The Fundamentals

of Electrochemistry
The Fundamentals
of Electrochemistry
By

Yuliy D. Gamburg
The Fundamentals of Electrochemistry

By Yuliy D. Gamburg
A.N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry
and Electrochemistry

This book first published 2023

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2023 by Yuliy D. Gamburg

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-0164-7

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0164-5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ......................................................................................................... x

List of Symbols.......................................................................................... xii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Introduction: General Issues
1.1. Subject, features, structure, and areas of interest of
electrochemistry
1.2. The main historical stages of the development of
electrochemistry. The place of electrochemistry among other
sciences and its prospects
1.3. Faraday's laws and current efficiency

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 12

Equilibrium Properties of Electrolytes
2.1. Ions in electrolyte solutions. Electrolytic dissociation
2.2. Ion-dipole and ion-ion interactions in solutions. Interaction
potentials.
2.3. Ion solvation.
2.4. Solvents in electrochemistry
2.5. Nonideality of solutions. Activity and chemical potential.
2.6. Ionic equilibria in solutions
2.7. Theory of strong electrolytes
2.8. Correlation methods for calculating interactions between
particles in electrolyte solutions

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 52

Nonequilibrium Phenomena in Electrolyte Solutions
3.1. Ionic transport in solutions; conductivity
3.2. Molar electrical conductivity
3.3. Transport (transfer) numbers
3.4. Electrical conductivity of highly diluted solutions of strong
electrolytes
3.5. Diffusion in electrolyte solutions
3.6. Nernst–Einstein equation
vi Table of Contents

3.7. General equation for the ion flux

3.8. The average diffusion coefficient of the electrolyte
3.9. Electrical conductivity of melts
3.10. Electrical conductivity of solid electrolytes
3.11. Polymer electrolytes

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 81

Electrochemical Systems and Electrode Potentials
4.1. Electrodes
4.2. Electrode potentials
4.3. External, inner, and surface potentials; Volta potential and Galvani
potential
4.4. The Nernst equation
4.5. The standard potential
4.6. Classification of the electrodes
4.7. Gas electrodes. Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
4.8. Reference electrodes and indicator electrodes. Sensors
4.9. Membrane electrodes
4.10. Glass electrode
4.11. Other types of electrochemical sensors
4.12. Electrochemical cells: rules for notations
4.13. Influence of various conditions on the voltage of the
electrochemical cell
4.14. Potentiometry and electrochemical cells
4.15. Experimental determination of the standard potential

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 114

Double Electric Layer and Adsorption of Substances on Electrodes
5.1. Processes at the phase boundaries
5.2. Adsorption isotherms
5.3. Dependence of adsorption on the electrode potential.
Electrocapillarity
5.4. Double layer capacitance measurements
5.5. Structure of the double electric layer
5.6. Graham’s Model
5.7. Structure of the double electric layer and the rate of electrode
processes
 The Fundamentals of Electrochemistry vii

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 151

Electrochemical kinetics
6.1. Polarization of the electrodes. Practical measurement of the
electrode potential during polarization
6.2. The concept of overpotential
6.3. Limiting stages of processes
6.4. Potential diagrams
6.5. Energy variation in electrode processes
6.6. Theoretical concepts of the elementary act of electron transfer
6.7. Quantum chemistry considerations
6.8. Exchange current. The shape of the polarization curves
6.9. Charge transfer on semiconductors
6.10. Mass transfer in the kinetics of electrode processes.
Diffusion layer
6.11. The role of convection and the thickness of the diffusion layer.
The limiting current density
6.12. Concentration (diffusion) overpotential
6.13. The role of convection and migration. Mixed kinetics
6.14. Quantitative accounting of migration
6.15. Voltage drop in the diffusion layer
6.16. The mechanism of the processes. Multistep processes

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 201

Electrochemical Methods
7.1. Steady-state polarization curves
7.2. Cyclic voltammetry
7.3. Investigation of parallel electrode reactions
7.4. Decomposition of the full polarization curve into partial ones
7.5. Rotating disk electrode (RDE) method
7.6. The method of a rotating disk electrode with a ring (RDER)
7.7. Comparing the rates of the stages and determining the
Mechanism of the process
7.8. Some problems of unsteady diffusion and relaxation methods for
studying electrode processes
7.9. Changes in concentrations, currents and potentials during the
passage of alternating current
7.10. The electrode impedance spectroscopy (EIS) method
7.11. Thin-layer cells and microelectrodes
7.12. Polarography on a mercury dropping electrode
7.13. Theory of the method. Diffusion to a spherical surface
viii Table of Contents

7.14. Non-electrochemical research methods in electrochemistry

7.15. Studies of surfaces and surface phenomena, solid materials
research

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 242

Electrochemical Processes at Metal Deposition
8.1. General provisions
8.2. Overpotential at electrodeposition of metals
8.3. Processes during the growth of a new phase
8.4. Electrochemical phase formation through nucleation.
8.5. Surfactants in the electrodeposition of metals
8.6. Electrodeposition from complex electrolytes
8.7. Electrodeposition from melts
8.8. Electrodeposition of alloys
8.9. Adatoms and underpotential deposition
8.10. Metal distribution throughout the electrode surface
8.11. Microdistribution of current over a rough surface
8.12. Leveling and brightening

Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 281

Anodic Dissolution and Corrosion of Metals
9.1. Thermodynamics, kinetics and mechanism of anodic
dissolution
9.2. Passivation of metals
9.3. Practical application of passivation and activation
9.4. Pitting corrosion. The mechanism of pitting formation
9.5. Transpassive dissolution of metals in electrochemical
technology
9.6. Electrochemical corrosion of metals
9.7. Processes in autonomous and short-circuited electrochemical
systems
9.8. Pourbaix diagrams.

Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 301

Some Modern Aspects of Applied Electrochemistry
10.1. Electrocatalysis. Electrode materials in technology
10.2. Catalytic activity and its relation to the work function of the
electron and other properties of materials.
10.3. Non-metallic coating layers and their use in anodic processes
10.4. Porous electrodes
10.5. Electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction of (HER)
 The Fundamentals of Electrochemistry ix

10.6. Hydrogenation of metals

10.7. Isotopic effect
10.8. Reactions of ionization and evolution of oxygen
10.9. Production of chlorine
10.10. Electrochemical reactions involving organic substances
10.11. Applications of cathodic deposition processes of metals and
alloys
10.12. Galvanic cells
10.13. Requirements for galvanic cells (batteries)
10.14. Types of electrochemical current sources. Primary batteries.
Rechargeable batteries
10.15. New chemical power sources
10.16. Fuel cells
10.17. Environmental aspects of electrochemical technologies;
electrochemical methods of water purification
10.18. Electric field in the cells and current distribution over the
electrode surface
10.19. Primary and secondary current distribution
10.20. The throwing power of the electrolyte

Subject Index ........................................................................................... 349

 PREFACE

This book is a systematic, concise, and rather rigorous presentation of the

physical foundations of electrochemistry, which is more a physical science
than a chemical one. Familiarity with this topic is necessary for
understanding such areas as chemical power sources (Li-ion and other
batteries), production of hydrogen, oxygen and other substances,
application of metal coatings, manufacture of foils and nanomaterials,
corrosion protection. All this is connected with the passage of electric
current through solutions and with the electromotive forces.
The difference between a physicist, a chemist and an electrochemist
can be illustrated by the following example. If we talk about a body
immersed in a liquid, then the physicist firstly recalls Archimedes' law, the
chemist asks what kind of liquid and what kind of solid: if it is water and
salt, then salt will dissolve, and if it is water and sodium, then it will light
up and an explosion may occur. But the electrochemist says: if a piece of
steel is immersed in aerated water, local currents occur and the sample will
corrode.
The book outlines the most important theoretical concepts and
provides a fairly detailed derivation of the basic formulas and equations.
Both equilibrium systems and nonequilibrium (and irreversible) processes
are considered. It is assumed that the very initial concepts of
electrochemistry are already known to the reader from the courses of
physics, alongside with inorganic, analytical, and physical chemistry.
Therefore, there is no detailed consideration of these concepts in the book,
but only a succinct introduction.
There is also no detailed description of spectroscopic, optical and other
physical methods that are widely used in electrochemistry, but are not
electrochemical in nature. However, the electrochemical objects that are
investigated by these methods and the feasibility of the methods is
considered. Electrochemical methods of research are described in more
detail. In other words, the book is biased towards electrochemistry as such.
The distinctive property of the book is rather a share of material related to
the electrochemistry of metals, since, in our opinion, it is especially
convenient to explain the main concepts of electrochemical science on this
basis. Most important applied aspects of electrochemistry, including
 The Fundamentals of Electrochemistry xi

batteries and industrial production of various substances, are also

considered.
The addressees of this textbook are students and postgraduates of
physical, technical and chemical specializations as well as researchers
using electrochemical methods, employees in electrochemical industries,
teachers wanting to improve their knowledge in these topics. It can be
used by the readers with a not so high background; mathematics and
physics here are simple and demand the level corresponding to the first
course of the technical university.
Most of the text is original. In several pages the material is used
written together with my late colleague Y. Lukomsky.
I am hugely indebted to Dr. Maria Ehrenburg, who have given freely
of her time and knowledge to read the manuscript in detail and make a
number of valuable corrections.
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

A atomic weight
A the more electropositive metal
a thermodynamic activity
a first Tafel coefficient
a attraction constant in Frumkin equation
B the more electronegative metal
B adsorption constant
b second Tafel coefficient
BV Butler – Volmer equation
С electric capacitance (per unit area)
C, с concentration
CE current (cathodic) efficiency
D grain size
DHT Debye – Huckel theory
D diffusion coefficient
d density
d distance
E potential
E0 standard potential
Eeq equilibrium potential
e electron
e electronic charge
F Faraday constant
f F/RT
G Gibbs energy
g number of atoms in the cluster
h height, thickness
I electric current
i current density
i0 exchange current density
id diffusion current density
ilim limiting current density
J flux
K, k different constants
K electrochemical equivalent of the metal
 The Fundamentals of Electrochemistry xiii

