INDEX

Name of the student

Register Number

Subject code & Name

Marks Awarded Faculty

S. No Date Experiment Name
Prelab Postlab Record Sign
 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

VI and PI characteristics of LED and PIN photodiode

VI Characteristics: PI Characteristics:
 VI AND PI CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND PIN
Ex. No.: Date:
PHOTO DIODE

AIM:
To obtain the VI and PI characteristics of LED and PIN photo diode
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT QUANTITY

1 Optical Fiber Trainer Kit 1
2 Fiber Optic cable 1m
3 Power meter 1
4 Multimeter 1
5 Probe As required

THEORY:
Light Emitting Diode:
The transmitter of an optical fiber communication system consists of an optical source,
optical interconnects and associated electronics necessary for modulation of the light output in
accordance with the information or intelligence signal. An optical source is the key
component of the optical transmitter unit. The purpose of an optical source is to convert an
electrical signal reliably into optical radiation (E/O conversion).

There are a variety of optical sources that convert electrical energy to an optical signal
(light). However, in view of the compatibility with the dimensions of an optical fiber,
semiconductor optical sources are generally used in fiber optic communication system. There
are two types of semiconductor optical source e.g. Light Emitting Diode (LED) and Injection
Laser Diode (ILD) often referred to as Laser Diode (LD).
 Pre-lab questions
1. List the major components used in optical transmitter.

2. What is a transducer?

3. Mention the significant layers in the structure of PIN Photodiode.

4. Specify the modulation bandwidth of LED.

5. Define responsivity.

6. Define voltage.

7. Define current.

8. Light Emitting Diode is a _________ Device.

a) Semiconductor b) Conductor c) Dielectric

9. LED release energy in the form of _______

a) Protons b) Electrons c) Photons

10. LED is abbreviation of__________

a) Light emitting diode b) Light enter diode c) Low emitting diode
PIN Photo diode:
The function of a photo detector is to convert the received optical signal into its
electrical counterpart. A photo detector is a key component of an optical receiver in an optical
fiber communication system where the optical signal is converted to an electrical signal and
subsequently processed by associated electronic circuits.

The photo detector receives the transmitted optical pulses containing information (such
as voice, video or computer data) impressed on it and converts it into an electrical signal that
is supposed to be a replica of the original information signal. However, in practice the signal
received by the receiver is generally weak and distorted depending on the nature of the
channel (optical fiber in this case). The weak mutilated electrical signal extracted by the
detector is further amplified and refined by subsequent stages of the receiver before being
delivered at the output. From this application point of view, a photo detector is basically a
transducer that converts a signal from optical domain to electrical domain. This process is
known as Optical-to-Electrical (O/E) conversion. A reverse conversion from Electrical-to-
Optical (E/O) domain is generally achieved in an optical fiber communication system by an
optical source (e.g. light emitting diode or injection laser diode) at the transmitter end.

PROCEDURE for DC Characteristics of LED:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Adjust the input FO – LED current knob from minimum to maximum and observe the
various output FO LED voltage and current at knob number B3 and B4 using
Multimeter.

3. For each adjustment of FO- LED current knob observe the power using power meter.

4. Plot the graph for the obtained readings.

OBSERVATION:
VI and PI characteristics:

S.No Voltage (V) Current (mA) Power (dBm) Power (μW)

 Post-lab questions

1. Give the advantages of LED.

2. How to compute internal quantum efficiency for LED?

3. Why carrier confinement is used in LED?

4. What is radiance or brightness?

5. Define photodiode dark current.

6. What is a VI characteristic?

7. What is a PI characteristic?

8. The working principle of LED is _______

a) Electromagnetic b) Electroluminescence C) Electrostatic

9. The colour of the LED depends on _______

a) Band gap b) Energy gap c) Forbidden energy gap

10. Write the basic Concept of PIN diode.

RESULT:
Thus the DC characteristics of LED and PIN photo diode were noted and the graph
was plotted for the same.
Numerical Aperture:

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Ex. No.: NUMERICAL APERTURE MEASUREMENT Date:

AIM:
To measure the numerical aperture of the plastic optical fiber at 650 nm wavelength.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE EQUIPMENTS QUANTITY

1 Optical Fiber Trainer Kit 1
2 DCCT Power supply 1
3 Optical fiber cable 1m
4 Numerical Aperture Scale, N.A jig 1

THEORY:
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on the
fiber end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone
formed by the rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the
fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance; else it is refracted
out of the fiber core.
Consideration in Measurement:
1. It is very important that the optical source should be properly aligned with the cable
and the distance from the launched point and the cable be properly selected to ensure
that the maximum amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.

2. This experiment is best performed in a less illuminated room.

Observation:

d (mm) DE (mm) BC (mm) X (mm) NA

Average Numerical Aperture (NA)

Formula:

x=

Where θ max is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly transmitted
through the fiber.

CALCULATION:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply cable to Optic fiber trainer kit.

