Methods of solution for the electrostatic potential

November 20, 2013

1 Method of Images
By placing additional charges outside the region of interest we can build an equivalent system.

1.1 Exterior potential for a grounded sphere in the presence of a point charge
Consider a grounded sphere (potential V (R) = 0) of radius R centered on the origin, and a charge q brought
to within a distance a > R. We find the potential using the method of images.
Let the z-axis pass through the charge q. The system then has azimuthal symmetry, so if the problem
can be solved using images, any image charge must also lie on the z-axis. Let there be a charge q 0 at position
b < R. This is allowed since we are interested in the potential outside the sphere. The question is whether
we can choose q 0 and b so that the sphere is an equipotential.
The potential for the charge pair is
 
0
1  q q
V = + 
4π0 x − ak̂ x − bk̂

Now,
r   
x − ak̂ = x − ak̂ · x − ak̂
p
= r2 + a2 − 2ar cos θ

so that
q0
 
1 q
V = √ +√
4π0 r2 + a2 − 2ar cos θ r2 + b2 − 2br cos θ
For the sphere to be at zero potential, the term in parentheses must vanish when r = R for all θ. This means
that
p qp
R2 + a2 − 2aR cos θ = − 0 R2 + b2 − 2bR cos θ
q
r
q b R2 2
= − 0 (R + b2 − 2bR cos θ)
q R b2
r
q b R4 R2
= − 0 2
+ R2 − 2R cos θ
q R b b
R2
The two roots will be equal if b = a, so that

R2
b=
a

1
and the charges must be related by
q b
1 = −
q0 R
b
q0 = −q
R
qR
= −
a
The potential is then zero on the sphere, and the potential anywhere outside the sphere is given by
 
q  1 R
V = − 
4π0 x − ak̂
2
a x − R k̂ a

2 Separation of variables
The separation of variables technique is more powerful than the methods we have studied so far. The
approach begins with a simplifying assumption, that the potential may be written as a product (or in some
cases, the sum) of some simpler functions.

2.1 Cartesian:
The Laplace equation in Cartesian coordiates is
∇2 V (x, y, z) = 0
∂2V ∂2V ∂2V
2
+ 2
+ = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z 2
We assume a solution of the form
V (x, y, z) = X (x) Y (y) Z (z)
Substitution gives
d2 X d2 Y d2 Z
YZ 2
+ XZ 2 + XY 2 = 0
dx dy dz
where the partial derivatives now become ordinary. Dividing by V = XY Z gives
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
+ + = 0
X dx2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2
and each terms is now a function of only one variable. Taking the partial derivative of the whole expression
with respect to x gives
1 d2 X 1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
     
∂ ∂ ∂
0 = + +
∂x X dx2 ∂x Y dy 2 ∂x Z dz 2
2
 
∂ 1 d X
= +0+0
∂x X dx2
2
showing that X1 ddxX2 must be independent of x, hence constant. Choosing this constant to be −α2 (either
sign is allowed, we choose positive here), gives
1 d2 X
= −α2
X dx2
d2 X
+ α2 X = 0
dx2

2
with the familiar solution,
X = A sin αx + B cos αx
The remaining equation becomes
1 d2 Y 1 d2 Z
−α2 + + = 0
Y dy 2 Z dz 2
2 2
1d Y 1d Z
+ − α2 = 0
Y dy 2 Z dz 2
and differentiating with respect to y shows that the y term is constant. Choosing −β 2 for the constant,
1 d2 Y
= −β 2
Y dy 2
d2 Y
+ β2Y = 0
dy 2
we again find an oscillating solution,
Y = C sin βy + D cos βy
Finally, we have
d2 Z
− α2 + β 2 Z = 0


dz 2

For convenience, define γ 2 = α2 + β 2 , so that

d2 Z
− γ2Z = 0
dz 2
It is easy to see that e±γz both give solutions, so the general solution is the arbitrary linear combination
Z = E 0 eγz + F 0 e−γz
It is often more useful to use the symmetric and antisymmetric combinations,
eγz + e−γz
cosh γz =
2
eγz − e−γz
sinh γz =
2
Then
eγz = cosh γz + sinh γz
−γz
e = cosh γz − sinh γz
and our solution is
Z = E 0 (cosh γz + sinh γz) + F 0 (cosh γz − sinh γz)
= (E 0 + F 0 ) cosh γz + (E 0 − F 0 ) sinh γz
Renaming the constants, E = E 0 + F 0 and F = E 0 − F 0 , this is just
Z = E cosh γz + F sinh γz
The solution for our ansatz is therefore
Vα,β = (A sin αx + B cos αx) (C sin βy + D cos βy) (E cosh γz + F sinh γz)
and the general solution for V is a sum of such solutions for different α and β, where the leading constants
may be different for each choice of α and β:
X
V = (Aα,β sin αx + Bα,β cos αx) (Cα,β sin βy + Dα,β cos βy) (Eα,β cosh γz + Fα,β sinh γz)
α,β