kB Bolzmann constant
l length, distance
M metal
M molar mass
Mz+ ion of metal
m mass
N number of species
NA Avogadro number
n net amount of transferred electrons
P leveling power of the electrolyte
Q net charge passed through the circuit
q electric charge
qm electric charge at the metal surface
R molar gas constant
R Ohmic resistance
R radius
r distance along the radius
ω angular rotation rate
RDE rotating disc electrode
RRDE rotating disc electrode with a ring
S, s area
SAS surface active substance
T absolute temperature
TP throwing power
t time
U voltage (between cathode and anode)
V volume
v volume per one species
Vm molar volume
W Warburg impedance
W Electric energy
W Wagner number
w velocity (of a flux)
x distance
y distance
z electric charge of the species in electron units
Z number of clusters
α transfer coefficient
β polarizability ∂η/∂i
γ interface energy
Г adsorption
xiv List of Symbols

Г∞ limiting adsorption
δ thickness of the reaction layer
δN Nernst diffusion layer
δPr Prandtl layer
ε relative permittivity
ε roughness amplitude
η overpotential
ηc cathodic overpotential
ηa anodic overpotential
θ coverage
 distance of propagation
λD Debye length
μ chemical potential
μ electrochemical potential
ν viscosity (kinematic)
ρ volume charge density
σ surface tension (specific surface energy)
σ conductivity
τ duration of the process
Ф form factor
φ Galvani potential
ω angular rotation rate (RDE)
ω frequency
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION:
GENERAL ISSUES

1.1. Subject, features, structure, and areas

of interest of electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is usually regarded as a branch of physical chemistry, the
subjects of which are the processes at the boundaries of phases with
different types of conductivity, as well as the corresponding
interconversion of chemical and electrical energy. However, in reality, the
subject of electrochemistry is much broader. Electrochemistry also
includes physics that deals with the theory of charged systems and charge
transfer processes, similarly to chemistry related to redox processes taking
place with the direct participation of the electron. It also encompasses the
part of biology that deals with membranes and other bio-electrochemical
systems and the part of chemical physics related to electrocatalytic
processes.
Thus, electrochemistry delineates a significant area with fairly clear
boundaries at the junction of physics and chemistry and, generally
speaking, far beyond the limits of physical chemistry.
There are two main differences between electrochemical reactions and
conventional redox chemical processes that take place in the bulk of some
medium or at some interface (interphase).
Any such process can be formally divided into two half-reactions, one
of which includes an oxidizer and the other includes a reducing agent. In
electrochemistry, however, these reaction participants are separated in
space and the reactions themselves occur with participation of electrons.
The oxidation process takes place at one electrode and the reduction
process occurs at the other one. In addition, electrochemical processes are
accompanied by conversion of electrical energy into chemical energy and
vice versa.
Electrodes in electrochemistry are phases with electronic conductivity
in contact with ionic conductors (electrolytes). As a rule, an “electrode”
2 Chapter One

refers to the entire contact area or even the whole region containing such a
contact and/or the actual material of the electronic conductor. An
electrochemical cell is an assembly of two or more electrodes and an
electrolyte.
Let us consider the most significant difference between chemical and
electrochemical processes on the basis of the process of water formation
from oxygen and hydrogen.
The chemical method for producing water is combustion of hydrogen
in oxygen. The process occurs with the evolution of a large amount of
heat, so that  < 0 for this reaction. During the combustion, the reagents,
H2 and O2, come into direct contact and interact with each other and the
released energy is transferred to the environment in the form of heat.
The same process of converting hydrogen and oxygen into water also
occurs in an electrochemical hydrogen-oxygen cell that consists of
electrodes and electrolytes (fig. 1-1). The electrode near which hydrogen is
passed (hydrogen electrode) transfers electrons to the external circuit. Their
excess is formed at the hydrogen electrode as a result of hydrogen ionization
(oxidation); this process is conventionally written as H2 = 2H+ + 2e.

Fig. 1-1. Electrochemical hydrogen – oxygen cell

 Introduction: General Issues 3

At the second electrode, oxygen is reduced to OH– ions by free

electrons available at its surface: ½ О2 + H2O + 2e– = 2OH–, the
consumption of electrons being completely compensated for by their flow
through the external conductor from the first electrode.
Here, hydrogen and oxygen are spatially separated and do not come
into contact with each other. The general reaction includes two separate
half-reactions, each occurring at its own electrode. Another difference
between the electrochemical process and the chemical one is that the
energy obtained during such an interaction of hydrogen and oxygen is
mainly converted into electrical energy (a flow of electrons, that is electric
current flowing through the conductor from one electrode to another), and
not into heat. In this case, usually only a small part of the energy is
dissipated as heat into the surrounding space.
Since electrochemistry in its development began to touch on many
diverse problems, now we can give the following definition of this branch
of science:
electrochemistry is a science that deals with: a) the structure of
conductors of the second kind (i. e. electrolytes, both liquid and
solid), b) processes that occur in electrolytes during the passage of
current, and c) processes at the boundaries between electrolytes
and electronic conductor, occurring during the passage of electric
current from an external source and in the course of the current
generation at these boundaries.
The systems in which these processes and phenomena take place are
called electrochemical systems. The most important of these are chemical
power sources (galvanic cells) and electrolyzers (electrolysis cells). In
galvanic cells, chemical reactions at the electrodes occur spontaneously:
with the release of electrons at the first electrode and with their
consumption at the second one. In electrolyzers, the current passes from an
external source of any nature, and the passage of current results in
chemical reactions at the electrodes.
Any such system includes at least one conductor of the first (I) kind
and one conductor of the second (II) kind.
Conductors of the first kind (above all, metals) have electronic
conductivity: the charge transport represents a flow of electrons. Graphite,
semiconductors, and some polymeric substances also possess electronic
conductivity (a special case of electronic conductivity is the hole
conductivity of semiconductors). This type of conductivity involves no
chemical changes in the conductor and no mass transport.
Liquid systems (solutions, melts, as well as some solid substances) that
conduct current, contain, along with uncharged particles, also
4 Chapter One