2. Ensure the jumper settings of switches S4, S5 & S6 from post A to B in the
Manchester coder.

3. Ensure the jumper settings of switches S24, S25 & S26 from post A to B in the
Decoder and clock recovery.

4. Similarly ensure the jumper setting of clock select JP1 from A1 to B in the Timing and
control.

5. Switch ON the power supply for the kit and as well as switch ON the kit power.

6. Slightly unscrew the cap of optical transmitter 2 @ LED 2 650nm. Do not remove the
cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert one end the 1mm diameter of
plastic optical fiber 1 meter into the optical transmitter 2 @ LED 2 650nm cap. Now
tighten the cap by screwing it back.

7. Insert other end of the optical fiber to the Numerical Aperture measurement unit.
Adjust the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the Fiber.

8. Keep the distance of about 2mm between the fiber tip and the horizontal screen.
Gently tighten the screw and thus fix the fiber in the place.

9. Observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen.

10. Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal diameters BC and
DE by the steel ruler.

11. Mean radius is calculated using the following formula x=

12. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula
13. Repeat Step 10, 11 and 12 for 4mm, 6mm and 8mm to calculate the numerical
aperture.
Pre-lab questions

1. Numerical aperture is ___________ number.

a) dimensionless b) finite c) real

2. The Numerical Aperture (NA) is a measure of how much ________ can be collected
by an optical system.
a) light b) sound c) both

3. Half of the angular aperture is called as ________

a) acceptance angle b) angle of incidence c) angle of reflection.
4. Number of modes is depending on
a) refractive index of core b) refractive index of cladding c) refractive index of core
and cladding

5. Formula for modes_____

6. How optical source works in a communication system?

7. What is TIR?

8. Define refraction.

9. State Snell’s law.

10. Mention the significance of numerical aperture in optical fiber.

 Post-lab questions

1. Fiber optic cable is for carrying information in the form of ________

a) Light b) Sound c) Acoustic

2. The other modes have been avoided for _________

a) Attenuated B) Reflected c) Refracted.

3. Which mode has been used in single mode fiber?

a) Transverse mode b) TE mode c) TM mode

4. The core cladding difference varies between ______

a) 0.2 to 1 b) 0.3 to 1 c) 0.5 to 1

5. The single mode fiber exhibits _________

a) Modal dispersion b) Modal reflection c) Modal Refraction.

6. Define acceptance angle for skew rays.

7. Recall the formula for NA.

8. Differentiate bound and unbound rays.

9. Which fiber has a large difference between the RI of the core and that of the cladding?
 10. Write the range of Numerical aperture of a fiber.

RESULT:
 Thus the numerical aperture of 1mm diameter of plastic optical fiber at 650 nm
wavelength was measured.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Measurement of connector and bending losses

 MEASUREMENT OF CONNECTOR AND BENDING
Ex. No.: Date:
LOSSES

AIM:
To measure the connector losses and bending losses by using fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT QUANTITY

1 Optical Fiber Trainer Kit 1
2 Two channel 20 MHz Oscilloscope 1
3 Function generator 1Hz – 10 MHz 1
1mm diameter of plastic optical fiber 1, 2,5
4 Each 1
meter
5 Patch cords As required

THEORY:
The power emitted by a source needs to be launched into the optical fiber waveguide
so that the modulated light generated by the transmitter can be transported through the fiber
and delivered at the receiver end. Transmission of light over thousands of kilometer through
optical fibers is possible only with the help of intermediate repeaters. Between successive
repeaters, we need to connect a numbers of sections of fiber cables as well as a number of
other optical components in between. The number of such joints or connectors depends on the
distance between successive repeaters or the distance between the transmitter and the receiver
in a repeater less optical link.
Additional loss in optical fibers may occur from bends in optical fibers. The bends in optical
fibers can be classified in two categories:
1. microscopic bends which have small radii of curvatures and comparable to fiber
diameter
2. macroscopic bends which have radii of curvature much longer than the core diameter
Bending loss

Fiber Output Power in dbm

S.No Length Without Bending With Bending

1 1m

2 2m

3 5m

Connector loss

S.No Length of the Fiber (l) Output Voltage

1 1m+1m

2 1m+2m

3 1m+5m
 Both micro and macro bending can cause significant attenuation in optical fibers.
to fabricate single mode optical fibers of length around 200 km, such long fiber cables are not
very convenient for transportation and installation. For field applications fiber cables of
shorter lengths are generally used. The standard separation of 40-60 km between the repeaters
requires multiple connections of fiber cables in between. Each fiber cable consists of a large
number of fibers and each of the fibers from one cable is to be connected to the corresponding
fiber of the subsequent cable. It should be borne in mind, that each such connection gives rise
to an additional loss in the link. The loss encountered at each joint depends on a number of
factors including the alignment of the fibers. Therefore, it is necessary to learn about various
techniques for launching power from the source to the fiber and also from one fiber to another
fiber.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply cable to Optic fiber trainer kit.
2. Set the switch position in the trainer kit.
3. Measure the connecting loss and bending loss as per the given different length of
fibers.
 Pre lab Questions
1. What is the speed of light?