3
2.2 Spherical coordinates
In spherical coordinates the Laplace equation takes the form

∂2V
   
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1
2
r + 2
sin θ + 2 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2
Let
V = R (r) Θ (θ) Φ (ϕ)
and substitute. Dividing by RΘΦ, we have

1 d2 Φ
   
1 d 2 dR 1 1 d dΘ 1
r + sin θ + =0
r2 R dr dr r2 sin θ Θ dθ dθ r2 sin2 θ Φ dϕ2

This time, nothing separates until we multiply by r2 sin2 θ,

r2 sin2 θ d 1 d2 Φ
   
2 dR sin θ d dΘ
r + sin θ + =0
r2 R dr dr Θ dθ dθ Φ dϕ2
and now we see that, enforcing periodicity of Φ by our choice of sign,

d2 Φ
+ m2 Φ = 0
dϕ2
Φ = C sin mϕ + D cos mϕ

leaving
sin2 θ d
   
2 dR sin θ d dΘ
r + sin θ − m2 = 0
R dr dr Θ dθ dθ
Now divide by sin2 θ,
m2
   
1 d 2 dR 1 1 d dΘ
r + sin θ − =0
R dr dr Θ sin θ dθ dθ sin2 θ
This time, we choose the constant to be l (l + 1), obviously with hindsight. This results in
 
d dR
r2 − l (l + 1) R = 0
dr dr
m2
   
1 d dΘ
sin θ + l (l + 1) − Θ = 0
sin θ dθ dθ sin2 θ
The first of these is not bad. Let R = rα . Then
 
d dR
r2 − l (l + 1) R = 0
dr dr
drα
 
d
r2 − l (l + 1) rα = 0
dr dr
d
αrα+1 − l (l + 1) rα


= 0
dr
α (α + 1) rα − l (l + 1) rα = 0

Being careful to get all solutions, we solve the quadratic,

α2 + α − l (l + 1) = 0
p
−1 ± 1 + 4l (l + 1)
α =
2

4
 √
4l2 + 4l + 1
−1 ±
=
2
−1 ± (2l + 1)
=
 2
l
=
− (l + 1)
giving two solutions as we should expect for a second order equation. Taking a general linear combination,
B
R (r) = Arl +
rl+1
The solutions to the θ equation with m = 0 are called the Legendre polynomials. Solutions with general
m may be found by differentiating the Legendre polynomials, giving the associated Legendre polynomials.
We consider only the m = 0 case. To start, we define a new variable,
x = cos θ
Then
d dx d
=
dθ dθ dx
d
= − sin θ
dx
and therefore
d 1 d
= −
dx sin θ dθ
Thus, with m = 0,
 
d 2 dΘ
sin θ + l (l + 1) Θ = 0
dx dx
 
d
dΘ
1 − x2 + l (l + 1) Θ = 0
dx dx
This is the Legendre equation, with solutions
Θ (θ) = Pl (x)
where x = cos θ.
Like the harmonic functions, there are many relationships among the Legendre polynomials. The most
important for us now is the orthogonality relationship,
π
ˆ2
2
Pl (cos θ) Pl0 (cos θ) sin θdθ = δll0
2l + 1
0
2
Notice that the right side may be written as either 2l+1 δll0 or as 2l02+1 δll0 since it is only nonzero when l = l0 .
We may also write this in terms of x = cos θ. With dx = − sin θdθ, we have
ˆ1
2
Pl (x) Pl0 (x) dx = δll0
2l + 1
−1

The general solution for a potential depending only on θ and r, but not ϕ, is
∞  
X
l Bl
V (r, θ) = Al r + l+1 Pl (cos θ)
r
l=0

5
Example 1: Potential on a sphere
Let a sphere of radius R have potential

V (r = R, θ, ϕ) = V0 sin4 θ

Find the potential everywhere inside and outside the sphere.

Inside:
Since we have spherical boundary conditions, it is easiest to use the spherical separation, and since the
problem has azimuthal symmetry, we may use the solution to the Laplace equation in the form
∞  
X
l Bl
V (r, θ) = Al r + l+1 Pl (cos θ)
r
l=0

Our boundary conditions are

V (0) = f inite
V (R, θ, ϕ) = V0 sin4 θ

The first of these conditions shows that Bl = 0 for all l. The outer boundary condition becomes
∞
X
V0 sin4 θ = Al Rl Pl (x)
l=0

Essentially, we must express V0 sin4 θ in terms of Legendre polynomials.

