LESSON 1: ELECTROMAGNETIC

CIRCUITS
ENGR. RONNIE A. CADALIN, REE, RME, MATVE
Chapter Objectives:
After completing this lessons the students shall be able to understand:
1. What is magnetic field and its significance?
2. What is a magnetic circuit?
3. What are the important terms related to magnetism and magnetic circuits?
4. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between magnetic and electric
circuits?
5. How series and parallel magnetic circuits are treated?
6. What is leakage flux and how it affects magnetic circuits?
7. What is magnetic hysteresis and hysteresis loss?
8. What is electromagnetic induction phenomenon?
9. What are Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction?
10.What are self- and mutual inductances and what is their significance?
11.What is the effective value of inductances when these are connected in
series–parallel combination?
12.What are electromechanical energy conversion devices?
13.How does torque develop by the alignment of two fields?
14.What are the factors on which torque depends?
15.How to determine the direction of torque or induced emf in rotating
machines?
1.1 Magnetic Field and its Significance
The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or
repulsion is called magnetic field.
It is assumed (because of their effects) that the magnetic lines of force possess
the following important properties:

(i) The direction of magnetic lines of force is from N-pole

to the S-pole outside the magnet. But inside the magnet
their direction is from S-pole to N-pole.
(ii) They form a closed loop.
(iii) Their tendency is to follow the least reluctance path.
(iv) They act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten
themselves.
(v) They never intersect each other.
(vi) They repel each other when they are parallel and
are in the same direction.
(vii) They remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials.
1.2 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis
➢The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
➢A magnetic circuit usually consists of magnetic materials having high
permeability (e.g., iron, soft steel, etc.). In this circuit, magnetic flux starts from
a point and finishes at the same point after completing its path.

Figure 1.2 shows a solenoid having N turns wound on

an iron core (ring). When current I ampere is passed
through the solenoid,
magnetic flux φ Wb is set-up in the core.
Let l = mean length of magnetic circuit in m;
a = area of cross-section of core in m2;
μr = relative permeability of core material.
φ
Flux density in the core material, B = Wb/m2
𝑎
Magnetising force in core material
𝐵 φ
H = μ μ = 𝑎 μ μ AT/m
𝑜 𝑟 𝑜 𝑟

According to work law, the work done in moving a unit pole once round the magnetic
circuit (or path) is equal to the ampere-turns enclosed by the magnetic circuit.
φ 𝑁𝐼
i.e., HL = NI or 𝑎 μ μ x L = NI or φ = 𝐿 /𝑎 μ μ Wb
𝑜 𝑟 𝑜 𝑟

The above expression reveals that the amount of flux set-up in the core is
(i) directly proportional to N and I i.e., NI, called magnetomotive force (mmf). It shows
that the flux increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa.
(ii) inversely proportional to l/a μ0 μr called reluctance of the magnetic path. In fact,
reluctance is the opposition offered to the magnetic flux by the magnetic path. The
lower is the reluctance, the higher will be the flux and vice-versa.
𝑚.𝑚.𝑓
Thus, Flux (φ)= 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1.3 Important Terms
While studying magnetic circuits, generally, we come across the following terms:
1. Magnetic field: The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force
of attraction or repulsion is called magnetic field.
2. Magnetic flux (φ): The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a
magnetic circuit is called magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous
to electric current I in electric circuit.
3. The magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles
to the flux at tha point. It is, generally, represented by letter ‘B’. Its unit is
φ
Wb/m2 or Tesla, i.e., B= Wb/m2 or T ( 1Wb/m2 = 1x104 Wb/m2)
𝑎
4. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through it
is called the permeability of that material.
It is generally represented by μ (mu, a Greek letter). The greater the permeability of
a material, the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa.
The permeability of air or vacuum is the poorest and is represented as μ0 (where μ0 =
4π × 10–7 H/m).
Relative permeability: The absolute (or actual) permeability μ of a magnetic material
is much greater than absolute permeability of air μ0. The relative permeability of a
magnetic material is given in comparison with air or vacuum.
Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material μ to the permeability of air or vacuum
μ0 is called the relative permeability μr of the material.
μ
i.e., μr = μ or μ = μr μ0
0
Obviously, the relative permeability of air would be μ0/μ0 = 1. The value of relative
permeability of all the non-magnetic materials is also 1. However, its value is as high
as 8000 for soft iron, whereas, its value for mumetal (iron 22% and nickel 78%) is as
high as 1,20,000.
5. Magnetic field intensity: The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when
placed at a point in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity of the
field at that point. It is denoted by H. In magnetic circuits, it is defined as
mmf per unit length of the magnetic path. It is denoted by H,
𝒎.𝒎.𝒇 𝑵𝑰
mathematically, H = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 = 𝑳
AT/m

