CHAPTER-I

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION OF EDM

Electrical discharge machining is a non-traditional manufacturing process based on

removing material from a part using a series of recurring electrical discharges (created by
electric pulse generators at short intervals) between a tool called an electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of a dielectric fluid. This fluid makes it possible to flush eroded
particles (mainly in the form of hollow spheres) from the gap and it is important to maintain
this flushing continuously.

The first EDM application was carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Lazarenko at the Technical
Institute of Moscow during the Second World War. The first of the two important
improvements, also carried out by these Soviet scientists, which made it feasible to elevate
this electrical technique to the category of the manufacturing process was the RC relaxation
circuit, which provided the first consistent dependable control of pulse times. The second
innovation consisted of adding a simple servo control circuit to find and hold a given gap
automatically. Despite these first trials and innovations, EDM technology was nearly
unknown until the 1950s. At this time, this technique began to be interesting for industrial
marketing mainly in the USA. Some of the causes that eased a much more widespread use of
the EDM process were the vacuum tubes, its combination with the basic RC relaxation
circuit, and finally, the development of the transistor. These solid-state devices were able to
provide high currents and a much faster switch on and off than the previous vacuum tubes.
Nowadays, EDM is widely used both in the European market and in the American market.

Therefore, EDM is the technique used in industry for high-precision machining of all
types of conductive materials such as metals, metallic alloys, graphite, ceramics, etc., of any
hardness.

1.2. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EDM PROCESS:

EDM machining is carried out using electric sparks that jump between two electrodes
subjected to a voltage and submerged in a dielectric fluid. Thus, the voltage applied to them
must be enough to create an electric field higher than the dielectric rigidity of the fluid used
in the process. As a consequence of this electric field, positive ions and electrons are
accelerated, producing a discharge channel that becomes conductive. It is just at this point
when the spark jumps causing collisions between ions and electrons and creating a plasma

1
channel. A sudden drop in the electric resistance of the previous channel allows that current
density to reach very high values producing an increase of ionization and the creation of a
powerful magnetic field.
These effects make a little part of the metal volume melt or even vaporize. In these
conditions, that is, ions and electrons crashing among them and therefore creating high
temperatures in both poles, a gas all or bubble is formed around the plasma channel and then
begins to grow providing just at the end of the discharge a large ball of gas. In this situation,
the electric current is shut off and the plasma channel collapses
causing the spark to disappear. Due to the sudden decrease of internal pressure of the
gas ball, the dielectric fluid breaks it making the ball implode, that is, explode inwards. As a
consequence of this implosion, an ejection of molten metal is carried out and, afterward, this
ejected molten material solidifies in the form of little balls forming by the so-called EDM
splinter or debris.
There are two different types of EDM:
1)Die-sinking 2) wire-cut.

1.2.1. Die-sinking

EDM reproduces the shape of the tool used (electrode) in the part wire-cut EDM a
metal wire (electrode) is used to cut a programmed outline into the piece. Despite the
advantages that present EDM processes, one of the most important drawbacks is the high
manufacturing time. This is important when obtaining low values of surface roughness is
pretended. In such cases, an inadequate selection of operation conditions may cause quite
high process times without achieving an improvement in the surface roughness properties

Figure 1.1: Die-sinking

2
1.3. Some of the most important parameters implicated in the EDM
manufacturing process are the following ones:

1.3.1. On-time (pulse time or ti): is the duration of time (_s) the current is allowed to flow
per cycle. Material removal is directly proportional to the energy applied during this
on-time. This energy is controlled by the peak current and the length of the on-time.
1.3.2. Off-time (pause time or t0): is the duration of time (_s) between the sparks (that is to
say, on-time). This time allows the molten material to solidify and to be washed out of
the arc gap. This parameter is to affect the speed and the stability of the cut. Thus, if
the off-time is too short, it will cause sparks to be unstable.
1.3.3. Arc gap (or gap): the distance between the electrode and the part during the process of
EDM. It may be called a spark gap.
1.3.4. Duty cycle: is a percentage of the on-time relative to the total cycle time. This
parameter is calculated by dividing the on-time by the total cycle time (on-time pulse off-time