Let x = cos θ. Then noting that we may write

2
V0 sin4 θ = V0 1 − cos2 θ

2
= V 0 1 − x2
= V0 1 − 2x2 + x4

we should be able to write the potential on the sphere in terms of Legendre polynomials of even order less
than or equal to x4 . Using higher order polynomials would introduce undesired higher powers of x. The
three relevant polynomials are:

P0 (x) = 1
1
3x2 − 1


P2 (x) =
2
1
35x4 − 30x2 + 3


P4 (x) =
8
Rearranging and combining to produce x4 − 2x2 + 1, we start with
1
x4 8P4 (x) + 30x2 − 3


=
35
1
x2 = (2P2 (x) + 1)
3
1
x4 − 2x2 + 1 8P4 (x) + 30x2 − 3 − 2x2 + 1


=
35    
8 30 2 3
= P4 (x) + −2 x + 1−
35 35 35

6
  
8 6 14 32
= P4 (x) + − x2 +
35 7 7 35
 
8 8 1 32
= P4 (x) − (2P2 (x) + 1) +
35 7 3 35
8 16 8 32
= P4 (x) − P2 (x) − +
35 21 21 35 
8 16 8 4 1
= P4 (x) − P2 (x) + −
35 21 7 5 3
 
8 16 8 7
= P4 (x) − P2 (x) +
35 21 7 15
8 16 8
= P4 (x) − P2 (x) + P0 (x)
35 21 15
Therefore, we must solve
  X∞
8 16 8
V0 P4 (x) − P2 (x) + P0 (x) = Al Rl Pl (x)
35 21 15
l=0

for the coefficients Al . To do this, we use the orthogonality relation,

ˆ 1
2
Pl (x) Pl0 (x) dx = δll0
−1 2l +1
Multiply our equation by an arbitrary Pk (x) for any fixed k, and integrate over all x,
ˆ 1  ∞ ˆ 1
8 16 8 X
l
V0 P4 (x) − P2 (x) + P0 (x) Pk (x) dx = Al R Pl (x) Pk (x) dx
−1 35 21 15 −1
l=0
ˆ ˆ ˆ ∞
8V0 1 16V0 1 8V0 1 X 2
P4 (x) Pk (x) dx − P2 (x) Pk (x) dx + P0 (x) Pk (x) dx = Al R l δlk
35 −1 21 −1 15 −1 2l + 1
l=0
8V0 2 16V0 2 8V0 2 2
δk4 − δk2 + δ0k = Ak R k
35 2k + 1 21 2k + 1 15 1 2k + 1
8V0 2 16V0 2 8V0 2 2
δk4 − δk2 + δ0k = Ak R k
35 9 21 5 15 1 2k + 1
The left side vanishes unless k = 0, 2 or 4, and in these cases we have
8V0
A0 =
15
16V0
A2 = −
21R2
8V0
A4 =
35R4
The full solution everywhere inside the sphere is found by putting these coefficients back into the general
form, giving the final potential as
∞  
X Bl
V (r, θ) = Al rl + l+1 Pl (cos θ)
r
l=0
= A0 r0 P0 (cos θ) + A2 r2 P2 (cos θ) + A4 r4 P4 (cos θ)
8V0 0 16V0 2 8V0 4
= r P0 (cos θ) − r P2 (cos θ) + r P4 (cos θ)
15  21R2 35R4 
1 2r2 r4
= 8V0 − P 2 (cos θ) + P4 (cos θ)
15 21R2 35R4

7
We immediately verify that if we set r = R and use the form of sin4 θ in terms of Legendre polynomials, we
recover the boundary condition. At the center of the sphere, we find (setting r = 0) that the potential is
8
V (0) = 15 V0 .

Aside: Verify Theorem 3.1.4 If we integrate the potential over the surface of the sphere (using Wolfram
integrator),

ˆπ ˆ2π ˆπ
4
sin θdθ dϕV0 sin θ = 2πV0 sin5 θdθ
0 0 0
 π
5 5 3 1
= 2πV0 − cos θ + cos θ − cos 5θ
8 48 80 0
   
5 5 1 5 5 1
= 2πV0 − + − − + −
8 48 80 8 48 80
 
5 5 1 5 5 1
= 2πV0 − + + − +
8 48 80 8 48 80
 
5 5 1
= 2πV0 − +
4 24 40
 
150 25 3
= 2πV0 − +
120 120 120
 
128
= 2πV0
120
32π
= V0
15
so that the potential at the center of the sphere is

ˆπ ˆ2π
8 1
Vcenter = V0 = V (R, θ, ϕ) R2 sin θdθdϕ
15 4πR2
0 0

as required by the theorem of section 3.1.4 in Griffiths.