2. List the advantages of optical fiber.

3. How the light is transmitted through the fiber?

4. Compare coaxial cable and fiber cable.

5. Name the sources used for the fiber optic communication?

6. What is linear scattering loss?

7. Define SBS and SRS.

8. Analyze the terms core and cladding.

9. Define radius of curvature.

10. Mention the significance of the core-cladding loss.
 Post-lab questions
1. What are the basic types of fiber?

2. Define repeater.

3. Compare wired and wireless communication.

4. List the function of the driver circuit.

5. Why analog link is preferred for connector loss experiment?

6. What is bending loss?

7. Mention the types of bending loss.

8. How to calculate the radius of curvature?

9. List the steps taken to minimize the micro bending losses.

10. Enumerate the standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber.
RESULT:
Thus the connector losses, bending losses were measured.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Measurement of attenuation loss

Ex. No.: MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION LOSS Date:

AIM:
To measure the Attenuation loss in a given fiber optic cable.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT QUANTITY

1 Optical Fiber Trainer Kit 1
2 Two channel 20 MHz Oscilloscope 1
3 Function generator 1Hz – 10 MHz 1
4 1mm diameter of plastic optical fiber 1 meter 1
5 1mm diameter of plastic optical fiber 5 meter 1
6 Patch cords As required

THEORY:
Attenuation or loss, in an optical fiber, primarily decides the maximum transmission
distance (distance between the optical transmitter and the receiver) without using any repeater,
which generally restores the signal at intermediate points in a long haul communication
system. Extremely low loss of optical fibers (~1 dB / km) made fiber based optical
communication more attractive as compared to conventional electrical communication
systems based on metal cables which generally offer attenuation in the range of 3–5 dB / km.
The attenuation or loss in an optical fiber is measured in terms of decibel (dB) in a way
similar to that measured for any other communication channel. Ideally, when light travels
through an optical fiber, the power decreases exponentially with the distance traversed by the
light.
OBSERVATION:

S.No Length of the Fiber (L) Power in dBm

1 1m

2 5m

FORMULA:

Where,

P1 – Optical received power from 1m fiber optic cable

P2 – Optical received power from 3m fiber optic cable

α – attenuation in neper/m

L1 – length of 1m fiber optic cable

L2 – length of 5m fiber optic cable

CALCULATION:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the power supply cable to Optic fiber trainer kit.

2. Set the switch position to analog in the kit.

3. Measure the power using power meter for 1m and 5m optical cable separately

4. Calculate the attenuation α using given formulae

 Pre-lab questions
1. Attenuation defines ______________
a) Decreasing the strength of input signal b)increasing the strength of input signal c)
destroy signal

2. As signal propagated over a long distance _______ loss occurs.

a)Attenuation b) Bending c) Coupling

3. The attenuation loss can be minimized by increasing _________

a) Signal strength b) Voltage c) Current

4. The gain is calculated in _________

a) Decibel b) mm c) no unit

5. The loss is due to _____________

a) Long distance transmission b) small distance c) very long distance.

6. Outline the significance of attenuation in transmission of a signal.

7. How does the scattering loss occur?

8. State the reasons to opt for optical fiber communication.

9. Classify the mechanisms which cause absorption.

10. Write the two most important transmission characteristics of an optical fiber.
 Post-lab questions
1. Identify the range of attenuation in a good quality single mode.

2. Write the unit of attenuation.

3. Compare attenuation and absorption loss.

4. Distinguish attenuation and bending loss.

5. Which limits the optical power transmission through the fiber?

6. What is LASER?

7. State any three properties of laser.

8. What is gain?

9. State the major role of attenuation.

10. How the output voltage is taken?

RESULT:
Thus the attenuation loss was measured using 1m and 5m fiber optic cable and the
input, output voltages were measured.
 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Klystro
Klystro
nn
Power
Power
supply
supply

Klystro
Klystro Variabl
Variabl
Freque
Freque Detecto
Detecto
nn Tube
Tube ee
Isolator
Isolator ncy
ncy rr
with
with Attenua
Attenua
Meter
Meter Mount
Mount
Mount
Mount tor
tor

CRO
CRO
 MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX
Ex. No.: Date:
KLYSTRON

AIM:

To study mode characteristics of reflex klystron at its various modes

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube

3. Isolator

4. Frequency Meter

5. Variable Attenuator

6. Detector mount

7. Waveguide stands

8. CRO

9. Cooling fan

THEORY:
The Reflex Klystron is a microwave tube used as a microwave source in the
lab. It makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into
microwave power. Its oscillation frequency can be varied over a wide band and it can
be pulse and frequency modulated. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated
by and pass through the positive resonator grid towards the reflector. The reflector is
at a negative voltage with respect to cathode, and consequently it retard and finally
reflects (reflex klystron) the electrons, which then turn back through the resonator
grids: In case the klystron starts to oscillate, a hi-field exists between the resonator
grids. The electron travelling through the grid will be either accelerated or retarded as
the voltage changes in amplitude. Accelerated electrons leave the grid at an increased
Model Graph:

Modes Repeller voltage(V) Output voltage(V) frequency (GHz)

Mode 0

Mode 1

Mode 2
velocity and retarded electrons leave at a reduced velocity. Because of the difference in
velocity the electrons leaving the grids will need different time to return (i.e., have different
transit times).As a result of returning electron group together in bunches. This variation in
velocity of the electrons is called velocity modulation.
As the electron bunches pass through the resonator grids, they interact with the voltage
between the grids. If the bunches pass through the grids at a time such that the electrons are
slowed down by the grid voltage energy will be delivered to the resonator and the klystron
will oscillate. Strongest oscillation will occur when transit time in the reflector resonator
region n + ¾ cycles of the resonator frequency, where ‘n’ an integer is including zero. If the
bunches pass through the grids at a time such that the electrons are accelerated by the voltage,
energy will be removed from the resonator and no oscillations will occur.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components as shown in the experimental setup.