independently moving charged particles (ions) that provide the

conductivity of such systems.
Ionic conductors are conductors in which ions carry electric current.
More exactly, ions provide the occurrence of the electric field in these
media. Ionic (predominantly) conductivity is characteristic for the
solutions and melts of salts, acids, hydroxides, and oxides, as well as some
solids. These are conductors of the second kind; they are also called
electrolytes. Three major types of ionic conductors are used in applied
electrochemistry: solutions, melts, and solid ionic conductors. Polymeric
electrolytes also have ionic conductivity, since their molecules include
functional groups that dissociate to form cations and anions. Ionic
(electrolytic) conductivity involves chemical reactions at electrodes and
mass transport.
The solutions most widely used in practice are aqueous solutions, e.g.,
NaCl solutions used to obtain Cl2 and NaOH in the industry. Here, the
electric current is carried by hydrated Na+ and Cl− ions. In a lead-acid
battery, the ionic conductor is a sulfuric acid solution. The electric current
is carried mainly by the H+ and HSO4− ions.
Melts are mainly used for the production of such active chemical
products as cannot be obtained in aqueous solutions (aluminum,
magnesium, alkali metals, fluorine). For example, sodium is produced by
electrolysis of molten NaOH or NaCl. The electric current in the NaOH
melt is carried by the Na+ and OH– ions. As a rule, both cations and anions
are simultaneously involved in the transfer of electricity.
Solid ionic conductors (solid electrolytes) are used, in particular, in
some chemical power sources. An example is RbAg4I5 solid electrolyte.
This electrolyte takes part in the current-forming reaction, and only Ag+
ions carry the electric current. In this case, anions practically do not
participate in the current transfer. Such conductors are therefore denoted
as unipolar.
There are also substances with mixed conductivity. For example, in
solutions of alkali metals in liquid ammonia, liquid metal alloys and some
other systems, current is provided by the movement of both ions and
electrons. So, an electrical circuit consisting of conductors of the first and
second kind is called an electrochemical system or an electrochemical
circuit. An electrochemical circuit is any specific electrochemical system
that includes two or more interphase boundaries.
When considering the passage of current through electrochemical
systems, the terms proposed by Michael Faraday are used: anode and
cathode. The anode is the electrode at which oxidation processes take
place and the cathode is the electrode at which the reduction processes
 Introduction: General Issues 5

take place. The area of the solution adjacent to the cathode is catholyte
(cathode compartment), the area adjacent to the anode is anolyte (anode
compartment). These areas can be separated from the rest of the system by
porous membranes.
We emphasize that, depending on the type of system, the polarities of
the anode and cathode can be different. In galvanic cells, the anode is
more negative electrode than the cathode. In electrolysis cells, on the
contrary, the reduction process takes place at more negative electrodes, i.
e., more negative electrode is the cathode. Oxidation processes in
electrolyzers take place at the more positive electrode, which is the anode.
In accordance with this, the subject of electrochemistry is often divided
into:
a) processes in electrolyzers occurring when current passes from an
external source and b) the processes of spontaneous transformations of
substances in galvanic cells, as a result of which electric current is
produced.
Electrochemistry may also be classified into ionics (the processes
inside ionic conducting phases and the structure of these phases) and
electrodics (the processes and phenomena at the phase boundaries
between electrodes and electrolyte and the structure of these boundaries).
In this case, it is customary to discuss first ionics, and then electrodics, due
to the fact that it is necessary to know the structure of the phases
themselves to describe and understand processes at interphases. At the
same time, no information about boundaries is required to understand and
describe the processes within the phases because the phase is usually
considered to be large enough, its boundaries conventionally described as
removed to infinite distance.
It is also possible to divide electrochemistry according to the principle
of equilibrium and nonequilibrium phenomena occurring in
electrochemical systems. This is the principle underlying this textbook.
However, all the listed principles of classification are arbitrary and none of
them covers all aspects of electrochemical science. For example, we begin
our presentation with non-equilibrium phenomena described by Faraday's
laws. In general, we will mainly adhere to the conventional sequence of
presentation, albeit with some deviations. The sequence of presentation
can be different, but it is more important that the rather simple physical
essence of the described phenomena should not be obscured.
6 Chapter One