1.4. APPLICATIONS OF EDM:

1.4.1. It is used to machine extremely hard materials that are difficult to machine like
alloys, tool steels, tungsten carbides, etc.
1.4.2. It is used for forging, extrusion, wire drawing, and thread cutting.
1.4.3. It is used for the drilling of curved holes.
1.4.4. It is used for internal thread cutting and helical gear cutting.
1.4.5. It is used for machining sharp edges and corners that cannot be machined
effectively by other machining processes.
1.4.6. Higher Tolerance limits can be obtained in EDM machining. Hence areas that
require higher surface accuracy use the EDM machining process.
1.4.7. Ceramic materials that are difficult to machine can be machined by the EDM
machining process.

3
 CHAPTER-II

BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT

2.1. CAUSE OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN EDM PROCESS:

EDM generates residual stresses mainly due to the non-homogeneity of heat flow and
metallurgical transformations. Investigation of the residual stresses of electric discharge
machined components revealed their tensile nature, the extremely narrow superficial zone
where they appear, their high magnitude at the surface layers, and their increase with
increasing pulse energy. Earlier attempts to measure residual stresses due to EDM conducted
by several authors have shown that high tensile residual stresses are developed. These
stresses were found to approach the upper tensile strength of the material at the immediate
surface, and then fall rapidly to a relatively low value before giving way to small residual
compressive stresses in the core of the material. The stresses were deemed to arise mainly as
a result of the thermal contraction of the resolidified metal, which was not expelled from the
craters, onto the relatively unaffected parent metal, inducing plastic deformation and biaxial
tensile stress.

Figure 2.1: Close-up of the EDM machine region

4
2.2. DIFFERENT METHODS OF MEASURING RESIDUAL STRESSES:

2.2.1. EDM-HOLE DRILLING METHOD:

In this study, the EDM drilling process is used to measure the residual stresses
of high-performance materials, whose stress state is difficult to obtain by a widely used
technology called the high-speed (HS) hole-drilling method (ASTM Standard E837). The
experimental results in this method reveal that the stress measurement curves of both EDM
conditions, which have the same EDM energy, are parallel with the ideal curve. Therefore,
the results of t h e EDM hole-drilling method can be positively calibrated by a constant, and
it depicts the feasibility of residual measurement on materials with high hardness and wear
resistance.

2.2.2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

A finite element-based model for the electric discharge machining (EDM)

process is presented. In this method we use process parameters such as power input, pulse
duration, etc., to predict the transient temperature distribution, liquid- and solid-state material
transformation, and residual stresses that are induced in the workpiece as a result of a single-
pulse discharge.
An attractive feature of this method is its ability to predict the shape of the crater
that is formed as a result of the material removal. However, in this method, improvements to
simulate the effects of multiple pulses haven’t been undertaken.

2.2.3. X-RAY DIFFRACTION METHOD:

In this method, parallel beam modification is to determine the residual stress profile of
electric discharge machined micro-alloyed steel. A considerable number of residual stresses is
observed at the sub-surface layer and the peak stresses were almost independent of the
discharge energy and approached the ultimate tensile strength of the material. The effect of an
increase in discharge energy was described as an increase in depth where the peak residual
stress occurs. This was related to the intensification of the surface cracking with energy. They
observed lower stresses for dual-phase samples compared to micro-alloyed ones, although the
difference in strength between these steels is not significant. They have concluded this
situation as the influence of transformation stresses due to phase changes. The residual stress
values increase from the bulk material to a maximum and then decrease again near the
surface. This decrease is related to crack formation since the residual stresses exceed the
fracture strength of the material. It is noticed that the depth of the maximum stress value
corresponds to the average depth of the thermal crack network induced by EDM.

