Q1. Layout of Typical HVDC Converter support towers is less and cost is reduced 4.

In
case of a cable, dielectric power loss is very less
The layout of typical HVDC converter station is
in D.C. than in A.C., this facility of current
The HVDC system mainly consists of incoming capacity of a cable 5. Natural dielectric
line, converter station (AC to DC conversion), strength is 3 times the dielectric strength in
DC transmission and converter station The case of AC and hence working voltage of D.C.
HVDC converter station is shown in Incoming cable can be as much as 5 times the working
line is connected to power transformers. voltage in A.C.6. Insulation in DC has longer life
Converter unit It consists of converter bridges due to unidirectional stresses as compared to
made up of solid-state devices (SCR or IGBT) alternating stresses which create more fatigue
The solid-state devices handle large current, 7. Cables have lead sheath, the effect of
hence these are heated up, so proper cooling charging current, eddy currents is considerably
arrangement is necessary. The cooling is done more but this loss is very less in D.C. 8. A.C.
by water, oil. Appropriate protection circuits system has the limit on the length of the line
are provided for these devices. due to current which is not the cast in D.C. Any
length is possible. 12. Transmitting capacity of
D.C. is more than AC 9. HVDC line can be built
in stages. 10. No skin effect. 11. Voltage
regulation is better us there is no inductive
HVDC Transmission Descriptive Treatment
Only) 12. Greater reliability 13. Rapid change of
energy flow and transient stability is also
increased 14. Higher operating voltages.

Limitations (Disadvantages) of HVDC

AC filters 1. Circuit breakers play an important part in the

system. In case of D.C., circuit breakers are not
These use K-L-C combinations to reduce AC that reliable as in A.C. System. Development in
harmonic currents. These also provide reactive this line is being carried out. Quick acting
power isolators and grid-controlled action play an
important part in this regard. 2. The different
DC filters
types of terminal equipment and accessories
These are similar to AC filters. These are used required are very costly and overall cost thus
to filter DC harmonics Smoothing reactor The increases. Converters and inverters (A.C to D.C
DC current ripples are removed using and D.C. to A.C) are required to be installed. As
smoothing reactor. It is connected in series compared to transformer in A.C. these
with the line as shown. Thus, smooth DC is equipment’s are costly. But new techniques
obtained. have crossed these barriers and the equipment
is being modernized and becoming affordable.
Q2. Advantages HVDC Transmission
Superconductors are being used in some cases.
1. Requires go and return 2 wires as compared 3. Distortion in waveform and presence of
to 3 phases A.C. requiring 3 wires, hence ripples in harmonics is also a hurdle in D.C.
conductor material is saved and becomes E.H.V. So, filters and other smoothing circuits
cheaper than A.C 2. In comparison with A.C. for and related equipment is necessary. 4. No
the same voltage, insulation problems are not reactive kVA/MVA can be transmitted over the
serious and costly 3. As member of conductors D.C. link. It is saying therefore that receiving
required are is, the mechanical load on the end must be capable of supplying
independently the reactive kVA/MVA demand
of the load and converting apparatus installed. end only. Both the lines operate with same
5. There may be side effects due to earth current, so ground current is zero. 2) If line is
current. This comes in play when earth grounded independently as shown in Fig. both
conductor is used as a return conductor for lines can operate independently. 3) This type is
D.C. line. But the problem can be solved by used for transmission of power for long
corrective methods. 6. HVDC converters need distance. During normal operation the earth
complex cooling system. 7. More maintenance current may not be zero but may be small value
of line insulator is required. 8. Voltage out of balance current. 4) This link is also used
transformations is not easier in case of DC and for back to back HVDC System.
hence it has to be accomplished on the AC side
of the system. DC system cannot be employed
for distribution sub-transmission and
backbone transmission.