Outside:
The exterior solution is similar, but this time the boundary conditions are

V (∞) = 0
V (R, θ, ϕ) = V0 sin4 θ

which means that we must have Al = 0 for all l. The second condition now reads
  X ∞
8 16 8 Bl
V0 P4 (x) − P2 (x) + P0 (x) = Pl (x)
35 21 15 Rl+1
l=0

Bl
so we need only replace Al Rl of the interior solution by Rl+1
. This gives

2R3 R5
 
R
V (r, θ) = 8V0 − P 2 (cos θ) + P4 (cos θ)
15r 21r3 35r5

8
Problem 3.22: Extending the solution for a disk
We have found previously that the potential on the z-axis above a circular disk of radius R lying in the
xy-plane is
σ p 2 
V (z) = z + R2 − z
20
Since we have axial symmetry, this must equal V (r, θ = 0) for our general solution to the Laplace equation,
∞  
X Bl
V (r, θ) = Al r l + Pl (cos θ)
rl+1
l=0

Since, on the positive z axis we have cos θ = cos 0 = 1, we use Pl (1) = 1 for all l. Furthermore, we have
r = z, and the equality requires
∞  
σ p 2  X Bl
r + R2 − r = Al rl + l+1 Pl (cos θ)
20 r
l=0

Although this is not a boundary condition in the usual sense, it is still enough information to find all of
the coefficients and construct the potential everywhere. To do this, we need to expand the left side of the
equation as a power series in r. For the series to converge, we need to expand in powers of either Rr or Rr ,
whichever is less than one. This means we divide the problem in to two regions, r < R and r > R. For
r < R, we subdivide into two regions since we must match the charge density on the disk, using
   
dV dV 1
− =− σ
dn above dn below 0

On the disk, the normal derivative is dV 1 ∂V π

dn = − r ∂θ θ = 2 and σ is a given constant. We must consider the
series solutions for positive and negative z separately.
For the negative z axis, we have cos θ = cos π = −1, and because the Legendre polynomials are either
l
even or odd polynomials, we have Pl (−1) = (−1) . Therefore, we will equate
∞
Bl0
 
σ p 2 2
 X
l 0 l
r +R +r = (−1) Al r + l+1
20 r
l=0

Notice that this is a distinct region, so the constants A0l and Bl0 are distinct from those above the disk.

π
Case 1a: r < R, θ < 2

In this case we expand r

p r2
r 2 + R2 = R 1+
R2
r2
√
Let x = R2 so that we need the Taylor series for f (x) = 1 + x. Taking derivatives,
1/2
f (x) = (1 + x)
1 −1/2
f (1) (x) = (1 + x)
2
11 −3/2
f (2) (x) = − (1 + x)
22
113 −5/2
f (3) (x) = (1 + x)
222
1135 −7/2
f (4) (x) = − (1 + x)
2222

9
so evaluating f (n) (0), the first few deriatives are

f (0) = 1
1
f (1) (0) =
2
1
f (2) (0) = −
4
3
f (3) (0) =
8
15
f (4) (0) = −
16
and we have
∞
X 1 (n)
f (x) = f (0) xn
n=0
n!
1 1 1 5 4
= 1 + x − x2 + x3 − x − ···
2 8 16 128
The potential on the z-axis for r < R therefore has the expansion
σ p 2 
V (r, 0) = r + R2 − r
20
  2 
σR r r
= f −
20 R2 R
2
1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
 
σR 1r r
= 1+ − + − − · · · −
20 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8 R
2 4 6 8
 
σR r 1r 1r 1 r 5 r
= 1− + − + − + · · ·
20 R 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8
and this must satisfy
∞ 
1 r2 1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
  X 
σR r l Bl
1− + − + − + ··· = Al r + l+1 Pl (cos 0)
20 R 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8 r
l=0

σR 1
Clearly, with Pl (1) = 1, this can only be satisfied if Bl = 0 for all l and Al = 0 for l odd except A1 = − 2 0 R
,
while for l even we equate
σR
A0 =
20
σR 1
A2 =
20 2R2
σR 1
A4 = −
20 8R4
σR 1
A6 =
20 16R6
σR 5
A8 = −
20 128R8
and so on, as far as we need to go. The potential everywhere with r < R is therefore
1 r2 1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
 
σR r
V (r, θ) = 1 − P1 (cos θ) + P2 (cos θ) − P4 (cos θ) + P6 (cos θ) − P8 (cos θ) − · · ·
20 R 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8

10
 π
Case 1b: r < R, θ > 2

This time we expand require

∞
Bl0
 
σ p 2  X
l
r + R2 + r = (−1) A0l rl + l+1
20 r
l=0

so we still need the expansion for r

p r2
r2 + R2 =R 1+
R2
The potential on the z-axis for r < R therefore has the expansion
σ p 2 
V (r, 0) = r + R2 + r
20
1 r2 1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
 