2.2.4. BENDING DEFLECTION METHOD:

5
 The bending deflection method is based on continuous material removal. It is
observed that the peak stress is not located at the surface, but somewhat below for roughing.
They explained this situation by the fact that the white layer has a lot of cavities and micro-
cracks, which cause relaxation of the residual stresses. After reaching the peak value, the tensile
stresses decrease and switch to small compressive values at a certain penetration depth below the
surface. The maximum stress value decreases considerably whereas the depth of maximum
stress and the penetration. The depth of the tensile stress is unchanged.

2.2.5. THE PRINCIPLE OF LAYER REMOVAL METHOD:

The principle of the layer removal method depends on the balance of internal
stresses and moments when residual stresses are gradually removed from the material in the form
of thin layers using chemical or electro-chemical machining. Stressed layers from a thin
parallelepiped test specimen, which usually include residual stresses in one of their planes, are
removed successively, and resulting strains or deformations are measured. Since the resulting
deformations of the analyzed part can be related to stresses in a removed layer by equilibrium of
forces and moments, residual stresses can be determined using simple elasticity theory. In this
method, only the principal stress component parallel to the axis of the test specimen can be
calculated. An electric discharge machined surface is produced by applying consecutive spark
discharges, which bring about overlapping craters that are randomly distributed over the entire
surface. Supposing that each discharge is axisymmetric, a biaxial stress field with equal stress
magnitudes can be assumed. The transverse stresses could be considered negligible due to the
thermal nature of the process. Therefore, only one directional measurement of the curvature is
sufficient while knowing that a two-dimensional stress is present. One of the most appropriate
machining processes to remove stressed layers from an analyzed part is electrochemical
machining since it does not add any additional stresses and it is possible to remove thin layers
which is crucial for the measurements.

6
 CHAPTER-III
LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON RESIDUAL STRESS:

EDM involves the complex interaction of many physical phenomena. The electric spark
between the anode and the cathode generates a large amount of heat over a small area of the
workpiece. A portion of this heat is conducted through the cathode, a fraction is conducted
through the anode, and the rest is dissipated by the dielectric. The duration of the spark is of
the order of microseconds and during this time a plasma channel is formed between the tool
and the workpiece. Electrons and ions travel through this plasma channel.

The plasma channel induces a large amount of pressure on the workpiece surface as well.
This pressure holds back the molten material in its place. As the plasma starts forming it
displaces the dielectric fluid and a shock wave passes through the fluid. As soon as the spark
duration time is over and the spark collapses, the dielectric gushes back to fill the void. This
sudden removal of pressure results in a violent ejection of the molten and vaporized material
from the workpiece surface. Ejected molten particles quickly solidify in contact with the
colder fluid and are eventually flushed out by the dielectric. Small craters are formed at
locations where material has been removed. Multiple craters overlap each other and the
machined surface that is finally produced consists of numerous overlapping craters. During
machining the local temperature in the workpiece gets close to the vaporization temperature
of the material.

Thus, the phase transformation from solid to liquid as well as liquid to vapor occurs
during the heating cycle. Part of the transformed material is removed but the rest re-solidifies
on the surface of the workpiece. This re-solidified layer is usually called the white layer, as it
is not easily etchable.EDM processes carried out in hydrocarbon dielectrics lead to the partial
breakdown of dielectrics and this further leads to some diffusion of carbon into the white
layer. It has been reported by many researchers that white layers formed in the presence of
hydrocarbon dielectrics contain higher percentages of carbon than those machined in de-
ionized water due to the diffusion of carbon into the surface layers. Below the re-solidified
white layer lies a second layer that does not melt but is still affected by heat. For steels,
during the cool-down cycle, solid-state transformations occur in this heat-affected zone
because the highest temperature reaches beyond the austenite transformation temperature.
Experimental data shows that this heat-affected layer transforms mostly to martensite along
with some retained austenite for steel samples. Finally, all the non-uniform heating and
cooling give rise to transient and residual stresses in the workpiece.

7
 As a result of these residual stresses surface cracks may be formed in the white layers.
Usually, residual stresses are not high enough to cause sub-surface cracks in the parent
material but may lead to detrimental effects when the machined workpiece is used in
applications.