2. Set the variable attenuator to minimum positions
3. Set the Klystron power supply as follows
i. Keep the HT off.
ii. Mod Switch in AM
iii. Keep the beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise
iv. Keep the repeller voltage know fully in clockwise
4. Keep the Time division scale of oscilloscope around 100Hz frequency
measurement and volt/div to lower scale
5. Switch on the klystron power supply and oscilloscope
6. Set the beam voltage to 200V
7. Keep the amplitude modulator to maximum position and rotate the repeller
voltage anticlockwise to get modes
8. Adjust the frequency meter knob slowly till there is a dip
9. The frequency meter reading is noted
10. Draw the graph for output power vs repeller voltage
11. Reduce the beam voltage to zero and switch OFF HT switch and switch OFF
supply.
 PRELAB QUESTIONS

1. A reflex klystron functioning as

a) Microwave oscillator b) Microwave Amplifier c) both a&b d) A high gain
cavity

2. Klystron operates on the principle of

a) Ampliude modulation b) Frequency modulation c) Pulse modulation d)
Velocity modulation

3. In Microwave, we take the elements as

a) Lumped circuit elements b) Distributed circuit elements c) Both d) none

4. For handling large Microwave power. the best medium is,

a) co-axial line b) Rectangular waveguide c) strip line d) circular waveguide

5. Which of the following component will be placed next to the klystron mount
with tube
a) Attenuator b) Frequency meter c) Isolator d) Detector mount

6. Converting data into signals by transforming and encoding the information to

produce electromagnetic signals is the functionality of a ________
a) Source b) Transmitter c) Receiver.

7. The microwave signal is transmitted in __________

a) Continuous b) Discrete c) both A and B

8. List the types of waveguides.

9. What are the electromagnetic spectrum and its wavelengths?

10. Write the various types of attenuators.

 POSTLAB QUESTIONS
1. The wavelength correspond to Microwave frequency range is
a) 30 to 300 GHz b) 3 to 30 GHZ c) 0.3 to 3 GHz d) 300 to 3000 GHz d) None

2. Repeller voltage is a
a) Positive voltage b) Negative voltage c) None

3. What are different modes in a Reflex Klystron?

4. Can you measure the frequency with the help of CRO? Then why do you need
an additional Frequency meter?

5. Mention the knobs present in Klystron Power Supply (KPS). Also mention the
initial setting.

6. What is the purpose of using attenuator?

7. Write Faraday’s rotation.

8. What is the purpose of using isolator?

9. Write the frequency range that we generating in our laboratory.

10. What are TE modes?

RESULT:
Thus the mode characteristic of Reflex Klystron was performed.
 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Klystron
Power Supply
Detector Mount CRO

Klystron Variable Frequency Magic Tee, E- Matched

Isolator plane, H-plane
Oscillator attenuator meter termination

Matched
termination
 CHARACTERISTICS OF E-PLANE, H-PLANE AND
Ex. No.: Date:
MAGIC TEE

AIM:
To study the characteristics of E-plane, H-plane and Magic Tee.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube

3. Isolator

4. Frequency Meter

5. Variable Attenuator

6. Detector mount

7. Waveguide stands

8. CRO

9. Cooling fan

10. E- plane Tee, H – Plane Tee, Magic Tee and Matched terminations

THEORY:
E- Plane and H- plane:

The E-plane and H-plane are reference planes for linearly polarized waveguides,
antennas and other microwave devices. In waveguide systems, as in the electric circuits, it is
often desirable to be able to split the circuit power into two or more fractions. In a waveguide
system, an element called a junction is used for power division. In a low frequency electrical
network, it is possible to combine circuit elements in series or in parallel, thereby dividing the
source power among several circuits.

Magic Tee:

The magic tee is a combination of E and H plane tees. Arm 3 forms an H-plane tee
with arms 1 and 2. Arm 4 forms an E-plane tee with arms 1 and 2. Arms 1 and 2 are
Tabulation:
Input Voltage: ___________

S.No E-Plane Tee H-Plane Tee Magic Tee

Main E-arm Main H-arm Main E arm Main H arm

sometimes called the side or collinear arms. Port 3 is called the H-plane port, and is also called
the Σ port, sum port or the P-port (for "parallel"). Port 4 is the E-plane port, and is also called
the Δ port, difference port, or S-port (for "series").