σR r
= 1+ − + − − · · · +
20 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8 R
1 r2 1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
 
σR r
= 1+ + − + − + · · ·
20 R 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8
and this must satisfy
∞
1 r2 1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
  X  
σR r l l Bl
1+ + − + − + · · · = (−1) A l r +
20 R 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8 rl+1
l=0

σR 1
Again this can only be satisfied if Bl = 0 for all l and Al = 0 for l odd except A1 = + 2 0 R
. For l even we
π
have the same series as in Case 1a so the potential everywhere with r < R, θ > 2 is

1 r2 1 r4 1 r6 5 r8
 
σR r
V (r, θ) = 1 + P1 (cos θ) + P2 (cos θ) − P4 (cos θ) + P6 (cos θ) − P8 (cos θ) − · · ·
20 R 2 R2 8 R4 16 R6 128 R8
To evaluate this on the disk, we need
    
1 dV dV
− σ = −
0 dn above dn below θ= π
2
 
d
= (Vabove − Vbelow )
dn θ= π
2
  
1 d σr σr
= − − P1 (cos θ) − P1 (cos θ)
r dθ 20 20 θ= π
2
  
1 d σr
= − − cos θ
r dθ 0 θ= π
2
 
σ
= − sin θ
0 θ= π2
σ
= −
0
which miraculously checks.

Case 2: r > R
When r > R, we need to expand r
p R2
r 2 + R2 = r 1+
r2

11
 2
so we use the same Taylor series but this time with x = Rr2 ,
σ p 2 
V (r, 0) = r + R2 − r
20
r !
σr R2
= 1+ 2 −1
20 r
1 R2 1 R4 1 R6 5 R8
 
σR r
= 1+ − + − + ··· − 1
20 R 2 r2 8 r4 16 r6 128 r8
σR 1 R 1 R3 1 R5 5 R7
 
= − + − + ···
20 2 r 8 r3 16 r5 128 r7

so equating coefficients we now see that all Al vanish as well as the odd-indexed Bl so that B2k+1 = 0. We
then solve for the even Bl
∞
σR 1 R 1 R3 1 R5 5 R7
  X
Bl
− + − + · · · =
20 2 r 8 r3 16 r5 128 r7 rl+1
l=0

σR R
B0 =
20 2
σR R3
B2 = −
20 8
σR R5
B4 =
20 16
σR 5R7
B6 = −
20 128
and reconstruct the series,

1 R3 1 R5 1 R7
 
σR R
V (r, θ) = − 3
P2 (cos θ) + 5
P4 (cos θ) − P6 (cos θ) + · · ·
20 2r 8 r 16 r 128 r7

3 Multipole moments
3.1 The multipole expansion
Suppose we have a localized charge distribution, confined to a region near the origin with r < R. Then for
values of r > R, the electric field must be described by solutions to the Laplace equation with vanishing
boundary condition at infinity. This requires Al = 0 for an expansion in Legendre polynomials and the
potential for any azimuthally symmetric source is
∞
X 1
V (r, θ) = l+1
Bl Pl (cos θ)
r
l=0

For large values of r, the lowest nonvanishing term will dominate this approximation, giving an excellent
approximation for the potential
Now consider the full solution for any localized source near the origin. Let the charge density be ρ (r0 ),
and suppose we with to know the potential at a point r far from the source. The general solution for the
potential is ˆ
1 ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
V (r) =
4π0 |r − r0 |

12
Let the angle between r and r0 be α, so the denominator is
p
|r − r0 | = r2 + r02 − 2rr0 cos α
r
r02 − 2rr0 cos α
= r 1+
r2
√
Since r  r0 , the square root has the form 1 + x with x  1. To expand the integrand, we need
1 1 3 5
√ = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·
1+x 2 8 16
where
r02 − 2rr0 cos α r02 2r0
 
x= 2
= 2 1− cos α
r r r
ˆ
1 1
V (r) = ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
4π0 |r − r0 |
1
Compute the Legendre series for |r−r0 | :

∞
1 X 1
0
= Bl Pl (cos α)
|r − r | rl+1
l=0

To find the coefficients, multiply by Pk (cos α) and integrate over all angles.