Q3. Types of HVDC Transmission Line

(A) Monopolar link -Monopolar link consists

of one conductor and earth forms return path.
The line operates with negative polarity to
reduce corona loss. -The negative polarity also
reduces radio interference or noise in Advantages
neighboring communication lines. -Earth (i) In case of any fault on one line, the other -
electrodes are designed for continuous rated healthy line along with ground return can
current operations. Ground return or 'sea' is supply half of the rated load. This helps in
permanent. Advantages of ground return path maintaining continuous supply and as if it
(i) It has low resistance therefore low power works as monopolar type link. (ii) At Rachidial
loss in comparison with metal line conductor single bipolar line is of 810 km length of
(Cu, Al). (ii) Monopolar is more economical capacity 1500 MW operating at +500 kV for
than the other types such as Bi-polar link (line) bulk power transmission.
as it saves the cost of one metal conductor. (iii) (C) Homopolar link 1. The cost of insulation is
Monopolar links are not popular, these were reduced but since return current flows through
used in earlier period only for low-power rating earth so there are certain disadvantages. 2.The
and cable transmission. return current in earth causes corrosion and
electrolysis effects on underground piping
system and cabling. 3.In case of fault in any one
conductor of the line the converter equipment
can be reconnected so that healthy conductor
can supply power. 4.The scheme is
complicated. 5.This type of link has limited
applications.

(B) Bipolar link 1) Fig. shows a bipolar link. The

bipolar link consists of two conductors-positive
conductor and negative conductor. One each
end of DC line; two converters of equal rating
are connected in series. The junction is
grounded at both ends or sometimes at one
Q4. Constant current control method voltage dip then this results in more (excessive)
VA, requirement for the inverter.
Let I: Current which is to be kept constant in
the system. 1, Set reference current the Q6.Constant Excitation Angle Control Method
current I is compared with L The error -If in the system some fault like line to line fault
generated i.e. difference 1-1, is generated and develops then the voltage available for
amplified. This error signal is used (1) To commutation reduces. -This also increases or
control angle a in case of rectifier and (ii) Angle decreases the available -commutation angle.
ô in case of inverter in proper direction, so that Smoothing reactors are present in the system
the error is reduced and hence current is held but even then, if there is a voltage dip on ac
constant at 1, Current I =Vdc.cosa-Vdi cos side the rate of change of current I is very high.
B\Rc+R+-Ri -If current measured is more than -During an unsymmetrical fault, the voltages of
I then it is required to reduced it and bring back various phases become unbalanced so in such
to set I. -See the above expression of current constant excitation angle (infinity) control
(1) -Denominator is almost fixed. -So, one has system a separate computer for each group of
to reduce numerator to get I, the reference thyristors connected to the same phase. -The
value. -@ is to be increased in rectifier circuit ensure safe and reliable commutation the
to reduce the voltage which decreases the exact instant of firing a thyristor is provided
difference between rectifier and inverter through a output signal after computation by
voltage. This reduces current to the desired each computer. -The phase on which
reference value. -In inverting mode of conducting thyristor is connected and the on
operation of converter or inverter, voltage which the thyristor is to be fired next is
must be increased, which reduces the connected, the computer has to monitor the
difference between the two voltages to bring amplitude for commutation voltage between
back the current to reference value. these two. -When two thyristors conduct
simultaneously, this voltage circulates the
Q5. Constant Ignition Angle control method (i)
commutating current through these two
From rectifier circuit: Voi=Vdc cos a -I(R+Rc)
phases.
And (ii) From inverter circuit: Voi=Vdi cos B+IRi
These two equations are plotted in the fig. Q7. HVDC Recent development
graphical dig. (V versa I)
1) Power semiconductors and valves -The size
of devices has gone up to 125 mm in diameter
and there is no need of parallel connection. -
The voltage ratings are also increased. -
operation reliability is also increased using. . -
Better cooling methods allow high power
ratings of thyristors. Now in recent
developments Deionized water -cooling results
in reducing losses in cooling. ii) Converter
-From this relation it is cleared that Vd is control Modern fully developed
reduced and I is fixed, then (cos 8 cos B) has to microcomputer-based convert control
be increased. -But since ẞ is constant. equipment is very useful in case of
Therefore, cos ẞ is fixed to increase the term malfunctions. (iii) D.C. Breakers With the
(cos 8-cos B), 8 has to be lowered. 8 may fall development testing of prototype D.C.
below &, (i.e. nominal value). This results in Breakers, it is possible to go in for tapping an
commutation failure. If B is kept constant at existing D.C. link or development in MTDC
some larger value with the application of systems. i.e. in multi-terminal DC. system
Q8. Function of components HVDC is necessary e.g. to maintain the current
margin AI, the inverter side must know what is
Thyristor Valves-These are the most important
rectifier current setting is. This information is
converter station equipment. Thyristor has a
continually relayed by a high-speed
better operating life and higher consistency of
communication link between the two
performance. Use of thyristors led to
converters.
considerable simplification in conversation
design. Converter Transformers- These are Q9. Single line diagram HVDC Transmission
connected between converter valves and AC System
bus-bars. (i) These transformers transform A.C.
voltage to a suitable A.C. voltage to feed the
converter. (ii) These transformers also supply
reactive power to the converter through tap-
chargers also. Taps are automatically operated
by motorized system. Taps are also provided
on transformer of inverter side. (iii) Control
fault level by suitable reactance offered by it
and also help in harmonic suppression. These
transformers may be single or three phases.
D.C. Reactor