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components as shown in the experimental setup.
2. Set the variable attenuator to minimum positions
3. Set the Klystron power supply as follows
i. Keep the HT off.
ii. Mod Switch in AM
iii. Keep the beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise
iv. Keep the repeller voltage know fully in clockwise
4. Keep the Time division scale of oscilloscope around 100Hz frequency
measurement and volt/div to lower scale
5. Switch on the klystron power supply and oscilloscope
6. Set the beam voltage to 200V
7. Keep the amplitude modulator to maximum position and rotate the repeller
voltage anticlockwise to get modes
8. Adjust the frequency meter knob slowly till there is a dip
9. Measure the input power using a matched load
10. Connect the required device to be tested
11. Connect the detector to one of the parts and terminate all other parts with
matched impedance
12. Measure the output using detector mount
13. Repeat the experiment for all the other device to be tested
 PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1. Magic Tee is a

a) 2dB coupler b)3 dB coupler c)6dB coupler d) l dB coupler

2. Magic tee is a device

a) I port b)2 port c)3 port d)4 port

3. A magic tee is

a)A modification of E-plane tee b) modification of H-plane tee c)A combination of E

&H plane d)two E-plane tees connected in parallel
4. Magic tee is
a) mismatching device b)matching device c)mixer
5. Magic lee is also called as

a)E-plane tee b)H-plane tee c)Hybrid tee d)rat race circuit.

6. What is Normalized frequency?

7. What is flat-top attenuator?

8. What is floating type attenuator?

9. What are TM modes?

10. What is reflection?

 POST LAB QUESTIONS
1. ______________ is formed by cutting a rectangular slot along the width of a main
waveguide and attaching another wave guide on the slot, It is three-port device.
a)H-plane T b)E-plane T c)magic T d) none
2. _____________ a rectangular slot is cut along the broader dimension of a wave guide
and a
side arm is attached. This is a three-port device
a)H-plane T b)E-plane T c)magic -T d) none
3. _____________ Rectangular slots are cut along the breadth and width of a long wave
guide and a side arm is attached. This is a three-port device
 a)H-plane T b)E-plane T c)magic T d) none

4. What are the uses of E plane and H plane tees?

5. What are the applications of Magic tee?

6. How the reflections can be avoided in the waveguides?

1. What is single cavity klystron?

2. What is two-cavity klystron?

3. Can a two cavity klystron be used as an oscillator?

4. Write the major components used in microwave engineering?

 RESULT:
Klystro
Klystro
nn
Power
Power
supply
supply

Klystro
Klystro Variabl
Variabl
Freque
Freque Slotted
Slotted
nn Tube
Tube ee
Isolator
Isolator ncy
ncy line
line
with
with Attenua
Attenua
Meter
Meter section
section
Mount
Mount tor
tor

CRO
CRO

Thus the characteristics of E-plane, H-plane and Magic Tee were studied.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Ex. No.: VSWR MEASUREMENT Date:

AIM:
To determine the VSWR using rectangular slotted line section

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube
 3. Isolator

4. Frequency Meter

5. Modes
Variable Attenuator VMax VMin

6. Mode
Detector 0
mount

7. Waveguide
Modestands
1

8. CRO Mode 2

9. Cooling fan

10. Slotted line section

THEORY:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the
sum of two traveling waves the ‘Incident Wave, which Propagates from the source to the load
and the reflected wave which propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up
by reflection of incident wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance.
The superposition of the two traveling waves, gives rise to a standing wave along the line. The
maximum field strength is found where the waves are in phase and minimum where the two
waves add in opposite phase. The distance between two successive minimum (or maximum) is
half the guide wavelength on the line. The ratio of electrical field strength of reflected and
incident wave is called reflection coefficient. The voltage standing wave Ratio (VSWR) is
defined as ratio between maximum and minimum field strength along the line.

OBSERVATION:
Input Voltage: ________
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Reflection Co-efficient (K)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components as shown in the experimental setup.
2. Set the variable attenuator to minimum positions
3. Set the Klystron power supply as follows
i. Keep the HT off.
ii. Mod Switch in AM
iii. Keep the beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise
iv. Keep the repeller voltage know fully in clockwise
4. Keep the Time division scale of oscilloscope around 100Hz frequency
measurement and volt/div to lower scale
5. Switch on the klystron power supply and oscilloscope
6. Set the beam voltage to 200V
7. Keep the amplitude modulator to maximum position and rotate the repeller
voltage anticlockwise to get modes
8. Adjust the frequency meter knob slowly till there is a dip
9. Measure the input power using a matched load
10. Connect the required slotted line section
11. Adjust the tunable knob of the slotted line section and observe the maximum
voltage of the particular mode
12. Adjust the tunable knob of the slotted line section in the same direction and
observe the minimum voltage of the particular mode
13. Repeat the experiment for few more modes.

14. Calculate the using this formulae

Pre Lab Questions

1. What is the cause for the generation of standing wave?
a) Load mismatch b) Source mismatch c) Impedance mismatch

2. How does the standing wave can be avoided to reach the source?
a) Isolator b) Circulator c) Magic Tee

3. A SWR meter measures the ________ of the reflected wave.

a) Magnitude b) Frequency c) Phase angle

4. Standing wave can be cleared by performing ________

a) Impedance matching b) Load matching c) Source matching

5. The SWR depends on ________

a) Reflection coefficient b) Incident coefficient c) Incident coefficient.

6. What are all the microwave frequencies?

7. Define VSWR.

8. What is the function of frequency meter?

9. Is the microwave frequency is harmful to human beings?

10. Is the characteristic impedance of the sampler line section important?

 Post Lab Questions
1. Does VSWR vary with line length?

