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PHYSICS PROJECT

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

DONE BY :

SRINIDHI KG
12 B2
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INDEX
TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No TITLE PAGE NO

1. INTRODUCTION 3

2. HISTORICAL APPROACH 4

3. EINSTEIN’S THEORIES 5

4. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF 10
THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
5. APPLICATIONS 16

6. CONCLUSION 18

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 19
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INTRODUCTION
A BRIEF ACCOUNT:
The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon in which electrically
charged particles are released from or within a material when it absorbs
electromagnetic radiation. The effect is often defined as the ejection of
electrons from a metal plate when light falls on it.

In a broader definition, the radiant energy may be infrared, visible,

or ultraviolet light, X-rays, or gamma rays; the material may be a solid, liquid,
or gas; and the released particles may be electrically charged atoms or
molecules (ions) as well as electrons. The phenomenon was fundamentally
significant in the development of modern physics because of the puzzling
questions it raised about the nature of light, particle versus wave-like
behavior, that were finally resolved by Albert Einstein in 1905. The effect
remains important for research in areas from materials science to astrophysics,
as well as forming the basis for a variety of useful devices.

Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for “his
discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”, and Millikan was awarded
the Nobel Prize in 1923 for his work on the elementary charge of electricity
and on the photoelectric effect.
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HISTORICAL APPROACH
Before Einstein, the effect had been observed by scientists, but
they were confused by the behavior because they didn't fully understand the
nature of light. In the late 1800s, physicists James Clerk Maxwell in Scotland
and Hendrik Lorentz in the Netherlands determined that light appears to
behave as a wave. This was proven by seeing how light waves demonstrate
interference, diffraction and scattering, which are common to all sorts of
waves.

So Einstein's argument in 1905 that light can also behave as sets

of particles was revolutionary because it did not fit with the classical theory of
electromagnetic radiation. Other scientists had postulated the theory before
him, but Einstein was the first to fully elaborate on why the phenomenon
occurred and the implications. For example, Heinrich Hertz of Germany was
the first person to see the photoelectric effect, in 1887. He discovered that if
he shone ultraviolet light onto metal electrodes, he lowered the voltage needed
to make a spark move behind the electrodes, according to English astronomer
David Darling.

Then in 1899, in England, J.J. Thompson demonstrated that

ultraviolet light hitting a metal surface caused the ejection of electrons. A
quantitative measure of the photoelectric effect came in 1902, with work by
Philipp Lenard (a former assistant to Hertz.) It was clear that light had
electrical properties, but what was going on was unclear.
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EINSTEIN’S THEORIES
Consideration of these unexpected behaviors led Albert Einstein
to formulate in 1905 a new corpuscular theory of light in which each particle
of light, or photon, contains a fixed amount of energy, or quantum, that
depends on the light’s frequency.
Einstein realized that light was behaving as if it was composed of tiny
particles, initially called quanta and later called photons, and that the energy
of each particle was proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic
radiation that it was a part of.

In particular, a photon carries an energy E equal to hf, where f is the

frequency of the light and h is the universal constant that the German physicist
Max Planck derived in 1900 to explain the wavelength distribution of
blackbody radiation, that is, the electromagnetic radiation emitted from a hot
body. The relationship may also be written in the equivalent form

where c is the speed of light and λ is its wavelength, showing that the energy
of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength.
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The two factors affecting maximum kinetic energy of

photoelectrons are the frequency of the incident radiation and the material on
the surface. As shown in the graph below, electron energy increases with
frequency in a simple linear manner above the threshold. Threshold
frequency is the minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that will
produce a photoelectric effect i.e. ejection of photoelectrons from a metal
surface. All three curves have the same slope (equal to Planck's constant)
which shows that the energy-frequency relation is constant for all materials.
Below the threshold frequency photoemission does not occur. Each curve has
a different intercept on the energy axis, which shows that threshold frequency
is a function of the material.
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EQUATIONS:
Einstein and Millikan described the photoelectric effect using a
formula (in contemporary notation) that relates the maximum kinetic energy
(Kmax) of the photoelectrons to the frequency of the absorbed photons (f) and
the threshold frequency (fo) of the photo-emissive surface.