1.2. The main historical stages of the development

of electrochemistry. The place of electrochemistry
among other sciences and its prospects
As well known, the beginning of the development of electrochemistry
dates back to the end of the 18th century. As a result of the research of
Italians L. Galvani and A. Volta, the first electrochemical sources of
electric power (galvanic cells and batteries) were created, which made it
possible to study the diverse phenomena that occur when electric current
passes through substances and when it occurs as a result of chemical
processes.
The next stage is associated with the activities of English researchers
H. Davy and M. Faraday (the first half of the 19th century), who made
extremely important discoveries. Davy managed to obtain some metals,
for example, potassium, by electrolysis of molten salts (Davy has the
honor of being the inventor of electrolysis). Faraday discovered the basic
laws of electrochemistry that bear his name. He established that the
amount of converted matter is proportional to the amount of electricity
passed and he also introduced the concepts of the electrochemical
equivalent, as well as such terms as ion, electrolyte, cathode, anode.
During the same period, Daniell developed a stably working galvanic cell.
In the middle of the 19th century, Moritz (Boris) Jacobi in Russia
invented the electrochemical technologies of metal plating. In the same
decade, electrochemical decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen
was carried out. Metallic sodium was obtained by decomposition of
molten NaOH by electric current, and later H. Moissan obtained gaseous
fluorine (1886). As a result of these studies, prerequisites were created for
the development of industrial electrochemistry. Currently, the
electrochemical industry is one of the largest consumers of energy. It is
enough to mention the industrial production of aluminum, the production
of chlorine and alkalis, and electrowinning of metals.
The most important impetus for the further development of
electrochemical science was the creation by S. Arrhenius of the theory of
electrolytic dissociation, later improved by W. Ostwald and other
researchers. It became obvious that liquid electrolytes were systems of
charged particles and on that ground P. Debye and E. Hückel created the
theory of strong electrolytes in 1923. On a similar basis, the theory of a
double electric layer at the electrode–solution interface was developed.
During the same period, the theory of acids and bases was created, acid-
base equilibria were studied, the concepts of acidity (pH) and buffer
capacity were introduced, ideas about transfer processes in electrolytes
 Introduction: General Issues 7

began to develop. Here, it is necessary to mention the names of M. Planck,

A. Einstein, and W. Nernst. In particular, Nernst proposed the theory of
the generation of electromotive forces in electrochemical systems and
obtained modern formulas for electrode potentials. Einstein established a
quantitative relationship between diffusion motion and the electrical
mobility of particles in electrolytes.
The surge in development of electrochemistry was heralded by
appearance of the J. Tafel equation (1914) that signalized advancement
towards a new level of the kinetics of electrode processes. Later, A.
Frumkin, M. Volmer, and many others developed this branch of
electrochemistry. Initially, the ideas about the process of charge transfer in
electrochemical processes were associated with the reaction of cathodic
hydrogen evolution at the surface of various metals, primarily mercury and
platinum. In 1920, J. Heyrovsky invented polarography, and later other
electroanalytical methods were developed. Research in the field of
electrochemical kinetics and the structure of the double layer is associated
with the multifaceted activities of A. Frumkin. He laid the foundations for
the modern theory of electrochemical processes that were based on several
important physical concepts. Here, it is also necessary to note his
colleagues V. Levich, L. Krishtalik, as well as J. O’M. Bockris, K. Vetter,
and a number of others, whose work shaped the modern electrochemistry.
In connection with all of the above, it is obvious that electrochemistry,
although usually considered as part of physical chemistry, affects a
number of issues that go far beyond these limits. For example,
electrochemistry includes a number of special problems of organic
synthesis, analytical chemistry, phase transitions, biochemistry and
biophysics, adsorption on electrodes at various electrical potentials,
processes of current flow through electrolytes and through phase
interfaces. The most important problems of modern electrochemistry are
located at the junctions of these areas of science.
The applied areas in electrochemistry have always been the most
important incentive for the development of both theoretical and
experimental research in this field. Work on the electrochemical synthesis
of various substances laid the foundation for electrochemical technologies.
Electrochemistry is used in the hydrometallurgical production of many
metals, in the application of electroplated coatings and the manufacture of
galvanic copies of various products, in wastewater treatment,
electrochemical dimensional processing of metals in mechanical
engineering, in the anodic production of oxide coatings and – in a broader
sense − in corrosion protection, in the manufacture of cells and batteries.
This is not a complete list of applications of electrochemistry.
8 Chapter One

In our time electrochemistry is being intensively developed in several

directions, the most important of which are the creation of fuel cells and
other new power sources. It has always been one of the most important
aspects of electrochemistry, but now it is becoming especially relevant
from the point of view of the production of economical and
environmentally friendly energy sources. The role of electrochemistry is
also significant in wastewater treatment (electrocoagulation,
electrodestruction, electroflotation, etc.). Electrochemical sensors are one
of the ways to control the environment. The current stage of
electrochemistry is also characterized by the accelerated development of
organic electrochemistry and bioelectrochemistry.
In addition, the creation of high-power supercapacitors, electrochromic
systems, new types of coatings (both protective and functional), not to
mention the development of the methods of electrochemical analysis and
synthesis of new materials, are on the agenda of modern electrochemical
technology. Thus, the prospects for the development of science in these
areas seem quite clear and promising.