2. Can the magnitude of the reflection coefficient (ρ) be greater than 1?

3. Can VSWR be negative?

4. Is there a minimum length of transmission line required on either side of the VSWR
meter for valid readings?
5. What is an acceptable VSWR?

6. Write the formula for VSWR.

7. What is SWR?

8. What is the use of VSWR meter?

9. How VSWR value is noted?

10. What is maximum voltage and minimum voltage in a mode?

 RESULT:
Thus the VSWR measurement is determined using slotted line section and reflection co-
efficient can be calculated.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

Klystron
Power Supply

Klystron Variable Frequency

Isolator
Oscillator attenuator meter

Transmitter Horn Receiver Horn

Antenna Antenna

CRO Detector mount

TABULATION:
Input voltage = ________

S.No Angle in degrees Output voltage (Volts) Gain in dB

 Gain in dB = 20 log (Vout/Vin)

Ex. No.: ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS Date:

AIM:
To measure the radiation pattern of Horn antenna.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube

3. Isolator

4. Frequency Meter

5. Variable Attenuator

6. Detector mount

7. Waveguide stands

8. CRO
 9. Cooling fan

10. Pyramidal Horn antenna( Tx, Rx)

11. Antenna turn table

THEORY:
A Horn antenna may be considered as a flared out wave guide, by which the directivity
is improved and the diffraction is reduced. Pyramidal horn antenna has flaring on both sides.
If flaring is done on both the E & H walls of a rectangular waveguide, then pyramidal horn
antenna is produced. This antenna has the shape of a truncated pyramid. Flaring helps to
match the antenna impedance with the free space impedance for better radiation. It avoids
standing wave ratio and provides greater directivity and narrower beam width. The flared
wave guide can be technically termed as Electromagnetic Horn Radiator.

PRELAB QUESTIONS
1. Define attenuation.

2. What are the types of attenuator?

3. What is a horn antenna?

4. What is flaring angle in horn antenna?

5. What is flare mount?

6. How does a microwave circulator work?

7. What is the purpose of a circulator?

8. What is the difference between isolator and circulator?

9. What is the use of isolator in microwave?

10. Define reflection amplifier.

Flare angle, Φ of the horn antenna is an important factor to be considered. If this is too
small, then the resulting wave will be spherical instead of plane and the radiated beam will not
be directive. Hence, the flare angle should have an optimum value and is closely related to its
length.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set the equipment as shown in figure.

2. Energize the klystron for maximum output to get square wave

3. Adjust the receiver antenna at different angles using antenna turn table and note down
the receiver power

4. Plot the graph between angle and gain.

 POSTLAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the reasons that low frequency parameter cannot be measured in microwaves?

2. What is S matrix and write the S matrix of N port network?

3. What is meant by hybrid coupler?

4. Compare z parameters and ABCD parameters with S-parameters

5. State the properties of s matrix.

6. Write the formula to calculate the antenna gain.

7. What is impedance matching?

8. What is meant by turning table?

9. Define waveguide.

10. What is insertion loss?

 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Klystro
Klystro
nn

RESULTS:
Power
Power
supply
supply Match
ed
Termi
nation

Klystro
Klystro Variabl
Variabl Directio
Directio
Freque
Freque
nn Tube
Tube ee nal
nal
Isolator
Isolator ncy
ncy
with
with Attenua
Attenua Couple
Couple
Meter
Meter
Mount
Mount tor
tor rr

Detecto
Detecto
rr
Mount
Mount
Thus the radiation pattern of Horn antenna was performed.

CR
O
Ex. No.: CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER Date:

AIM:
To study about the characteristics of the directional coupler.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Klystron tube

3. Isolator

4. Frequency Meter

5. Variable Attenuator

6. Detector mount

7. Waveguide stands

8. CRO

9. Cooling fan

10. Directional coupler

11. Matched Termination

THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consist of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other. The power entering, in the main-arm gets divided
between port 2 and 3, and almost no power comes out in port (4) Power entering at port (2) is
divided between port (1) and (4).
The coupling factor can be calculated where port 2 is terminated.
 C (dB) = 10 log 10 [P1/P3]
Isolation factor can be calculated where port 1 is terminated.
I (dB) = 10 log 10 [P2/P3]
Directivity D (dB) = I - C

PROCEDURE:

1. Set the equipment as shown in figure.

2. Energize the klystron for maximum output to get square wave

3. Connect the Directional coupler and measure the output power from its various ports
separately by matching the other ports.

4. Calculate various factors using the formula provided.

 PRELAB QUESTIONS

1. The directional coupler has ________ ports.

a) 2 b) 3 c) 4

2. In a directional coupler, the Port 1 and port 3 are:

a) Isolated b) Connected c) Phase shift by 90 degree

3. In a directional coupler, port 1 and port 2 are ______

a) Isolated b) Directly Connected c) Phase shift by 90 degrees

4. In a directional coupler, port 2 and port 4 are ___________

a) Isolated b) Connected c) Phase shift by 90 degree

5. The directional coupler is a hybrid _____________

a) Waveguide junction b) Waveguide bend c) Waveguide connector

6. What is waveguide?

7. What is impedance matching?

8. What is meant by directional coupler?

9. Define directivity.
10. What is isolation loss?
 POSTLAB QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary purpose of a directional coupler?