Kmax = h(f − f0)

The work function, Φ, is the minimum amount of energy required to

induce photoemission of electrons from a metal surface, and the value of Φ
depends on the metal. Expression for maximum kinetic energy in terms of
work function is given as

Kmax = E – Φ
where

The maximum kinetic energy (Kmax) of the photoelectrons (with

charge e) can be determined from the stopping potential (V0). Stopping
potential is the minimum negative voltage applied to the anode to stop the
photocurrent.
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The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons equal the stopping

voltage, when measured in electron volt.

Einstein’s Theory of Photoelectric Effect:

The electrons present inside the atoms of the metal surface gain
energy and start vibrating with high frequency, due to the oscillating electric
field of the incident light. When the energy of incident radiation is higher than
the work function of the metal, the electrons receive sufficient energy to eject
out of the surface. The speed and number of the emitted electrons depend
upon the color and intensity of the incident radiation, along with the time
duration of incident radiation. When the intensity of incident radiation is
more, the electrons receive more energy and vibrate more, so an increased
number of electrons are emitted out with greater average speed. Incident
radiation of higher frequency makes the electrons vibrate faster, thereby
increasing the electron emission. Dim light normally doesn't provide the
energy necessary for electron emission.
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Einstein’s Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect:

• The strength of the photoelectric current depends upon the intensity of

incident radiation, and it should be higher than the threshold frequency.
• The reverse stopping potential was the photo-current stop. It is
independent of the intensity of incident radiation.
• Photoelectric current does not occur if the frequency of the incident
radiation is below the threshold frequency.
• A metallic strip, when exposed to light or sun, will not be able to
produce the Photoelectric effect unless the frequency is greater than the
threshold value. The photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process. As
soon as light hits the surface, the electrons of the metal come out.

BASIC REPRESENTATION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The aim of the experiment is to study the emission of electrons by
light. We also try and measure the energy of the electrons emitted in the
process.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP TO DEMONSTRATE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Quartz Window

Near one of the plates inside the evacuated tube, there is present a
small quartz window. The Quartz window has two functions – it lets light
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in and it only lets the Ultra Violet light in. Hence by using a Quartz
window, we make sure that light of a specific frequency falls on the metal
plate inside the evacuated chamber.

The circuit

We connect a voltmeter across the two plates. This measures the

potential difference between the plates. Moreover, we have a sensitive
galvanometer in the circuit. This measures the photocurrent.The Collector
plate-C emits electrons which are then collected at the collector plate-A.
These plates are connected to the battery via the commutator.

In the beginning, there is zero potential. We open the quartz

window and observe the reading of the voltmeter and the ammeter. Both
will give a non-zero reading (say for alkali metals), proving the occurrence
of the photoelectric effect. As we increase the voltage and change it again,
we will make the following observations.

THE CIRCUIT CONNECTION

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The Effect of Intensity

The number of electrons emitted per second is observed to be directly
proportional to the intensity of light. First of all, when the intensity of light is
increased, we should see an increase in the photocurrent.

As we see, this only happens above a specific value of frequency,

known as the threshold frequency. Below this threshold frequency, the
intensity of light has no effect on the photocurrent. In fact, there is no
photocurrent at all, howsoever high the intensity of light is.

The graph between the photoelectric current and the intensity of light is
a straight line when the frequency of light used is above a specific minimum
threshold value.

GRAPHICAL FORM OF THE EFFECT OF INTENSITY

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The Effect of The Potential

C is connected to a positive terminal and A to a negative terminal.Since
electrons are negatively charged, if we increase the negative potential at C, more
and more electrons will want to escape this region and run to the attractive plate
A. So the current should increase. Similarly, if we decrease the negative
potential at C, removing electrons will become difficult and the photocurrent
will decrease. Hence the maximum current flowing at a given intensity of
incoming light is the saturation current.

