o Beggiatoa
o Chromatium, and Chlorobium– in rice paddy (anaerobic)

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 17
Figure 1.2.4. The sulfur cycle

Section 2.8
Application Test Your Knowledge

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 Module 1

Unit II. Soil-Plant Relationships

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 5

Learning Objectives
Micronutrients
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to:
 Identify the soil Introduction
micronutrients and
their role in plant Micronutrients are essential plant nutrients that are found
nutrition in trace amounts in tissue, but play an important role in
plant growth and development. Without these nutrients,
plant nutrition would be compromised leading to potential
declines in plant productivity. Of the 17 elements essential
for plant growth, eight are micronutrients: boron (B),
chlorine (CI), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn) and nickel (Ni). These
micronutrients will be discussed individually in this lesson.

Section 2.9
Activity 1 The Micronutrients
Activity

While macronutrients are needed by plants in large amount, micronutrients become

toxic to plants in large quantity. This activity will enable you to identify the sources of
micronutrients. Research and list the sources of the following nutrient elements:
1. Iron
2. Manganese
3. Zinc
4. Copper
5. Boron
6. Molybdenum

Analysis
2. How abundant are these nutrient elements in nature?

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 19
Micronutrients
• Correcting pH problems for most soils will correct micronutrient deficiencies.
• Most common problem is Iron on alkaline soils or with plants that like acid
conditions.
Iron
• comes from iron minerals which are widespread in soil
• most soils have sufficient iron, but is in the form of insoluble compounds, such as
ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3
• organic matter chelates some iron in the soil; chelate is a metal atom
surrounded by a large organic molecule
Manganese
• resembles iron in its action
• weathering creates a cation that is tied up as the molecule MnO2 in nonacid soil

Zinc
• the zinc cation is weathered out of soil minerals, where it can be adsorbed, form
a chelate, or form slightly soluble zinc compounds
• low levels may also appear on very coarse soils, because the parent materials
lacked zinc and the soils tend to be low in organic matter

Copper
• comes from the weathering of copper containing minerals
• held by cation exchange and combines chemically with organic matter

Boron
• released by weathering of tourmaline as borate anion, BO3-3
• taken by plants and gathers in organic matter near the soil surface

Molybdenum

• the molybdate ion, MoO4-2 gathers in soil organic matter

• most available at a high soil pH
• shortages are most common on acid, leached, and low-organic matter coarse
soils
 Section 2.10
Application Test Your Knowledge

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MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 21
 Module 1

Unit II. Soil-Plant Relationships

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 6

Learning Objectives Causes of Decline in Soil Fertility

At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to:
 Describe the factors Introduction
which contribute to
the decline in soil Soil fertility decline occurs when the quantities of nutrients
fertility removed from the soil in harvested products exceed the
quantities of nutrients being applied. This lesson explores
the different causes of nutrient removal from the soil.

Section 2.11
Activity 1 Reasons on the Decline of Soil Fertility
Activity

There are several factors involved in the decline of soil fertility including crop removal,
soil erosion, leaching, gaseous losses, conversion of nutrients to unavailable forms. This
activity will enable you to understand the reasons of the decline in soil fertility. Define
or give an example of the following terms:
1. crop removal
2. soil erosion
3. leaching
4. gaseous losses
5. conversion of nutrients to unavailable forms

Analysis
Which of these factors have the most impact to crop productivity and
environment?
Causes of decline in soil fertility
All soils which are originally fertile may lose their characteristics because of improper
soil and nutrient management. Soil fertility decline is primarily because of depletion of
nutrient elements required by plants. Among these processes are:
1. crop removal
2. soil erosion
3. leaching
4. chemical reactions that render the soil acidic
5. transformation to unavailable forms
6. gaseous losses
Crop removal
• process by which nutrients are depleted in great amounts from the soil.
• Similar crops may have different values of nutrient removal depending upon the
amount available for absorption, yield and variety.
• For nitrogen, high amounts are removed by grain crops and some leafy
vegetables.
• Crops which have high fiber content remove greater amounts of potassium.

The amount of nutrient removed per ton of produce as harvested for various crops.
Nutrient removal (kg t-1 produce as harvested)
Wheat Rough rice, Philippinesa Sugarbeet, UKb Potato
grain g Straw Grain Total Root Top Total tubers
Primary
Nitrogen 21 9 14.6 23.6 1.4 3.6 5 4c
Phosphorus 3.6 0.6 2.6 3.2 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.7c
Potassium 3 28 3 31 2.7 3.4 6.1 5c
Secondary
Sulfur 1.6 0.4 0.6 1.0 ? ? 0.9 0.4d
Magnesium 1.2 1.6 1.0 2.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.4d
Calcium 0.4 3.2 0.1 3.3 0.6 1.2 1.8 0.1d
Micro
Chlorine 0.6 6.5 4.2 10.7 0.5 0.5d
Iron 0.04 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.05 0.08e
Manganese 0.04 0.4 0.06 0.46 0.01 0.004f
Zinc 0.04 0.4 0.06 0.04 0.006
Copper 0.006 0.002 0.002 0.004 0.001 0.001f
Boron 0.004 0.019 0.016 0.015 0.009 0.0008f
Molybdenum 0.002 0.00005
Other
Sodium 0.2 1.4 1.6
Silicone 106 21 127
aDeDatta & Mikkelsen (1985); bDraycott (1972); cUnpublished, AB-DLO, Netherlands; dFalke, et al.
(1997); eMcDowell (1992); fWalworth & Muniz (1993); gIAEA (1985)