These are connected in series with each pole of

converter. Their function is to prevent
communication failure in inverter. It also
reduces harmonic voltages. -Harmonic
Filtering Equipment and Reactors. Bridge
converter employed in HVDC does not convert
pure AC sinusoidal waveform to pure DC form.
Harmonic current is generated and so also
harmonic voltages on AC as well as DC side.
These harmonics do not interfere with
converter operation but they disturb AC and
DC lines. Control Equipment -The control of
firing angle is very important in HVDC system.
For this optic fiber-based hardware circuitry is
used. Reactive Power Compensation
Equipment This equipment consists of AC
filters, static shunt capacitors, synchronous
condensers, static VAR compensators, etc. As
the active power transmitted goes on varying
the reactive power must also be varied.
Ground Electrodes- Ground electrode is
located away from converter station. Special
means are provided to minimize electrode
resistance. DC currents in the ground have a
corrosive effect on pipes, cables and metallic
parts. Communication Link- For controlling
purpose of the converters at both the ends of
the line, a communication link between them
Q10. Discuss about unsymmetrical fault Q11. L G Fault

-we have studied symmetrical faults (all three Let's assume that single line to ground fault
lines short circuited i.e. LLL and all three lines takes place on R phase through a fault
short circuited with an earth connection at impedance Z Fig. shows single line to ground
fault L-L-L-G). -But majority of faults on the fault. We are considering Z (fault impedance)
power system are unsymmetrical in nature. for the sake of generality. The fault condition
Such faults give rise to unsymmetrical currents gives the following equations.
i.e. the magnitude of faults currents in the
three lines are different having unequal phase
displacement. -The 'unsymmetry' applies only
to the fault and the resulting line currents.
However, the system impedance (ex:
generator impedance transformers impedance
transmission line impedance etc.) and source
voltages are always symmetrical. Following are
the examples of unsymmetrical faults which
occur in power system. (i) Single line to ground
fault (L-G). (ii) Line to line fault (L-L). (iii) Double
line to ground fault (L-L-G).

(i) Symmetrical fault component method.

(ii) Kirchhoff's law method

First method was proposed by C. L. Fortesque

in 1918. Symmetrical fault component method
reasons is preferred over Kirchhoff's law
method because of following reasons. (a) This
method is simple and can be applied to fault
studies without losing the generality. (b) It
provides a useful tool to power system
engineer for tracing out the fault currents.
According to fortesque theorem, any
unbalanced three phase system of currents,
voltages or other sinusoidal quantities can be
resolved into three balanced systems of
phasors which are called "symmetrical
components" of the original unbalanced
system.

Using Above Values of VR0, VR1 And Equation

We Can Find VR, Vy and VB.
Q12. L L Line Fault current equation Q13. Delta-Delta Transformer Bank:

-In this case, the zero-sequence current cannot

flow in or out from the Delta - Delta
Transformer. -So, due to this there is an open
circuit between A and B and Zo is connected to
the reference bus on both ends to account for
any circulating zero sequence current it both
deltas as shown in the Fig.

Star-delta transformer bank with unearthed

star: In this case, the neutral is earthed
through Zn = infinity. Therefore, no zero
sequence current flows in the transformer
windings. The modified zero sequence
network is shown in the Fig.

Star-Delta Transformer Bank with Earthed

Star neutral: If the neutral of the star sided is
earthed, then the zero-sequence current can
flow in star because a path is there to earth and
the balancing zero sequence current can flow
in delta. The zero sequence networks should
have a path from the line A on the star side via
the zero-sequence impedance of the
transformer to the reference bus, and the
open circuit should exist on the line B of the
delta side as shown in the Fig.