1.3. Faraday's laws and current efficiency

On the basis of experimental data, M. Faraday in 1833-34 formulated two
laws of electrolysis that allow calculating material balances and rates of
transformation of substances in electrochemical reactions. Later, based on
the atomic-molecular concepts, these laws were explained theoretically.
Currently, both laws may be combined into a single equation:

(1.1)

This equation (Faraday's law) is widely used in engineering practice.

It can be used to find the mass of the product obtained during
electrolysis and to determine the mass of the active substance in chemical
power sources that must be consumed to obtain a given amount of
electricity. With its help, the required electrolysis time is found, the
service life of power sources is calculated, etc.
In this equation, m is the mass of a substance, kg or g; Q is the amount
of electricity in Coulombs (C) or Ampere-hours (A∙ h); M is the molar
mass of the substance; n is the number of electrons required for the
transformation of a single species (formula unit) of a substance in an
electrochemical reaction, I is the current in Amperes. The value of n is
found from the reaction equation. The F value, called the Faraday number,
 Introduction: General Issues 9

is approximately F ≈ 96485.3 C/mol ≈ 96485.3/3600 Ah/mol ≈ 26.8

Ah/mol.
The Faraday number is the total charge of Avogadro's number of
electrons (that is, one mole of electrons).
Faraday's law is formulated as follows:
if one and only one electrochemical reaction occurs at the
electrode, then the change in the mass of each reagent is
proportional to the quantity of electricity passed, and the
proportionality coefficient (electrochemical equivalent) is equal to
the ratio of the reagent molar mass to the Faraday number and the
number of transferred electrons per single reagent particle.
The calculation of the m value is often performed per unit area of the
electrode surface. In this case, current density i, i. e., the current passing
through the unit electrode surface, A/m2, is substituted into the formula
instead of the overall current I. m/S is obtained in g/m2 or kg/m2. This
value corresponds to the product amount or reagent consumption per unit
electrode surface at any given values of the current density and electrolysis
duration.
The mass per unit surface area is

(1.2)

Hence it follows that the rate of the electrochemical process defined as

the derivative of the mass formed (or consumed) per unit surface area and
per unit time is

v= i. (1.3)

This shows that the rate of any electrochemical process can be

expressed in units of current density i [A/m2] and the proportionality factor
between this rate and the substance formation (consumption) rate is the
electrochemical equivalent of a given substance.
Here, it is necessary to clarify the concept of the electrode surface, that
is, the interface between the two phases. As it happens, the real surface is
absolutely smooth only in the case of liquid electrodes or ideal basal single
crystal faces. In these cases, the geometric surface coincides with the true
surface. In other cases, the surface is characterized by certain roughness,
as a result of which the true (real) area Sr is larger than the geometric one
Sg (the latter is the projection of the true surface onto a plane). The ratio of k
= Sr / Sg is called the roughness factor.
10 Chapter One

For polished, electrochemically deposited and other surfaces, this

coefficient is 2 – 3 or more. Incidentally, for platinized platinum, it is up to
several hundred, but this is a special case. Roughness is characterized by
its average amplitude. In addition, along with the usual concept of a two-
dimensional surface (interface), another model is introduced that includes
certain layers from each of the contacting phases, that is, an interphase
region that can be considered as a separate phase. (Here, we set aside the
questions of fractal dimension).
It is important to understand that, in fact, Faraday's law is quite trivial
from the point of view of modern physics and boils down to stating the
constancy of the charge-to-mass ratio for every specific type of species. It
is based on fundamental atomic-molecular concepts of the structure of
matter and must be valid under all conditions. However, there are
sometimes apparent deviations from Faraday's law. The main reasons for
such deviations are as follows.
1. Not one, but two or more electrochemical processes take place at
the electrode. For example, in hydrometallurgy, hydrogen evolves
along with the metal at the cathode in the course of the
electrochemical metal production. Therefore, the consumption of
electricity per unit mass of zinc produced is greater than that
following from Faraday's law.
2. Side chemical processes can occur on the electrode. For example,
when a spongy copper layer is deposited at the cathode, it is easily
oxidized. When weighed together with oxides, it appears that a
somewhat larger mass is obtained than that expected according to
Faraday's law.
3. In calculations, the electrochemical equivalent of a substance may
be determined inaccurately. For instance, iron ions Fe2+ and Fe3+
with different electrochemical equivalents can be simultaneously
discharged at the cathode and the ratio of their amounts is not
known exactly.
4. Finally, purely technical errors may arise: the loss of the resulting
product due to its partial removal from the electrode, short circuits
in the electrical circuit, etc.