2. How far apart are the two holes in a simple directional coupler?

3. What is the purpose of the absorbent material in a directional coupler?

4. In a directional coupler that is designed to sample the incident energy, what happens to
the two portions of the wave front when they arrive at the pickup probe?

5. What happens to reflected energy that enters a directional coupler that is designed to
sample incident energy?

6. What is S parameter?

7. Define port.

8. What is terminal?

9. List the different types of high frequency parameters.

 10. What is transmission parameter?

RESULT:
 Thus the Directional coupler was characterized and the following measurement was
done.
Coupling Factor C = __________dB
Isolation I = __________ dB
Directivity D =___________ dB

Isolator
Isolator
(DUT)
(DUT)

CRO
CRO
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Freque
Freque

Meter
Meter
ncy
ncy
Attenua
Variabl

Attenua
Variabl

tor
tor
ee

Ex. No.: CHARACTERISTICS OF ISOLATOR Date:

Isolator
Isolator

AIM:
To measure the S–parameter of an isolator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

Klystro

Klystro
Klystro

Klystro
supply

Mount
Power

Tube
supply

Mount
Power

nn Tube
with
with
nn
 2. Klystron tube

3. Isolator, Isolator (DUT)

4. Frequency Meter

5. Variable Attenuator

6. Detector mount

7. Waveguide stands

8. CRO

9. Cooling fan

THEORY:
ISOLATOR: An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little
attenuation and from output to input with very high attenuation. The isolator can be derived form a
three-port circulator by simply placing a matched load (reflection less termination) on one port.
The important isolator parameters are:
A. Insertion loss:
Insertion loss is the ratio of power detected at the output port to the power supplied by
source to the input port, measured with other ports terminated in the matched load. It is expressed
in dB.

B. Isolation:
Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio
is expressed in dB. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a
matched load.

OBSERVATION:

Input Voltage: _________

PORT 1 (Volts) PORT 2 (Volts)

CALCULATION:

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the components as shown in the block diagram,

2. Keep the control knob of microwave power supply as mentioned in the basic setup.

3. Switch on the power supply and energize the microwave source. Get the maximum
output in CRO without connecting the Isolator. Measure the voltage using CRO.
 4. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip in CRO and note down the frequency of
oscillation directly. Detune the frequency meter.

5. Connect the Isolator in forward direction i.e. port 1 at input side(Frequency meter) and
port 2 at output side (Tunable Detector) measure the input and output voltage using
CRO.

6. Now connect the isolator in reverse direction i.e. Port 1 at output side and port 2 at
input side and measure the output voltage using CRO.

PRELAB QUESTIONS

1. The Isolator is _______ port device.

a)2 b) 3 c) 4

2. The Circulator is a _________ port device.

a)1 b) 2 c) 3 3.

3. The Isolator is a ________________ device.

 a) Non-Reciprocal b) Reciprocal c) Inverting.

4. What is the principle followed by the Circulator?

a) Faraday Rotation b) Faraday left hand C) Faraday right hand.

5. The Circulators are used as a type of ________ a) Duplexer b) Transmitter c) Antenna

6. Mention the different types of parameters which are used to analyze the microwave
devices.

7. Define Isolator.

8. State Klystron working principle.

9. Define input VSWR.

10. What is the use of S-parameter?

 POSTLAB QUESTIONS
1. What are the reasons that low frequency parameters cannot be measured in
microwaves?

2. What is S matrix and write the S matrix of N port network?

3. What is meant by hybrid coupler?

4. Compare z parameters and ABCD parameters with S-parameters.

5. State the properties of S matrix.

6. Define noise gain.

7. Define unilateral power gain.

8. Define transducer gain.

9. What is stability circle?

10. Why we need impedance matching?

RESULT:
Thus the S-parameters of isolator were determined.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

Klystron Power
Supply
 Variable
Klystron Oscillator Isolator Frequency meter
attenuator

Slotted line Matched

termination

VSWR meter
Tunable probe
CRO

TABULATION:

Distance
Vernier Scale between Wavelength Free Frequency
S.No reading two of space (GHz)
d1(cm) successive waveguide wave
minima λg(cm) length
d(cm) λc(cm)

EX.NO:11 MEASURE OF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

AIM:

To determine the frequency and a wave length in a rectangular wave guide working on TE 10
model

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1.Klystron Power supply

2.Reflex oscillator

3. Isolator

4.Frequency meter

5.Variable attenuator

6.Slotted line

7.VSWR meter

8.Detector mount

9.CRO

THEORY:

For dominant TE10 mode in rectangular wave guide λ0, λg, λc are related as below.

1/ λ02 = 1/ λg2+1/ λc2

λ0 = Free space wave length,

λg = guide wavelength,

λc = Cutoff wavelength.

For TE10 mode λc=2a where a is the broad dimension of wave guide. The following
relationship can be proved.

C=f λ

CALCULATIONS:

λg is calculated from slot line

λg/2 = d1 – d2
1/ λ02 = 1/ λg2+1/ λc2

λc = 2a

a = dimension of waveguide = 2.286 x 10-2m.

f = c/ λ0 ; c = 3 x 108 m/s

C – Velocity of light

f – frequency

PROCEDURE:
1. obtain the modulated square wave in the CRO.