6. Magnetomotive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to

set-up magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As
per work law it may be defined as under: The work done in moving a unit
magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic circuit is called
magnetomotive force. In general, mmf = NI ampere-turns (or AT)
7. Reluctance (S): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic
circuit is called its reluctance. It depends upon length (l), area of cross-
section (a) and permeability (μ = μ0 μr) of the material that makes up the
𝑙
magnetic circuit. It is measured in AT/Wb. Reluctance, S = 𝑎μ μr, it is
0
analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
8. Permeance: It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the
material. It is just reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in
1 a μ0 μr
Wb/AT or henry. Permeance = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑙
Wb/AT or H, it is
analogous to conductance in an electric circuit.
9. Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric
circuit.
1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

1. The closed path for magnetic flux is 1. The closed path for electric current is called
called magnetic circuit. electric circuit.
2. Flux = mmf/reluctance 2. Current = emf/resistance
3. Flux, φ in Wb 3. Current, I in ampere
4. mmf in AT 4. emf in V
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
5. Reluctance, S = = AT/Wb 5. Resistance, R = ρ Ω
𝑎μ 𝑎μ0 μr 𝑎
1.4 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

6. Permeance = 1/reluctance 6. Conductance = 1/resistance

7. Permeability, μ 1
7. Conductivity, ð = ρ

8. Reluctivity 8. Resistivity
φ 𝐼
9. Flux density, B = Wb/m2 9. Current density, J = 𝑎 A/m2
𝑎
10. Magnetic intensity, H = NI/l 10. Electric intensity, E = V/d
1.5 Ampere-turns Calculations
In a magnetic circuit, flux produced,
𝑁𝐼
Flux (φ)= (𝑚.𝑚.𝑓)/𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = Wb
𝐿 /𝑎 μ𝑜μ𝑟

φ𝑙 𝐵
or AT required, NI = = x l = Hl
𝑎 μ𝑜μ𝑟 μ𝑜μ𝑟

1.6 Series Magnetic Circuits

A magnetic circuit that has a number of parts of
different dimensions and materials carrying the
same magnetic field is called a series magnetic
circuit. Such as series magnetic circuit (composite
circuit) is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
S = S1 + S2 + S3 + Sg
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
S = 𝑎 μ 1 μr + 𝑎 μ 2 μr + 𝑎 μ 3 μ + 𝑎 μ 𝑔μrg
1 0 1 2 0 2 3 0 r3 g 0

Total mmf = φS
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑔
=φ( + + + )
𝑎1μ0 μr1 𝑎2μ0 μr2 𝑎3μ0 μr3 𝑎gμ0 μ𝑟𝑔
𝐵1𝑙1 𝐵2𝑙2 𝐵3𝑙3 𝐵𝑔𝑙𝑔
= + + +
μ0 μr1 μ0 μr2 μ0 μr3 μ0 μrg
= H1l1 + H2l2 + H3l3 + Hglg
1.7 Parallel Magnetic Circuits
A magnetic circuit which has two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is
called a parallel magnetic circuit. Its behaviour can be just compared to a
parallel electric circuit.
Figure 1.6 shows a parallel magnetic circuit. A current carrying coil is wound on
the central limb AB. This coil sets-up a magnetic flux φ1 in the central limb which
is further divided into two paths i.e., (i) path ADCB which carries flux φ2 and (ii)
path AFEB which carries flux φ3.
It is clear that φ1 = φ2 + φ3
The two magnetic paths ADCB and AFEB are in
parallel. The ATs required for this parallel circuit
is equal to the ATs required for any one of the
paths.

If S1 = reluctance of path BA i.e., l1/a1 μ0 μr1

S2 = reluctance of path ADCB i.e., l2/a2 μ0 μr2
S3 = reluctance of path AFEB i.e., l3/a3 μ0 μr3
Total mmf required = mmf required for path BA + mmf required path ADCB or path AFEB
i.e., Total mmf or AT =φ1S1 + φ2S2 = φ1S1 + φ3S3
1.8 Leakage Flux
➢ The magnetic flux which does not follow the intended path
in a magnetic circuit is called leakage flux.
➢ When some current is passed through a solenoid, as shown
in Fig. 1.7, magnetic flux is produced by it. Most of this flux
is set-up in the magnetic core and passes through the air
gap (an intended path). This flux is known as useful flux φu.
However, some of the flux is just set-up around the coil and
is not utilised for any work. This flux is called leakage flux
φl .
➢ Total flux produced by the solenoid.
φ = φu + φl