GRAPH BETWEEN PHOTOCURRENT AND PHOTOCELL VOLTAGE

As you can see in the graph, the value of saturation current is greater for higher
intensities, provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency. The value
of the potential for which the photocurrent becomes zero as the stopping
potential or the retarding potential.
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Effect of Frequency

Higher frequency values like ν3, stopping potential is more negative or

greater than the stopping potential for smaller frequencies like ν1.

GRAPH TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF FREQUENCY

Conclusions:

For a given metal (photosensitive material), the photoelectric current is

directly proportional to the intensity of the light used, above a minimum value
of frequency called the threshold frequency.
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The saturation current depends on the intensity for a known value of

frequency. At the same time, we see that the stopping potential does not depend
on the intensity over a specific value of frequency.

The Photoelectric effect does not occur below a certain frequency.

This is the threshold frequency. If the frequency of light is above the threshold
frequency, the stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency. In
other words, to stop an electron emitted by a higher frequency, we require more
energy. The stopping potential provides this energy.

All of this happens instantaneously. As soon as we open the quartz

window, electron emission starts.
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APPLICATIONS

While the description of the photoelectric effect sounds highly

theoretical, there are many practical applications of its work.

✓ Photoelectric cells were originally used to detect light, using a vacuum

tube containing a cathode, to emit electrons, and an anode, to gather the
resulting current. Today, these "phototubes" have advanced to
semiconductor-based photodiodes that are used in applications such as
solar cells and fiber optics telecommunications.
✓ Photomultiplier tubes are a variation of the phototube, but they have
several metal plates called dynodes. Electrons are released after light
strikes the cathodes. The electrons then fall onto the first dynode, which
releases more electrons that fall on the second dynode, then on to the third,
fourth, and so forth. Each dynode amplifies the current; after about 10
dynodes, the current is strong enough for the photomultipliers to detect
even single photons. Examples of this are used in spectroscopy (which
breaks apart light into different wavelengths to learn more about the
chemical compositions of star, for example), and computerized axial
tomography (CAT) scans that examine the body.
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Other applications of photodiodes and photomultipliers include:

imaging technology, including (older) television camera tubes or image

intensifiers

studying nuclear processes

chemically analyzing materials based on their emitted electrons

giving theoretical information about how electrons in atoms transition

between different energy states.

The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is used to generate electricity

with the help of solar panels. The solar panel contains metal which helps to
generate electricity by releasing energy when the light hits the metal. Another
application of photoelectric effect is that is used in digital cameras as it can
detect and record light due to the presence of photoelectric sensors which
respond to different colors of light. Lightning sensors used in smartphones help
to automatically adjust the brightness according to lighting.
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CONCLUSION
Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding
the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the
concept of wave–particle duality. Understanding how this works revolutionized
modern physics. Applications of the photoelectric effect brought us "electric
eye" door openers, light meters used in photography, solar panels and
photostatic copying. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy was an approach that
involves irradiating a surface with x-rays and measuring the kinetic energy of
the electrons that are released. Important features of a surface’s chemistry, such
as elemental composition, chemical composition, the empirical formula of
compounds, and chemical state, can be acquired.

The photoelectric effect can provide the physical basis for a new
method of mapping organic and biological surfaces. The technique,
photoelectron microscopy, is similar to fluorescence microscopy using incident
ultraviolet light except that photo ejected electrons form the image of the
specimen surface.

The photo electric effect was thus a major breakthrough in the field of
quantum physics. The discovery of this phenomenon has helped improve other
areas of science and related studies, and has answered questions of many
scientists who participated and contributed towards the development of early
physics.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reference websites:

https://www.britannica.com/science/photoelectric-effect

https://www.livescience.com/58816-photoelectric-effect.html

https://physics.info/photoelectric/

https://infinitylearn.com/surge/blog/neet/important-topic-of-
physicsphotoelectric-effect/

Reference books:

NCERT Physics Class XII Textbook