∞ ˆ 1 ˆ1
X 1 Pk (x) dx
Bl Pl (x) Pk (x) dx = √
rl+1 r2 + r02 − 2rr0 x
l=0 −1 −1
ˆ1
1 2 P (x) dx
Bk = q k
rk+1 2k + 1 02
r 1 + rr2 − 2x rr
0
−1

ˆ1 2 3 !
r02 r0 r02 r0 r02 r0
   
1 1 3 5
= Pk (x) dx 1 − 2
− 2x + 2
− 2x − 2
− 2x + ···
r 2 r r 8 r r 16 r r
−1
ˆ1
r02 r0 3 r04 3 r03 3 2 r02
 
1
= Pk (x) dx 1 − 2 + x + − x 3 + x 2
r 2r r 8 r4 2 r 2 r
−1
ˆ1
5 r06 15 r05 15 r04 2 5 3 r03
 
1
+ Pk (x) dx − + x − x + x 3 + ···
r 16 r6 8 r5 4 r4 2 r
−1
ˆ1
r0 r02 3 r02 3 r03 5 r03
  04 
1 r
= Pk (x) dx 1 + x − 2 + x2 2 − x 3 + x3 3 + O
r r 2r 2 r 2 r 2 r r4
−1
ˆ1
r0 r02 1
r03 1
  04 
1 2 3

r
= Pk (x) dx 1 + x + 2 3x − 2 + 3 5x − 3x + O
r r r 2 r 2 r4
−1
ˆ1
r0 r02 r03
  04 
1 r
= Pk (x) dx P0 (x) + P1 (x) + 2 P2 (x) + 3 P3 (x) + O
r r r r r4
−1

13
 ∞  n ˆ 1
1 X r0
⇒ Pk (x) dxPn (x)
r n=0 r
−1
 k
1 r0 2
=
r r 2k + 1
Bk = r0k

While showing the first three terms of an infinite series is not a proof, this pattern does continue, and we
end up with
∞  l
1 1 X r0
= Pl (cos α)
|r − r0 | r r
l=0

A complete proof makes use of the addition theorem for spherical harmonics.
Now, returning to the potential,
ˆ
1 1
V (r) = ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
4π0 |r − r0 |
ˆ ∞  l
1 1 X r0
= Pl (cos α) ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
4π0 r r
l=0
∞ ˆ
1 X 1 l
= (r0 ) ρ (r0 ) Pl (cos α) d3 r0
4π0 rl+1
l=0

Notice that the integrals, ˆ

1 l
Ql = (r0 ) ρ (r0 ) Pl (cos α) d3 r0
4π0
are independent of r, and therefore only characterize the source. These are the multipole moments of the
charge distribution. The potential is then
∞
X Ql
V (r) =
rl+1
l=0

It is important to be able to recognize and understand the properties of the first few multipole moments.
They are extremely useful for describing arbitrary charge distributions.

3.2 Total charge

The zeroth moment is proportional to the total charge,
ˆ
1 0
Q0 = (r0 ) ρ (r0 ) P0 (cos α) d3 r0
4π0
ˆ
1
= ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
4π0
1
= Qtotal
4π0
The potential of a pure monopole is given by Coulomb’s law for a single point charge,
Q
V (r) =
4π0 r

14
and the resulting electric field is

E = −∇V
 
∂ Q
= −r̂
∂r 4π0 r
Q
= r̂
4π0 r2
as we know.

3.3 Dipole moment

The next term depends on the dipole moment,
ˆ
1
Q1 = r0 ρ (r0 ) P1 (cos α) d3 r0
4π0
ˆ
1
= r0 ρ (r0 ) cos αd3 r0
4π0
ˆ
1
= r̂ · r0 ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
4π0
ˆ
1
= r̂ · r0 ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
4π0
We define the dipole moment to be ˆ
p≡ r0 ρ (r0 ) d3 r0

A dipole moment may be thought of as a pair of equal and opposite charges, slightly displaced. If we
take charges ±q displaced by a vector dk̂, then the charge density is
    
d d
ρ (r0 ) = q δ 3 r0 − k̂ − δ 3 r0 + k̂
2 2

so the dipole moment is

ˆ
p ≡ r0 ρ (r0 ) d3 r0
ˆ     
d d
= r q δ 3 r0 −
0 3 0
k̂ − δ r + k̂ d3 r0
2 2
ˆ   ˆ   
d d
= q r δ r0 −
0 3 3 0 0 3 0
k̂ d r − r δ r + k̂ d r 3 0
2 2
 
d d
= q k̂ + k̂
2 2
= qdk̂

that is, the vector displacement between the two charges times one charge.
To see if this is a pure dipole, we check the higher moments of the distribution,
ˆ
1 l
Ql = (r0 ) ρ (r0 ) Pl (cos α) d3 r0
4π0
ˆ     
q l d d
= (r0 ) δ 3 r0 − k̂ − δ 3 r0 + k̂ Pl (cos α) d3 r0
4π0 2 2

15
 ˆ     
q l d d
= (r0 ) δ 3 r0 − k̂ − δ 3 r0 + k̂ Pl (cos θ0 ) r02 dr0 sin θ0 dθ0 dϕ0
4π0 2 2
ˆ   ˆ   
q d d
= δ 3 r0 − k̂ Pl (cos θ0 ) r0l+2 dr0 sin θ0 dθ0 dϕ0 − δ 3 r0 + k̂ Pl (cos θ0 ) r0l+2 dr0 sin θ0 dθ0 dϕ0
4π0 2 2

