6.10.

2023

Analog Electronic, KOM2751

Lecture #2
Instructor: Dr. Yavuz Eren

Lecture Book: “Electronic devices and circuit theory, Robert L.

Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, 11th ed, 2013.’’

Fall 2023

DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the

actual terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular operating region.

The result is often a network that can be solved using traditional circuit analysis
techniques.

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the
characteristics of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 1.29 . The resulting
equivalent circuit is called a piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious from
the figure that the straight-line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual
characteristics, especially in the knee region.

The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the device must be greater than the
threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device in the direction dictated
by the ideal diode can be established.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 2

1
 6.10.2023

Components of the piecewise- Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent

linear equivalent circuit. circuit using straight-line segments to
approximate the characteristic curve.

If the characteristics or specification sheet for

a diode is not available the resistance 𝑟!" can
be approximated by the ac resistance 𝑟# .

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 3

Simplified Equivalent Circuit

For most applications, the resistance 𝑟!" is sufficiently small (can be ignored) to be ignored
in comparison to the other elements of the network.

Ideal Equivalent Circuit

Now that 𝑟!" has been removed from the equivalent circuit, let us take the analysis a step
further and establish that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied
voltage level. In this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an ideal diode as
shown in the figure with its characteristics. In Chapter 2 we will see that this
approximation is often made without a serious loss in accuracy.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 4

2
 6.10.2023

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 5

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE NOTATION

The notation most frequently used for semiconductor diodes is provided in figure . For
most diodes any marking such as a dot or band, as shown in figure , it appears at the
cathode end. The terminology anode and cathode is a carryover from vacuum-tube
notation.

The anode refers to the higher or positive potential, and the cathode refers to the lower or
negative terminal. This combination of bias levels will result in a forward-bias or “on”
condition for the diode. A number of commercially available semiconductor diodes appear
in figure

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 6

3
 6.10.2023

Ohmmeter Testing

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 7

ZENER DIODES
The characteristic drops in an almost vertical manner at a reverse-bias potential denoted
𝑉$ .The fact that the curve drops down and away from the horizontal axis rather than up and
away for the positive- 𝑉% region reveals that the current in the Zener region has a direction
opposite to that of a forward-biased diode. The slight slope to the curve in the Zener region
reveals that there is a level of resistance to be associated with the Zener diode in the
conduction mode.
This region of unique characteristics is employed in the design of Zener diodes , which have
the graphic symbol appearing in the figure.
For the Zener diode the direction of conduction is opposite to that of the arrow in the
symbol, as pointed out in the introduction to this section. Note also that the polarity of 𝑉%
and 𝑉$ are the same as would be obtained if each were a resistive element
as shown in figure.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 8

4
 6.10.2023

Zener diodes are available having Zener potentials of 1.8 V to 200 V with power ratings from
1⁄4 W to 50 W. Because of its excellent temperature and current capabilities, silicon is the
preferred material in the manufacture of Zener diodes.

It would be nice to assume the Zener diode is ideal with a straight vertical line at the Zener
potential. However, there is a slight slope to the characteristics requiring the piecewise
equivalent model appearing in figure.

As shown in the following figure , the equivalent model for a Zener diode in the reverse-bias
region below 𝑉& is a very large resistor (as for the standard diode). For most applications this
resistance is so large it can be ignored and the open-circuit equivalent employed. For the
forward-bias region the piecewise equivalent is the same as described in earlier sections.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 9

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 10

10

5
 6.10.2023

The specification sheet for a 10-V, 500-mW, 20% Zener diode is provided as the table and a
plot of the important parameters is given in the figure. The term nominal used in the
specification of the Zener voltage simply indicates that it is a typical average value. Since this
is a 20% diode, the Zener potential of the unit one picks out of a lot (a term used to describe a
package of diodes) can be expected to vary as 10 V 20%, or from 8 V to 12 V. Both 10% and
50% diodes are also readily available.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 11

11

Ex.: Analyze the 10-V Zener diode described by Table if the temperature is increased to
100°C.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 12

12

6
 6.10.2023

The test current IZT is the current defined by the 1⁄4-power level. It is the current that will
define the dynamic resistance ZZT and appears in the general equation for the power rating of
the device.

Substituting IZT into the equation with the nominal Zener voltage results in

which matches the 500-mW label appearing above. For this device the dynamic resistance is
8.5 Ω, which is usually small enough to be ignored in most applications. The maximum knee
impedance is defined at the center of the knee at a current of IZT = 0.25 mA.

Note that in all the above the letter T is used in subscripts to indicate test values and the letter
K to indicate knee values.

The Zener potential of a Zener diode is very sensitive to the temperature of operation.
The temperature coefficient can be used to find the change in Zener potential due to a change
in temperature using the following equation:

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 13

13

For Zener diodes with Zener potentials

less than 5 V it is very common to see
negative temperature coefficients, where
the Zener voltage drops with an increase
in temperature. The next figure provides
a plot of T versus Zener current for three
different levels of diodes. Note that the
3.6-V diode has a negative temperature
coefficient, whereas the others have
positive values.