3.2. Cracks Causes:

Crack formation can be attributed to the presence of thermal stress and tensile stress
within the machined component. Thermal stress is produced when the electrode discharges
bombard the surface of the sample during the machining process. Tensile stress within the
sample is generated because not all of the material that melts during the machining process is
swept away from the component’s surface by the dielectric. Due to the ingress of carbon, the
melted material contracts more than the unaffected parent part during the cooling process, and
when the stress on the surface exceeds the material’s ultimate tensile strength, cracks are
formed. Since both tension cracks and voids form during the cooling stage, there would
appear to be some relationship between the two. Although results from previous studies have
indicated that cracking increases as the pulse energy increases, the exact relationship between
cracking and EDM parameters has never been presented.

Observation of the machined surface, and the sample sections, reveals that the surface
cracks are often micro-cracks. The high magnification microscope shows that cracks exist in
the white layer; initiating at its surface, and traveling down perpendicularly towards the
parent material. In the vast majority of cases, the cracks terminate within the white layer, or
just on the interface of the white layer and the parent material. Only rarely do the cracks
penetrate the entire white layer thickness to extend into the parent material.

If one material sample is considered in isolation, surface deviation reveals that different
EDM parameters cause different surface crack densities. However, since surface cracking is a
potential source of component failure, it is necessary to qualify the degree of cracking using
some objective standard. Since it is not easy to quantify the cracking in terms of an estimation
of the width, length, or depth of the crack, or even by the amount of cracking, this study
defines a “surface crack density”, i.e. the total length of cracks (cm) in a unit area (cm2) to
evaluate the severity of the cracking.

8
 Figure 3.1: EDM surface with surface cracks and a sketch of the sub-surface region

3.3. OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT WORK:

The objective of the present work is to:

1. study the various causes of residual stresses induced during t h e EDM process
and analyze the different methods for measuring the residual stresses in the EDM
process.
2. study and analyze the phase transformation and the change of microstructure in an
EDMed sample that causes residual stress development.
3. Analyze the cracks and the surface defects occurring at different currents in the
EDMed sample.

9
 CHAPTER-IV
EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1. Procedure:

En-19 alloy steel is used as the workpiece in this experiment. The sample was cut into
standard dimensions using a hacksaw at the metallurgy lab. The diameter of the sample is 50
mm and the thickness is 13 mm. Three samples of the same dimension were prepared. The
three different samples were ground and polished in the grinding machine. Grinding was done
to level the workpiece. Then keeping the pulse rate constant and varying the current each
sample was EDMed for 7-8 minutes. The first sample was machined at a 5 amp current. The
second sample was machined at a current of 25 amp. while The third sample was machined at
a current of 45 amp. Each of the samples was then polished with diesel to clear the carbon
deposits. All three samples were then viewed under a Scanning Electron Microscope. The
surface characteristics of each sample EDMed at different currents were studied. The phase
transformation analysis was done which gives rise to residual stresses.

The formation of cracks and surface defects are studied from the images obtained from
SEM images.