Star - Star transformer bank with both the neutral

earthed: In this case, both the neutrals are
connected to earth, there is a path for zero
sequence current in both the winding through the

two earthed neutral.

Q13. What is per unit system does not provide a direct physical
interpretation of electrical quantities, which
When we want to compare or analyze the
can make it less intuitive to work with.
students’ performance, we have to bring all of
Dependence on base values – The per unit
them on common base (ground/level) i.e. Total
system relies on accurate base values, which
maximum marks. Similarly, power system
may not always be available or may vary
quantities like reactance’s, impedances,
between different systems or locations.
voltages, KVA etc. are expressed as per unit.
The common base, here chosen as the largest Q14. Classification of buses
value of that quantity in given power system.
For load flow analysis depending upon the data
For example, when there is more than one
available, the buses are classified as
alternator, the largest alternator i.e. (largest
mentioned in Table We know that for load flow
value of KVA is chosen as base KVA.
studies, we make of below. mentioned four
Advantages: 1. Per unit representation of variables, (i) Voltage. (in polar form) (iii)
data gives important information about Reactive power (ii) Active power (iv)Power
relative magnitudes. 2. Erroneous data can be angle.
easily identified if we use p.u. values because
Sr.N Bus Know Unkn Approxi
system parameters tend to fall in relatively
o. type n ow mate
narrow numerical ranges. 3. Sometimes it is varia variab number
easier to assume the p.u. than its numerical ble le
value if data is not available. Manufacturers 1 Load Pi,Qi Vi, 85%
usually specify the impedance values of bus or
equipment’s in per unit of the equipment’s PQ bus
rating. (Y/A/Z) of 4. The winding connections 2 Genera 15%
36 transformer do not affect the per unit value tor bus
of impedance although the base voltages on or Vi
the two sides depend on the connections. 5. If vtg
base values are selected properly, the per unit control
impedance is the same on the two sides of the led bus
or PV
transformers. Whereas the ohmic values
BUS
impedances referred to primary and secondary
3 Refere 1(one)
are different. 6. As units of quantities become
nce bus
redundant in per unit system, one need not or slack
worry about its unit/dimensions. bus or
swing
Disadvantages: Complex conversions – The
bus
per unit system requires the conversion of
(1) Load Bus/PQ Bus: These buses are the most
electrical quantities to a common base, which
common (85%) in power supply network. P and
can be complex and time-consuming.
Q are the known quantities from the load
Sensitivity to base changes – The accuracy of
forecast data. Generated power Po and Qo are
the per unit system is dependent on the
either zero or specified. (2) Generator Bus / PV
accuracy of the base values used, and small
Bus / Voltage controlled Bus: These buses are
changes in the base can result in significant
very few i.c. 15% of the total number of buses
errors. Limited range of applicability – The per
in the system. As the name suggest the
unit system is limited in its range of
generators are connected to buses are called
applicability and may not be suitable for
as generator bus. From governor and
certain types of systems or calculations. Lack of
excitation control settings allows us to know
physical significance – The per unit system
the values of Poi and V. Since, from load -The final solution must follow the following
forecast data, we can specify P, hence P, is rules. (1) Voltage magnitude at various buses
known at these buses. (P-Poi-PL) (Refer must be within limits. (2) Active and reactive
Equation 3.18.7) (3) Reference Bus/Swing Bus power at different buses must be within the
/Slack Bus: Before analyzing we don't know minimum and maximum limits. (3) Total
the power losses hence, we cannot fix the net generation must be equal to total load plus
power flow into the system in advance. losses. (4) 8I should be imposed with maximum
Basically, swing bus is a generator bus to which limits considering system stability. we use (i)
largest generator is connected. This bus is Gauss-siedel method (ii) Newton-Raphson
numbered as bus 1. The generator at this bus method.
supply the difference between the specified
Q16. Y bus Matrix Method
real power injected into the system at other
buses and total system output plus losses. Graph Theory -Graph of the network is nothing
Generally, we specify the voltage at swing bus but the resulting diagram when each element
equal to 1 pu. The swing bus is only 1 in the of the network is replaced by a lineGenerally,
given. system. the assigned direction of orientation is in such
a way that it coincides with the assumed
Q15. Derive the power flow equation ‘n‘bus
positive direction of the current is that
element. -If Fig. shows the given network (b)
shows the oriented graph of the network. The
line joining each node and reference node i.e.
Oh node represents capacitively charging
impedance connected is between each bus
and ground.
-We know that tree is nothing but part of the current supplied by Ga is kept limited by X1 and
graph with minimum numbers of branches to X2 reactors in series. Hence, the rectors used
connect all nodes without "forming a closed in tie bar system are half of ratings as that of
path". Hence, the number of branches 'b' used in Ring system. As compared to
required to form a tree is equal to no. of buses Generator reactors and feeder 3-phase sy
(including reference ground bus/node). -The reactors additional generators may be
remaining branches (which are not tree connected to the system without any charges
branches) are called as co-tree branches or in existing reactors. Disadvantage (1) It
links and form co-tree graph as shown in Fig. requires an additional bus bar i.e. tie bar.
3.20.1(d). For the given graph in Fig. 3.20.1(b),
Q18. Selection of circuit breaker
No. of branches = 9 and No. of tree
branches=No. of nodes = 5. The initial sub transient and d.c. offset
component of three phase fault in the power
system has detrimental effects on the power
system and its components like switchgears.
These two factors momentarily put excess duty
called as momentary duty. As per assumption
no. 6 of section 4.7, initially we neglect, the d.c.
component for calculation purpose, later we
add this effect by multiplying factor 1.6 for
circuit breakers working above 5 KV. This factor
is reduced for operating voltages below 5KV. -
In order to calculate the interrupting capacity
of the circuit breaker, the sub transient
currents are used. As for the multiplying factor
used on calculated r.m.s current, this will
depend upon the speed of circuit L breaker, the
ratio 2. in the circuit, distance between fault
and generating station etc. as the fault pt is
away from generating station, λ=L/R decrease,
Q17. Tie bar system hence dc component decays faster. Therefore,
Fig. shows the tie bar system. As compared to smaller is the multiplying factor. For fast
ring system, in addition to bus bar, each operation of breakers, greater is the value of
generator is connected to tie bar through short multiplying factors Fig. 4.3.3(c) is redrawn in
circuit reactors. Fig. 4.8.1 to show the different instances of
breaker contact separation. Again Table 4.7.1
can be referred to select proper value of
multiplying factor.