Letting x0 = sin θ0 , the delta functions may be written as

   
0 d 4 d
3
δ r − k̂ = δ r0 − δ (x0 − 1)
2 2πd2 2
   
0 d 4 d
3
δ r + k̂ = δ r0 − δ (x0 + 1)
2 2πd2 2

so that
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ˆ∞ ˆ1 ˆ2π 
 ∞ 1 2π 
 
q 4  d d
Ql = δ r0 − δ (x0 − 1) Pl (x0 ) r0l+2 dr0 dx0 dϕ0 − δ r0 − δ (x0 + 1) Pl (x0 ) r0l+2 dr0 dx0 dϕ0 
4π0 2πd2 2 2
0 −1 0 0 −1 0
ˆ ˆ ˆ  ˆ1
∞ 1 ∞

  
q  d d
= r0l+2 δ r0 − dr0 δ (x0 − 1) Pl (x0 ) dx0 − δ r0 − r0l+2 dr0 δ (x0 + 1) Pl (x0 ) dx0 
π0 d2 2 2
0 −1 0 −1
 l+2  l+2 !
q d d
= Pl (1) − Pl (−1)
π0 d2 2 2
 l 
q d l

= 1 − (−1)
4π0 2
(
2q d l


l odd
= 4π0 2
0 l even

This means that the distribution is not a “pure” dipole, but contains higher moments as well. To obtain a
pure dipole, we take the limit as the separation of charges vanishes, d → 0, in such a way that the product
p = qd remains constant,     
0 3 0 d 3 0 d
ρ (r ) = lim q δ r − k̂ − δ r + k̂
d→0 2 2
In this case, the odd moments become
 2k+1
2q d
Q2k+1 = lim
d→0 4π0 2
 2k
qd d
= limd→0
4π0 2
 2k
p d
= lim
4π0 d→0 2
 p
4π0 k=0
=
0 k>0

and we have a pure dipole with dipole moment p = pk̂

For an arbitrary pure dipole with dipole moment p, the potential is therefore

r̂ · p
V (r) =
4π0 r2

16
 The electric field of a dipole lying along the z-axis, p = pk̂, is found by taking the gradient,
E = −∇V (r)
 
r̂ · p
= −∇
4π0 r2
  
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ p cos θ
= − r̂ + θ̂ + ϕ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ 4π0 r2
    
∂ p cos θ 1 ∂ p cos θ
= − r̂ + θ̂
∂r 4π0 r2 r ∂θ 4π0 r2
    
2p cos θ p sin θ
= − r̂ − − θ̂
4π0 r3 4π0 r3
1  
= 3
2 (r̂ · p) r̂ + p sin θθ̂
4π0 r
We may rewrite the second term using
r̂ × (r̂ × p) = (r̂ · p) r̂ − p (r̂ · r̂)
= (r̂ · p) r̂ − p
together with
r̂ × (r̂ × p) = −r̂ × ϕ̂p sin θ
= θ̂p sin θ
The electric field becomes
1
E = (2 (r̂ · p) r̂ + (r̂ · p) r̂ − p)
4π0 r3
3 (r̂ · p) r̂ − p
E =
4π0 r3

3.4 Quadrupole
For the quadrupole moment, we need to compute
ˆ∞ ˆ1 ˆ2π
1 02 0 0 2
Q2 = r dr dx dϕ0 (r0 ) ρ (r0 ) P2 (cos α)
4π0
0 −1 0

Choose the observation point r along the z-axis, so that cos α = cos θ0 = x0 . Then we have
ˆ∞ ˆ1 ˆ2π
1 02 0 0
dϕ0 ρ (r0 ) 3x02 − 1 r02


Q2 = r dr dx
8π0
0 −1 0

We need to rewrite this to separate the direction r̂ at which we wish to know the field, from the primed
integration variables. Using index notation, this is not hard:
3x02 − 1 r02 = 3r02 cos2 θ0 − r02

2
= 3 (r̂ · r0 ) − r0 · r0
3
X 3
X 3
X
= 3 r̂i ri0 r̂j rj0 − r02 δij r̂i r̂j
i=1 j=1 i,j=1
3
X
r̂i r̂j 3ri0 rj0 − r02 δij


=
i,j=1

17
 P3
This uses the dot product of the unit vector, 1 = r̂ · r̂ = i,j=1 δij r̂i r̂j and the summation form of the dot
P3
product, r̂ · r0 = i=1 r̂i ri0 .
Now we may write the quadrupole moment in a way that is independent of where we choose the direction
of r̂:
ˆ ˆ1 ˆ2π
∞ 
3
1 X
r̂i r̂j  r02 dr0 dx0 dϕ0 ρ (r0 ) 3ri0 rj0 − r02 δij 