Leakage co-efficient or leakage factor: The ratio of total flux (φ ) produced by the solenoid to
the useful flux (φu) set-up in the air gap is known as leakage co-efficient. It is generally
represented by letter ‘λ’.
φ
Leakage co-efficient, λ = φ
u
EXAMPLES:
1. An iron ring of 400 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross-
section 20 cm2. Its relative permeability is 500. If it is wound with 400 turns, what
current would be required to produce a flux of 0·001 Wb?

2. An electromagnet has an air gap of 4 mm and flux density in the gap is 1·3
Wb/m2. Determine the ampere-turns for the gap.
3. A coil of insulated wire of 500 turns and of resistance 4 Ω is closely wound
on iron ring. The ring has a mean diameter of 0·25 m and a uniform cross-
sectional area of 700 mm2. Calculate the total flux in the ring when a DC
supply of 6V is applied to the ends of the winding. Assume a relative
permeability of 550.
4. What are the similarities between electrical circuits and magnetic circuits?
An iron ring of mean length 50 cm and relative permeability of 300 has an
air gap of 1 mm. If the ring is provided with winding of 200 turns and a
current of 1 A is allowed to flow through, find the flux density across the
airgap.
5. A flux density of 1·2 Wb/m2 is required in 2 mm air gap of an electro-
magnet having an iron path 1 metre long. Calculate the magnetising force
and current required if the electro magnet has 1273 turns. Assume relative
permeability of iron to be 1500.
6. Estimate the number of ampere-turns necessary to produce a flux of
100000 lines round an iron ring of 6 cm2 cross section and 20 cm mean
diameter having an air gap 2 mm wide across it. Relative Permeability of
the iron may be taken 1200. Neglect the leakage flux outside the 2 mm air
gap.
7. A rectangular magnetic core shown in Fig. (a). has square cross-section of
area 16 cm2. An air-gap of 2 mm is cut across one of its limbs. Find the
exciting current needed in the coil having 1000 turns wound on the core to
create an air-gap flux of 4 m Wb. The relative permeability of the core is
2000.
8. An iron ring is made up of three parts; l1 = 10 cm, a1 = 5 cm2; l2 = 8 cm, a2
= 3 cm2; l3 = 6 cm, a3 = 2·5 cm2. It is wound with a 250 turns coil. Calculate
current required to produce flux of 0·4 mWb. The relative permeabilities
are: μ1 = 2670, μ2 = 1050, μ3 = 600.
9. A magnetic core made of annealed sheet steel has the dimensions as shown
in Fig. 1.18. The cross-section everywhere is 25 cm2. The flux in branches A
and B is 3500 μ Wb, but that in the branch C is zero. Find the required
ampere-turns for coil A and for coil C. Relative permeability of sheet steel is
1000.
SEATWORK:
1. The ring shaped core shown in Fig. 1.16 is made of a material having a
relative permeability of 1000. The flux density in the smallest area of cross-
section is 2 T. If the current through the coil is not to exceed 1·5 A, compute
the number of turns of the coil. Ans. N =371.36 Turns
2. The magnetic frame shown in Fig. 1.17 is built-up of iron of square cross-section,
3 cm side. Each air gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the coil is wound with 1000 turns
and the exciting current is 1.0 A. The relative permeability of part A and part B
may be taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively. Calculate, (i) reluctance of part
A; (ii) reluctance of part B; (iii) reluctance of two air gaps; (iv) total reluctance of
the complete magnetic circuit; (v) mmf produced and (vi) flux set-up in the circuit.
Ans. (i) SA = 176,839 AT/Wb; (ii) SB = 250,521 AT/Wb; (iii) Sg = 3,536,776
AT/Wb; (iv) S = 3,964,136 AT/Wb; (v) Total mmf = 2000 AT; (vi) φ = 0.5045
mWb
3. A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a circular
shape as given in Fig. 1.11. It is then wound with 500 turns of wire.
Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0·5 mWb in magnetic
circuit with an air gap of 1 mm; ur (iron) = 4000 (assume constant). Ans.
4.433 A
4. An iron ring of mean length 1 m has an air gap of 1 mm and a winding of
200 turns. If the relative permeability of iron is 500 when a current of 1 A
flows through the coil, find the flux density. Ans. 0.0838 Wb/m2