If faults occur at bus bar of Gi, major part of the

short circuit current is supplied by G₁ only. The
Q19. 3-phase short ckt analysis unloaded
alternator

We have seen that single live diagram lets us to

analyze the given three phase system as 1 phase
system. Moreover, in case of three phase
symmetrical fault has identical effects on each
phase with equal (120°) phase angle between them.
So we can apply the analysis done in section 4.3
equally to three phase systems. Thus, when we
short circuit the terminals of 3-phase alternator,
the fault current flowing through armature is
similar to that of the case when sinusoidal voltage
is applied to R-L. series circuit suddenly. But the
important thing in RL series circuit is that inductive
reactance (X) is constant and in case of alternator
(Synchronous generator), the inductive reactance
(X) is not constant but it is a function of time.

Now, synchronous generator may be of round rotor

or salient rotor. We will do the analysis of salient
rotor machines. The reasons to consider / analyze
the salient machine over round (or non-salient)
rotor are. (i) In case of non-salient rotors, the air gap
is constant which makes the uniform distribution of
MMF through the stator. (ii) Due to non-uniformity
is distribution of MMF by salient pole machines
make it to give the results of analysis more than
non-salient pole machine, (iii) Non-saliency
features can easily be accommodated in the results
obtained by analyzing salient pole machine but vice
versa is not possible i.c. we cannot approximate the
results of analysis made with wound rotor to
equally to salient pole rotor machines. Hence forth,
we will consider salient pole machine for analysis
purpose. We know that salient pole machine
consists of direct axis and quadrature axis
reactance’s. The quadrature axis reactance can be
further neglect as compared to direct axis
reactance. To justify this assumption, consider the
phasor diagram of synchronous generator under
balanced load conditions (as seen/learnt in
Electrical machines - II as shown in Fig. With I d \&
I_{q} = Direct axis and quadrature axis caused
reactance X, & Xq = Direct axis and quadrature axis
caused E = No load generated voltage V = Terminal
voltage phi = Power factor angle