Q2 =
8π0 i,j=1
0 −1 0
3
1 X
= r̂i Qij r̂j
8π0 i,j=1

where we have defined the quadrupole moment tensor,

ˆ∞ ˆ1 ˆ2π
02 0 0
dϕ0 ρ (r0 ) 3ri0 rj0 − r02 δij


Qij ≡ r dr dx
0 −1 0

We can develop a pure quadrupole moment tensor in the same way as we built a dipole moment vector,
by placing four charges at the corners of a square of side d2 in the xy plane. Then the charge density is
        
d d d d d d d d
ρ (r0 ) = lim q δ 3 r0 − î − ĵ − δ 3 r0 − î + ĵ + δ 3 r0 + î + ĵ − δ 3 r0 + î − ĵ
d→0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

and the quadrupole moment may be evaluated easily in Cartesian coordinates. The Dirac delta functions
become, for example,      
d d d d
δ 3 r0 − î − ĵ = δ (z 0 ) δ x0 − δ y0 −
2 2 2 2
and so on, changing signs appropriately. Then, noticing that the quadrupole tensor is a symmetric matrix,
Qij = Qji , we need to compute Qxx , Qxy , Qxz , Qyy , Qyz , Qzz . We can avoid one of thes by noticing that the
trace of the matrix is
3
X
tr (Qij ) = Qii
i=1
3
X
3ri0 ri0 − r02 δii


∝
i=1
3
X
= 3ri0 ri0 − 3r02
i=1
= 3r02 − 3r02
= 0

Therefore, Qzz = −Qxx − Qyy .

Computing one at a time. For the diagonal elements,
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞
0 0
dz 0 ρ (r0 ) 3x02 − x02 + y 02 + z 02 δ11



Qxx = dx dy
−∞ −∞ −∞
ˆ∞ ˆ∞         
d d d d
dx0 dy 0 δ x0 − δ y0 − − δ x0 − δ y0 + 2x02 − y 02


= q
2 2 2 2
−∞ −∞

18
 ˆ∞   ˆ∞
      
d
0 d d d
dy 0 δ x0 + δ y0 + − δ x0 + δ y0 − 2x02 − y 02


+q dx
2 2 2 2
−∞ −∞
 2  2  2  2 !
d d d d
= q − + −
2 2 2 2
= 0
and
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞
0 0
dz 0 ρ (r0 ) 3y 02 − x02 + y 02 + z 02 δ22



Qyy = dx dy
−∞ −∞ −∞
ˆ∞ ˆ∞         
d d d d
dx0 dy 0 δ x0 − δ y0 − − δ x0 − δ y0 + 2y 02 − x02


= q
2 2 2 2
−∞ −∞
ˆ∞   ˆ∞
      
d
0 d d d
dy 0 δ x0 + δ y0 + − δ x0 + δ y0 − 2y 02 − x02


+q dx
2 2 2 2
−∞ −∞
 2  2  2  2 !
d d d d
= q − + −
2 2 2 2
= 0
and therefore Qzz = 0 as well.
For the off-diagonal components,
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞
0 0
dz 0 ρ (r0 ) 3x0 y 0 − x02 + y 02 + z 02 δ12



Qxy = dx dy
−∞ −∞ −∞
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞
= dx0 dy 0 dz 0 3x0 y 0 ρ (r0 )
−∞ −∞ −∞
ˆ∞ ˆ∞         
0 00 d 0 d 0 d 0 d
= 3q dx dy δ x − δ y − −δ x − δ y + x0 y 0
2 2 2 2
−∞ −∞
ˆ∞     ˆ∞     
d d d d
+3q dx0
dy 0 δ x0 + δ y0 + − δ x0 + δ y0 − x0 y 0
2 2 2 2
−∞ −∞
 2  2  2  2 !
d d d d
= 3q + + +
2 2 2 2
3 2
= qd
4
and finally
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞
0 0
dz 0 ρ (r0 ) 3x0 z 0 − x02 + y 02 + z 02 δ13



Qxz = dx dy
−∞ −∞ −∞
ˆ∞ ˆ∞ ˆ∞
= dx0 dy 0 dz 0 ρ (r0 ) 3x0 z 0
−∞ −∞ −∞

19
 = 0

because of the δ (z 0 ) in the density. Qyz vanishes in the same way.

The limit as d → 0 in such a way that Q = qd2 remains constant gives a pure quadrupole.
The quadrupole matrix is therefore simply
 
0 1 0
3 2
Qij = qd 1 0 0 
4
0 0 0

and the potential at an arbitrary point r is

1 3 2
V (r) = qd Qij ri rj
8π0 r5 4
3qd2 xy
=
16π0 r5

20