Apparent deviations from Faraday's laws are characterized by current

efficiency (CE) or, which is the same, Faradaic efficiency. It is the ratio
of the electric charge spent in the formation of the main (target) product to
the entire amount of electricity consumed: CE = FE = Qi / ΣQ.
 Introduction: General Issues 11

In this book, we will denote this quantity as CE. Since the CE values at
the cathode and anode are different, the concepts of cathodic and anodic
current efficiency CEc and CEa are introduced.
CE is highly dependent on temperature, acidity, current density, and
other process conditions.
 CHAPTER TWO

EQUILIBRIUM PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTES

2.1. Ions in electrolyte solutions: Electrolytic dissociation

In aqueous solutions, as well as in solutions based on other polar solvents,
solute molecules can break up (dissociate) into charged components called
ions. There is a number of facts that are well explained in terms of the
presence of ions in solutions and that have no alternative explanations. It is
important to emphasize that ions are present in the absence of electric
current and are not formed in the bulk of the solution due to current
passage, as Faraday originally assumed.
The most famous example is the independence of the enthalpy of
neutralization of strong acids by strong alkali from the chemical nature of
both. In any case, this enthalpy ∆H at 20 oC is –57.3 kJ/mol (the sign
shows that the energy is released in this process). This is a strong
argument in favour of the fact that the same process of formation of two
water molecules from hydroxonium and hydroxyl actually takes place in
all cases:

H3O+ + OH– = 2H2O

Hence, it follows that acids and alkalis dissociate (disintegrate) when

dissolved in water to form the corresponding ions.
The dissociation of molecules into ions during the formation of an
electrolyte solution is also supported by greater cryoscopic and
ebulioscopic effects (a stronger decrease in the freezing point and an
increase in the boiling point of electrolyte solutions compared to non-
electrolytes), as well as a closely related phenomenon of higher osmotic
pressure than follows from calculations. A more sophisticated proof is
based on measurements of the potential drops at the liquid boundaries
(these liquid junction potentials are experimentally measured values,
which are due only to the difference in the velocities of ions). It is clear
that had there been no ions in solutions, the junction potentials should
have been zero, which contradicts the experiment.
 Equilibrium Properties of Electrolytes 13

In general, as S. Arrhenius showed in 1887, only a certain part of

molecules of each sort decomposes into ions. Quantitatively, the
decomposition of molecules into ions is characterized by the degree of
dissociation α, that is, the ratio of the number of decomposed molecules to
their total number. The value of α depends on concentration c:
Arrhenius found that dissociation increases with dilution of the solution
and at c → 0 approaches the limit that corresponds to decomposition of all
molecules of the initial substance.
Substances according to their ability to dissociate are classified as
follows:
1. Nonelectrolytes are substances that do not form ions in solution;
for example, glucose (C6H12O6).
2. Weak electrolytes are substances that partially decompose into
ions. An example is acetic acid, CH3COOH. At finite
concentrations α < 1 (usually α < 0.05), and α ≈ 1 only at infinite
dilution. Weak electrolytes are boric, carbonic, hydrocyanic and
many organic acids, ammonia solution (weak base), as well as
some salts, for example, zinc, cadmium, and mercury chlorides.
3. Strong electrolytes, for example, NaCl have α ≈ 1 up to high
concentrations in the solution. Strong electrolytes are: most of the
salts, many inorganic acids (nitric, hydrochloric, hydrobromic and
others) and alkalis. The concentration at which the degree of
dissociation of strong electrolytes decreases is easiest to estimate
by measurements of the specific electrical conductivity σ of
solutions: above such a concentration σ begins to fall due to a
decrease in the number of charge carriers and as a result of
interionic interactions.
There is no sharp distinction between weak and strong electrolytes.
Moreover, some substances do not fully correspond to this simple
classification: for example, perchloric acid HClO4 is a strong electrolyte,
but its dissociation degree drops significantly with increasing
concentration. In addition, there are a few electrolytes of medium strength.
Not to mention that solutions exist not only in water and the degree of
dissociation strongly depends on the solvent. The degree of dissociation of
the electrolyte depends precisely on the combination of ions that are
included in it: each type of ion itself can be a part of both weak and strong
electrolytes.
In some substances, ions exist in their crystal lattices even before
dissolution. Such substances are called ionophores. For example, solid
sodium chloride NaCl is an ionophore. Its crystal lattice is constructed of
Na+ ions and Cl− ions. Other substances do not contain ions; for example,
14 Chapter Two

the hydrogen chloride HCl gas consists of molecules. For the formation of
H+ and Cl− ions, in this case, starts with destruction of the covalent bond in
the HC1 molecule. Such substances are called ionogens. The process of
their dissociation is usually preceded by solvation followed by
rearrangement of the bonds in the solvate.
The process of dissociation of electrolytes obeys the mass action law,
that is, dissociation is similar to a reversible chemical reaction
characterized by a certain equilibrium constant. Let us consider, for
example, the dissociation of an electrolyte MA with formation of cation
M+ and anion A-: MA = M+ + A−. According to the mass action law,

Kd = [M+]∙[A−]/[MA]

where the quantities in the square brackets are molar concentrations (or
chemical activities, in general), Kd is the dissociation constant. The
equilibrium concentrations of ions [M+] and [A−] are equal to αc, where c
is the initial concentration of substance MA. Accordingly, the equilibrium
concentration of the undissociated part of [MA] molecules is cꞏ(l – α).
Then we obtain the following expression for dissociation constant Kd
according to the Arrhenius theory:

Kd = α2c / (1 – α).