The change in dynamic resistance with

current for the Zener diode in its
avalanche region is provided in the next
figure. Again, we have a log–log plot,
which has to be carefully read. Initially it
would appear that there is an inverse
linear relationship between the dynamic
resistance because of the straight line.
That would imply that if one doubles the
current, one cuts the resistance in half.
Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 14

14

7
 6.10.2023

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES

The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches, and all forms of
instrumentation has contributed to an extensive interest in structures that emit light when
properly biased.

The two types in common use to perform this function are the light-emitting diode (LED)
and the liquid-crystal display (LCD).

In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the energy converted during recombination
at the junction is dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and the emitted
light is insignificant.

For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the construction of LED devices.

On the other hand:

Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the
recombination process at the p–n junction.

Even though the light is not visible, infrared LEDs have numerous applications where
visible light is not a desirable effect. These include security systems, industrial processing,
optical coupling, safety controls such as on garage door openers, and in home entertainment
centers, where the infrared light of the remote control is the controlling element.
Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 15

15

Through other combinations of elements a

coherent visible light can be generated. The next
table provides a list of common compound
semiconductors and the light they generate. In
addition, the typical range of forward bias
potentials for each is listed

The basic construction of an LED appears in the

following figure with the standard symbol used
for the device.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 16

16

8
 6.10.2023

Just as different sounds have different frequency spectra (high-pitched sounds generally have
high-frequency components, and low sounds have a variety of low-frequency components), the
same is true for different light emissions.

The frequency spectrum for infrared light extends from about 100 THz (1012 H) to 400 THz,
with the visible light spectrum extending from about 400 to 750 THz.

It is interesting to note that invisible light has a lower frequency spectrum than visible light.

In general, when one talks about the response of electroluminescent devices, one references
their wavelength rather than their frequency. The two quantities are related by the following
equation:

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 17

17

Ex.(43): Find the range of wavelength for the frequency range of visible light (400 THz–750
THz).

Note in the above example the resulting inversion from higher frequency to smaller
wavelength. That is, the higher frequency results in the smaller wavelength. Also, most charts
use either nanometers (nm) or angstrom (𝐴)̇ units. One angstrom unit is equal to 10-10 m.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 18

18

9
 6.10.2023

The response of the average human eye as provided in the figure extends from about 350
nm to 800 nm with a peak near 550 nm.

It is interesting to note that the peak response of the eye is to the color green, with red and
blue at the lower ends of the bell curve.

The curve reveals that a red or a blue LED must have a much stronger efficiency than a green
one to be visible at the same intensity. In other words, the eye is more sensitive to the color
green than to other colors. Keep in mind that the wavelengths shown are for the peak
response of each color. All the colors indicated on the plot will have a bell-shaped curve
response, so green, for example, is still visible at 600 nm, but at a lower intensity level.
Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 19

19

In Lecture Note #1 it was mentioned briefly

that GaAs with its higher energy gap of 1.43
eV made it suitable for electromagnetic
radiation of visible light, whereas Si at 1.1 eV
resulted primarily in heat dissipation on
recombination. The effect of this difference in
energy gaps can be explained to some degree
by realizing that to move an electron from
one discrete energy level to another requires a
specific amount of energy. The amount of
energy involved is given by

If we substitute the energy gap level of 1.43

eV for GaAs into the equation, we obtain
the following wavelength:

For Si, Eg=1.1 eV, λ= 1130 nm, which is well beyond the visible range

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 20

20

10
 6.10.2023

The wavelength of 869 nm places GaAs in the wavelength zone typically used in infrared
devices. For a compound material such as GaAsP with a band gap of 1.9 eV the resulting
wavelength is 654 nm, which is in the center of the red zone, making it an excellent compound
semiconductor for LED production. In general, therefore:

The wavelength and frequency of light of a specific color are directly related to the energy
band gap of the material.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 21

21

The appearance and characteristics of a subminiature high-efficiency red LED manufactured

by Hewlett-Packard are given. The peak forward current is 60 mA, with 20 mA the typical
average forward current.
The level of VD under forward-bias conditions is listed as VF and extends from 2.2 V to 3 V. In
other words, one can expect a typical operating current of about 10 mA at 2.3 V for good light
emission, as shown in the figure.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 22

22

11
 6.10.2023

For many years the only colors available were green, yellow, orange, and red, permitting the
use of the average values of V F 2 V and I F 20 mA for obtaining an approximate operating
level.

However, with the introduction of blue in the early 1990s and white in the late 1990s the
magnitude of these two parameters has changed. For blue the average forward bias voltage can
be as high as 5 V, and for white about 4.1 V, although both have a typical operating current of
20 mA or more. In general, therefore:

Assume an average forward-bias voltage of 5 V for blue and 4 V for white LEDs at currents
of 20 mA to initiate an analysis of networks with these types of LEDs.

Every once in a while a device is introduced that seems to open the door to a slue of
possibilities. Such is the case with the introduction of white LEDs. The slow start for white
LEDs is primarily due to the fact that it is not a primary color like green, blue, and red.

Every other color that one requires, such as on a TV screen, can be generated from these three
colors (as in virtually all monitors available today). Yes, the right combination of these three
colors can give white—hard to believe, but it works.

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 23

23

Analog Electronic, Lecture Notes #2 24

24

12