TABLE 4.1: Sample no 1

Step X Y Z Ip Ton t Vg SEN ASEN Tw Top Pol

S 1 0.0000 0.0000 -9.000 5 100 10 50 7 2 1.5 0.3 +ve

E 2 0.0000 0.0000 -9.000 5 100 10 50 7 2 1.5 0.5 +ve

TABLE 4.2: Sample no 2

Step X Y Z Ip Ton t Vg SEN ASEN Tw Top Pol

S 1 0.0000 0.0000 -9.000 25 100 10 50 7 2 1.5 0.3 +ve

E 2 0.0000 0.0000 -9.000 25 100 10 50 7 2 1.5 0.5 +ve

10
 TABLE 4.3: Sample no 3

Step X Y Z Ip Ton t Vg SEN ASEN Tw Top Pol

S 1 0.0000 0.0000 -9.000 45 100 10 50 7 2 1.5 0.3 +ve

E 2 0.0000 0.0000 -9.000 45 100 10 50 7 2 1.5 0.5 +ve

11
 CHAPTER-V
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1. Phase transformation:

The dramatic temperature changes in the workpiece associated with EDM induce a
change of phase in the material. Regions that achieve the melting point are called fusion or
molten regions. For the molten areas the phase changes from solid to liquid (and perhaps to
gas as well). The neighborhood of the fusion zone experiences similar rise and fall in
temperature but the highest temperature does not necessarily reach the melting point of the
workpiece. This region is called the heat-affected region. The temperature cycle observed
near the machined area of the workpiece is in many ways similar to the temperature cycles
involved in many welding processes. Like in welding, two distinct zones, a fusion zone, and a
heat-affected zone are observed after EDM machining. While the fusion zone experiences
solid–liquid phase transformation, the heat-affected zone experiences solid–solid phase
transformation. Solid–solid phase transformations in steel are initiated when the temperature
is raised above austenite transformation or A3 temperature. Once this temperature is crossed
the parent material transforms to austenite. Subsequently, as the austenite cools several
daughter phases, such as ferrite, pearlite or banite could be created. These solid-state
transformations are controlled by the cooling rate of the transformed austenite and the
composition of the parent material.

TTT or the CCT diagrams for different steel compositions are excellent tools to predict
the fractions of daughter phases that are created during a certain cool-down process.
Mathematical representations of the TTT diagrams were used in the past along with process
simulation tools to predict the fractions of daughter phases formed during welding and heat
treatment [18–21]. These tools enable the user to track the formation of Ferrite, Pearlite, and
Banite during cool down. The untransformed austenite that remains after the martensite
transformation temperature is reached promptly transforms to martensite.

For solid-state phase transformation, the cooling rate is an important factor. The faster the
cooling rates the more propensities there are for the formation of martensite. In the case of
EDM, the cooling rate is extremely high. It is much higher than water quenching (which
shows one of the highest cooling rates among the traditional processes). Thus, it is expected
that most of the heat-affected zone area will have transformed into martensite. After a portion
of the molten layer is removed when the discharge collapses, the remaining material solidifies
very quickly to form a thin layer of re-solidified material on the surface of the workpiece.
Single spark experiments show the formation of craters on work-piece surfaces. The thin
re-solidified layer observed on the machined surface is a result of overlapping craters formed

12
due to numerous overlapping sparks. The thin re-solidified layer is generally called the white
layer because it is difficult to etch using standard etching agents like nitinol, etc. We observe
several features within the white layer by employing non-traditional etching techniques. We
described three sub-layers within the white layer. Two of these were formed due to
simultaneous cooling from the outer surface inwards and from the inner surface outwards.
These two layers are characterized by long dendritic structures. A third layer was observed
sandwiched in between these two layers. In this current model, it is possible to predict the
extent of the fusion zone (i.e. the re-solidified molten layer) and the heat-affected zone that
mostly contains martensitic material. Heat transfer results provide transient temperatures at
all nodes. Nodal temperature data determines the region that melts and the region that
experiences temperature above the A3 temperature but stays below the fusion temperature.
The fusion region loses some elements to simulate material removal. The rest solidifies to
form the fusion zone. Due to the high cooling rate the solid-state transformation produces
predominantly martensite. So, all the heat-affected zone is shown to transform into
martensite.

5.2. Crater Shape:

The final shape of the crater as a result of a single pulse is quite well-known to
researchers. It is a depression in the middle with edges that are raised above the surface
(photographs are included in this document). This shape is formed as a result of two effects.
During the plasma-on time, the plasma pressure holds the liquid metal in place under
pressure. This may force some of the fluid to be pushed towards the side and try and escape
the pressure. It is assumed these liquids re-solidify to form the protruding edges around the
hole. When the plasma pressure is released violently ejected liquid metal splatters and this
leaves splashy re-solidified material all over the crater. In the simulation, the depression
within the crater is automatically simulated when the molten material is removed. To simulate
the protruding edges a pressure boundary condition is applied on the molten pool and the
pressure is kept on until the pulse-on time. This forces some of the molten material to
severely shear and form the edge around the pool.