The inverse of the molar concentration is termed dilution, so this

equation has the name Ostwald's dilution law.
Using this law, it is possible to find the dependence of the degree of
dissociation α on the initial concentration of electrolyte c. In its physical
sense, the value of Kd is constant for a given electrolyte. Therefore, by
solving the equation with respect to α, it is possible to calculate the degree
of dissociation depending on the initial concentration of solution c. This
creates a basis for the quantitative calculation of equilibria, especially in
weak electrolytes. So, in concentrated solutions, that is, at a low value of
α, Kd ≈ α2c, or α = Kd/c1/2. Furthermore, it follows from Ostwald's law that
the degree of dissociation grows with increasing dilution and at c → 0 α
→ 1, that is, in the case of infinite dilution, a weak electrolyte becomes
completely dissociated.
The dissociation constant, like other equilibrium constants, is related to
the Gibbs energy value of this process according to the equation: ΔGd0 =
RТ ln Kd. Its temperature dependence is described by the thermodynamic
equation of d (lnKd)/dT = = ΔHd /(RT2). This means that if the dissociation
 Equilibrium Properties of Electrolytes 15

process is endothermic, then the dissociation degree grows with increasing

temperature.
Experimentally, the degree of dissociation can be found by
measurements of the electrical conductivity of solutions and of their
colligative properties: osmotic pressure and changes in the boiling and
freezing points. The use of colligative properties for this purpose is based
on the fact that the degree of dissociation is related to isotonic coefficient i
that shows how much the total number of particles increases after
dissociation as compared to their initial amount, namely: i = 1 + α.
In general, the theory has the following main concepts:
1. When dissolved, the molecules of a substance can spontaneously
and reversibly dissociate into ions. Ions are charged particles that
represent individual atoms or groups of chemically bonded atoms
with an excess or lack of electrons.
2. Dissociation of molecules into ions is generally incomplete. Not all
molecules of a substance, but only a certain fraction (the degree of
dissociation) are decomposed into ions.
3. Electrolytic dissociation obeys the mass action law, which allows
introducing the concept of dissociation constants.
It should be pointed out that the physical causes that lead to the
dissociation of electrolytes are not considered in this theory. It is assumed
that the ions in the solution behave like molecules of an ideal gas and do
not interact with each other. There is no discussion either why charged
particles, which should be subject to the laws of electrostatics, do not
interact with each other in solutions. The theory is most accurate in the
presence of an excess of foreign (background) electrolyte that does not
participate in the studied ionic equilibria. This clearly shows that the main
reason for the inaccuracy of the theory is the interaction of ions with each
other and with solvent molecules.
To describe the properties of sufficiently concentrated solutions, as
well as solutions of strong electrolytes, the Arrhenius theory needs
significant corrections. The fundamentals of the theory of solutions of
strong and weak electrolytes are significantly different. Strong electrolytes
at low concentrations are almost completely dissociated, while at higher
concentrations association results in formation of neutral ion pairs and
more complex combinations of ions and solvent molecules.
16 Chapter Two

2.2. Ion-dipole and ion-ion interactions in solutions:

Interaction potentials
The cause of electrolytic dissociation is the interaction between the ions of
the solute and the dipoles of the solvent. The result of this interaction is
the formation of solvates (in the case of water, hydrates), that is, the
solvation (hydration) of ions. At the same time, two different cases have to
be considered: first, where ions already exist before dissolution (for
example, when many salts with an ionic lattice are dissolved) and, second,
where ions are formed only during dissolution due to the strong
destructive effect of the solvent.
The interaction between the solvent and the solute is also characterized
by the heat evolution or consumption during the dissolution of substances.
For example, when sulfuric acid is dissolved, the solution temperature
rises, and when some salts are dissolved, it decreases.
As a result of this interaction between the solvent and the solute,
solvates are formed: that is, structures that include both ions and solvent
species. Hence, the ion is surrounded by a solvate shell. For example,
sodium ions in water are surrounded by dipoles of water, with the negative
pole of the dipole facing the positively charged sodium ion. This
interaction is called ion-dipole interaction. Of course, the sodium ion,
unlike the sodium atom, does not interact chemically with water.
In addition to the ion-dipole interaction, mutual attraction of oppositely
charged ions is observed in solutions. It tends to bring the ions closer
together, whereas the ion-dipole interaction and thermal motion (as well as
the repulsion of similarly charged ions) tend to separate them. The
interaction between ions in solution (the ion-ion interaction) is about an
order of magnitude stronger than the ion-dipole one.
Due to the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions, dissociation is
somewhat hindered. In more concentrated solutions, the ions come closer
to each other and thus the ion-ion interaction is stronger.
Both charged and uncharged particles interact with each other in
solutions. The forces of interaction between uncharged particles of a
liquid are the same that manifest themselves in real gases: these are
Van der Waals forces determined primarily by the polar nature of the
molecules. Molecules either have their own dipole moment or acquire it in
an external electric field (polarization of molecules). Two dipoles are
attracted to each other and the average force of attraction is inversely
proportional to the 7th power of distance r between the molecules
(proof can be found in any detailed course of electrostatics). It follows that