2. calibrate the VSWR meter

3. adjust the slotted section so as to get the maxima and minima position

4. if the reading is taken at maxima point.

5. calculate the difference between two maximas or two minimas which give λ g/2.

Applications:
Used to determine the frequency and wavelength of the given rectangular wavelength.

PRELAB QUESTIONS:
1. The frequency can be measured using ____________ method.
a) Single minima method b) Double minima method c) Double maxima method.

2. Mention a method to determine the frequency of a unknown signal.

a) Wavemeter method b) Wavelength method c) Frequency method

3. Mention a method to determine the high frequency of a unknown signal.

a) Slotted line method b) Absorption method c) Dispersion method

4. The frequency can be measured accurately by __________ method.

a) Up conversion b) Down conversion c) Slotted line

5. The wavemeter method is also called as _____ type wavemeter.

a) Absorption b) Reflection c) Incident

6.What is Guided wave length?

7.what is cutoff wave length?

8.what is λ1,λ2?
9.How λg is calculated?

10.Relationship between f and c.

POSTLAB QUESTION
1. What is an ideal value of attenuation for the frequencies in pass band especially for a cascade
configuration?
a. Zero b. Unity c. Infinity d. Unpredictable

2. It is possible to overcome the drawback of m-derived filter by connecting number of sections in

addition to prototype & m-derived sections with terminating __________
a. One-fourth sections b. Half sections c. Square of three-fourth sections d. Full sections

3. Which value of 'm' is selected in a composite filter, while connecting the terminating sections in
order to acquire proper impedance matching and constant characteristic impedance throughout the
passband?
a. 0.3 b. 0.6 c. 0.9 d. 0.12

4. In band elimination filter, the frequency of resonance of individual arms is geometric _________
a. Mean of two cut-off frequencies b. Difference of two cut-off frequencies c. Product of two cut-off
frequencies d. Division of two cut-off frequencies

5. What do the high pass filters generally comprise of?

a. Capacitive series arm b. Capacitive shunt arm c. Inductive series arm d. Inductive shunt arm

6. what are all the microwave frequencies?

7. What is the function of frequency meter?

8. Is the microwave frequency is harmful to human beings?

9. Is the characteristic impedance of the sampler line section important ?

10. Define threshold level.

Result:
Thus the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular wavelength working on TE 10 model was
determined.
Ex.No:12 GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM :
To determine the characteristics of Gunn Diode.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Gunn power Supply
2. Gunn oscillator
3. PIN modulator
4. Isolator
5. Frequency Meter
6. Variable Attenuator
7. Detector Mount
8. CRO
9. Bayonet Neill Concelman(BNC) Connector
10. Threaded Neill Concelman(TNC) Connector
11. Cooling Fan
12. Waveguide Stand, Screw & Net
THEORY:
Gunn diodes are negative resistance device which are normally used as low power oscillator at
microwave frequencies in transmitter and as local oscillator in receiver front end. J.B. Gunn in
1963 discovered microwave oscillation. At low electric field in the material most of the
electron will be located in the lower central valley. At high electric field most of the electron
will be transferred in to the higher frequency satellite L and X valleys.
MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATION:

S.No Voltage (V) Current (mA)

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the components as shown in block diagram.

2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply (GPS) as below.

Meter Switch – off
Gunn bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
PIN Mod. Amp knob – Mid position
PIN Mod. Freq.knob – Mid position
3. SwitchON the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan. Set Gunn bias Voltage
at 7.5V.

4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.

5. Measure the operating frequency using frequency meter.

6. Measure the Gunn Diode Current corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage. Do not
exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.

7. Plot the voltage Vs Current and measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to
maximum current.

NOTE:
Do not keep gun bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds
reading should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating, Gunn
diode may burn
Pre Lab Questions:
1. Gunn diode is a _______________ electronic component.
a) Semiconductor b) Conductor c) Intrinsic Semiconductor

2. How many regions are present in a Gunn diode?

a) 3 b) 4 c) 2

3. The Gunn diode exhibits ___________

a) Negative resistance b) Positive resistance c) Transferred electrons

4. The Gunn diode follows ________

a) RWH Theory b) Gunn Effect c)Fermi level
5. If the number of electron in higher in conduction band , it __________
a) forms Population inversion b ) does not forms inversion c) Neutral population.
6. Define Gunn Effect.

7. What is the necessary condition for an IMPATT to produce oscillations?

8. List the differences between microwave transistor and TED devices.

9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of parametric amplifier?

10. What is meant by avalanche transit time device?

Post Lab Questions:

1. Define Attenuation.

2. What are the types of attenuator?

3. What is negative resistance in Gunn diode?

4. Name the semiconductor used in Gunn diode.

5. What is transferred electron effect?
6.What is Gunn effect.

7. What is the necessary condition for an IMPATT to produce oscillations?

8. List the differences between microwave transistor and TED devices

9.What are the advantages and disadvantages of parametric amplifier?

10. What is meant by avalanche transient time device?

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of Gunn Diode was determined.
Threshold voltage, Vth = Volts