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 23
Soil erosion
• soil erosion is the process by which running water on the soil surface, wind, ice
or other agents transport soil from one place to another.
• it is a natural process that occurs even without human intervention
• erosion of the surface soil means a loss of organic matter and tremendous
amount of mineral nutrients.
• probably the most serious threat to agricultural sustainability worldwide;
severe in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America
• In the Philippines, soil erosion rates are reportedly higher than the set tolerable
soil loss (FAO) which 10 tons/ha/yr.
• soil erosion has been claimed to be the culprit of soil degradation
• out of the 30 M hectares land area, more than 50% have slope of 18% and
above; under Philippine laws, only land with up to 18% slope can be used for
agriculture but because of land scarcity, people are forced to cultivate slopes of
more than 80%, hence accelerating soil erosion several times.

The main problems caused by erosion are:

1. Removal of the most productive soil parts, e.g. clays and organic matter, with
their associated plant nutrients;
2. Reduction of the topsoil layer, restricting rooting depth;
3. Reduced water infiltration;
4. Clogging of irrigation systems, waterways and reservoirs by eroded
materials;
5. Silt deposits lowering the capacity of reservoirs;
6. Possible damage to aquatic systems by silt deposits covering up fish-breeding
areas;
7. Eutrophication caused by P and N enrichment of water bodies
• Silt deposits can improve the productivity of the receiving area-both land
and estuary- but at accost to the eroded region.
Soil erosion can be prevented by:
• Increasing crop growth so that the soil is rapidly covered by vegetation that
reduces the eroding action of raindrops;
• Increasing yield, not only of the crop but also of roots that bind soil particles
and of crop residues that cover the soil after harvest;
• Contributing to maintenance of soil organic matter
• Helping to re-establish plant cover where erosion has removed the top soil
and nutrients;
• Increasing yield thus reducing the need to expand crop growing onto fragile
soil
Principal soil management practices that hinder soil loss due to erosion:
• Water interception with soil banks, strips of grass or forests; hedges to protect
against wind;
• Use of cover crops during fallow and/or intercropping;
• Conservation tillage practices;
• Drainage, mulching, contour plowing
• Terracing (forming horizontal patches of land on steep hills)

Leaching
• the loss of soil nutrients from the root zone of the plants through the action of
water.
• It occurs especially under frequently flooded soil condition or whenever soil
water moves by diffusion out of the root zone.
• extent of occurrence varies with the kinds of nutrients, soil type, management
and climate
• greatest leaching occurs in well-drained, coarse textured soils (eg. Sand and
sandy loam)

Chemical reactions that render the soil acidic

Acidification of the soil results in two ways:
1. Microbial decomposition of waste or residues forming weak acid such as
carbonic acids
2. Application of nitrogen fertilizer - the formation of hydrogen ions from the
ionization of NH4OH originating from hydrolysis of nitrogen-containing
fertilizers increases the acidity level of soil
Gaseous losses
▪ the transformation into gaseous forms (volatilization) is one of the major losses of
nutrient elements, particularly of nitrogen and sulfur.
▪ The process occurs in flooded paddy conditions and the percent reported loss was
as high as 50% under high pH (>7) and high temperatures (40 0C).
▪ fertilizers particularly N-containing fertilizers, should be applied in the morning
when the leaves are dry and the soil is not yet hot because of absorption of solar
radiation to prevent gaseous losses in the lowland:

Appropriate soil water management

• reduced condition due to flooding before or immediately after plowing; making
NH4+ generated from organic residue decomposition more stable

MIGUEL, R.D., GALUPAN, J.M. & PAQUIT, R (2020). Module 1. Soil Fertility, Management and Conservation| 25
 o aerobic condition occurs when the soil is not flooded after plowing and this
allows the nitrifying organisms to act on NH4+ forming NO3-
o as the soil is flooded, NO3- isacted upon by the organisms converting it to N2
or N2O, which eventually escapes into the air

Appropriate fertilizer management

• incorporation of N-containing fertilizers into the soil during the last harrowing
or basal application
o once the fertilizer is not incorporated, the microbes on the surface of the
paddy act on the nitrate ions; the nitrate moves easily down the reduced
layer and is immediately converted into nitrogen gas by the denitrifying
microbes
o the use of ammonium-containing fertilizers is advisable to lowland
condition and these should be incorporated to a depth of 10-12 cm.
Conversion to unavailable forms
• takes place through chemical combination with other elements to form water-
insoluble compounds such as what happens in the fixation of P under high
alkaline or acidic conditions and microbial transformations.
General measures to avoid these undesirable processes include:
1. maintenance of favorable soil pH ranges,
2. proper application of soil organic matter, and
3. proper timing and placement of fertilizers.

Section 2.12 Test Your Knowledge

Application

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