13
14
Fig 5.1 Un EDM surface of En-19

15
 Fig 5.2 SEM photograph of EDM surface of En-19 at 5 amp current

Sample 1:

SEM photograph of Sample 1 EDMed with the current of 5 ampere (A) is shown in
Fig. 5.2. From the figure it is evident that the surface roughness is better because of the less
intensity of current. As seen from the figure, there is little distortion in the microstructure and
almost no cracks develop. The phase transformed in this case is hence less because the
thickness of a white layer formed would be less, hence it is seen that the sample undergoes a
little transformation of phase and subsequently less residual stresses develop in sample no 1

16
 Fig 5.3 SEM photograph of EDMed surface of En-19 at 25 amp current

Sample 2:
Sample 2 EDMed at a current of 25 amp shows slight development of craters which
would initiate cracks later (ref Fig 5.3). This sample undergoes constant overlapping of
subsequent sparks which results in solid-solid transformation because of higher heat
generation in the fusion zone at a higher current of 25 amp. Hence solid transformation
results in the development or generation of stresses below the solidified layer which is the

residual stresses in the sample. The SEM pictures depict that there is higher surface
roughness in this sample machined at a higher current and the microstructure is seen to vary
largely from the unEDMed surface (ref. Fig. 5.1), hence giving rise to residual stresses in the
sample, whose magnitude is higher than that of sample 1.

Fig 5.4: SEM photograph of and EDMed surface of En-19 at 45 amp current

Sample 3:
Sample No 3 EDMed at a current of 45 amp is the most interesting of the other two
samples. In this sample, we observe a drastic change in the microstructure of the sample

17
being EDMed at such a high current. Craters are visible in the microstructure of this sample
machined at 45 amp. The formation of craters indicates the intensity of stress generated
because of the phase transformed in this sample. At this current the sample while being
EDMed bears violent and subsequent sparks at short intervals. These sparks generate a high
heat zone in the fusion region, transforming the phase of the material from solid to liquid (and
even to gas). The liquid metal quickly re-solidifies and a thin layer known to be a white layer
is formed because of the high current the temperature developed is much higher which
brings about drastic modification in the grain structure of the material as seen from the SEM
images. Hence the intensity of stress developed is much higher in the white layer just below
the re-solidified layer, giving rise to residual stress which results in the formation of craters in
the sample as seen from the SEM pictures.

5.3. CONCLUSION:

The present work deals with the analysis of residual stresses in EDMed samples that have
been subjected to machining at different currents. The surface characteristics have been
studied and the microstructures observed to conclude the impact of current and pulse on the
sample. The significant findings of the present work are as follows:

1. At low current the surface tends to change less microstructurally. There is little
distortion in the grain structure of the material. The intensity of residual stress
developed is less as seen from the microstructural changes in the sample. At higher
currents, the surface roughness is more because of subsequent sparks. The material
undergoes a phase transformation from solid to liquid and re-solidifies very quickly
changing the grain structure drastically. Hence it is clear that the magnitude of stress
generated is more at higher current than at lower current.

2. It is seen that the molten material and material that reached high temperatures tend to
expand. This expansion is impeded by adjacent colder material resulting in a
significant rise in compressive stress in the region. Such high stresses lead to localized
plastic deformation of the material. A significant component is the large tensile stress
at the surface of the workpiece near where the plasma arc struck. When molten/heated
material cools down it tries to contract but because it is in contact with the colder
region its tendency to contract is impeded to a certain extent. This results in large
tensile residual stresses.

3. Crack formation is related to the EDM parameters. An increased current will increase both the
average white layer thickness and the induced residual stress. These two conditions tend to
promote crack formation. When the pulse current is increased, the increase in material
removal rate causes a high deviation of the thickness of the white layer. Compared to a thin
white layer, it is true to say that a thick white layer tends to crack more readily, however, the

18
area occupied by the thick layer is less, so the density of surface cracking is broadly similar
for both thin and thick layers.

19
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