Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

Lecture slides

Challenge the future 1

15-12-2012

Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

9 & 10. Structural concepts
J. Sinke Delft
University of
Technology

Challenge the future

9&10
Structural concepts
Lecture Notes: Special Handout; See Black Board

Structural concepts 2
Do you Remember?
Weight
W
• Aircraft Empty Weight
• Structure: Wing - Horizontal Tail - Vertical Tail – Fuselage - Landing
Gear - Surface Controls - Propulsion System – APU
• Systems: Instruments and Navigation - Hydraulics and Pneumatics -
Electrical System – Electronics – Furnishings - Air Conditioning and
Anti-Ice
• Crew and Flight Attendants
• Operating Items
• Payload
• Fuel

 One should minimize the weight of aircraft structures & systems,

and Fuel, in order to maximize Payload

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Contents

What is a structure?

How does it perform?

The beam as simple principle structural element (“From truss to

beam”)

Some loads on aircraft structures

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What is a structure?

Like a skeleton – features:

Many elements (bones)
Several functions
Coherence
Joints
Different materials

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What are the functions of a structure?

 Carrying of the LOADS (dominant)

 Protection
 Framework to attach other systems

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Historical development of structures

Relationship between type of structure and material

Period Type structure Materials

1903-1910 Cables, lath, fabric Steel, wood, linen
1910-1920 Truss, spars ribs, fabric Steel rods, tubes
1920-1940 Load carrying wooden wings wood: triplex
1932-today Stiffened shell structures Aluminum
1948-today Pressure cabin Improved Al-alloys
±1980-today Composite structures Carbon fibers

What were the first composite applications? When?

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Structural concepts 8
Biplane vs. Monoplane
Most aircraft in early years of aviation were Biplanes
+ structural  wings connected
box girder by wires & struts
+ maneuverability  more direct control (thin
light weight wings)
- wings affect each other
- higher drag
- limited increase in lift (20%)
w.r.t. monoplane

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 Monoplane vs. Biplane
In first years: limited models
Louis Bleriot (1909) – Channel
 Wing structure: single spar/tube
 Skin not loaded!
 Later cantilever beam/metal structure
Wing position: low, center, high, parasol

What loads?

Wing Spar
with ribs

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1924: The Fokker F VII

F.VIIb/3m Specifations
Length: 14.60 m
Wing span: 21.70 m
Height: 3.90 m
Empty weight: 3,050 kg
Max take-off weight: 5,200 kg
Cruise speed: 170 km/h
Engines: 300 hp Wright J-5 Whirlwind (3x)
Accommodation: 8 passengers.

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Fokker F VII

Period 1924 (F VII) till early 1930’s

Decline started in America:
- crash in TWA in 1931 (football coach)
- first metal aircraft
Large number
In use with many airlines

Features:
• monoplane
• wooden wing structure
• truss structure + canvas “skin”

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 Wooden wing
structure
Craftsmanship (carpenters)
Loaded triplex (wood) skin

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Fuselage: Truss structure

Skin (linen) is not loaded

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Wooden structures – testing a spar

What kind of test is this? What property is determined?

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Truss structure – testing

Typical truss structure

Tubes & wires

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Testing a wing structure (Bombardier Cseries)

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Anatomy of a structure

• A structure is an Assembly of Structural Elements

• Each element participates in (some of) the functions of the
structure
• Structure has coherence
• Structural elements are joined together

• Most structural elements are derivatives of a beam

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From Truss to Beam
In the beginning of flight, aircraft structures were truss structures.
For aerodynamic reasons they were closed with fabric.

The basic truss is very simple, elegant and light weight

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From Truss to Beam
The diagonal element can also be a cable.
A cable can not be loaded in compression.
So two cables are necessary.

One cable can be replaced by one rod.

Rods can be loaded both in
tension and compression.

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From Truss to Beam
What happens when two diagonal rods are used?
The structure becomes:
- more difficult to assemble (no hinge at crossing),
- more difficult to calculate,
- heavier ? (see next slide)

There is one advantage however…

The structure has some “reserve”.

One rod may fail - fail safe structure

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From Truss to Beam

Each element strong

enough to stay intact for
the entire life cycle
Safe Life

One element may fail:

other elements strong
Fail Safe enough to stay intact for
limited time; inspection
required!!

Which option is lighter??

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From Truss to Beam

The rod can be replaced by a thin sheet or skin.

Stress
directions

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From Truss to Beam

“Wire-braced” structure
Combination of rods and wires
Increasing thickness of the rods to the left – Why?
This is not true for the vertical rods and wires – Why not?

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From Truss to Beam

Truss made of rods only

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From Truss to Beam
F

External Force F
Induces Bending moment M
Truss applies force to the supports (red arrows)
Support reacts on Truss for equilibrium (blue arrows)

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 From Truss to Beam
• Truss can be replaced by sheet metal
• Web plate instead of diagonal tubes
• Web plate – shear forces; girders – tension and compression
forces

• Simplified: girders
Web plate

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From Truss to Beam

When applying high forces on the structure, buckling starts.

Compression forces cause local buckling of sheet

Elastic buckling is no Failure!

Only reduced compression load carrying capabilities.
Tensile forces are fully carried.

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From Truss to Beam
Skin buckling
due to
shear
loads

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From Truss to Beam

This is an example of plastic buckling = Failure!!

Could you explain the waviness in the upper girder?

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Historical development of airframes

Relationship between type of structure and material

Period Type structure Materials

1903-1910 Cables, lath, fabric Steel, wood, linen

1910-1920 Truss, spars ribs, fabric Steel rods, tubes
1920-1940 Load carrying wooden wings wood: triplex
1932-today Stiffened shell structures Aluminum
1948-today Pressure cabin Improved Al-alloys
1988-today Composite primary structures Carbon fibers

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DC-3
All metal aircraft
Aluminum in infancy
Riveting – non-countersunk rivets
No pressure cabin

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Junkers 52 “Tante Ju” “Auntie Ju” (1932)

Prof. Hugo Junkers

1859-1935
Professor at Aachen
- metal cantilever wings
- all metal airplane
First steel, later
Alu2024
- flying wing
- house arrest until death
by nazis

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Shell Structures
 Shell structure – load bearing thin sheet material (incl. stressed
skin), with stiffening elements
 Monocoque – structure consisting of only a load bearing skin
(Semi-monocoque – with some supporting elements)

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Principal Structural Elements (PSE)

Principal Structural Element – primary structure – carry loads -

failure is/can be catastrophic

Non-principal structural elements – secondary structures

failure is not catastrophic (e.g. fairings, some hatches)

Most Structural Elements are “beamlike” elements

Web plate girders

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 PSE – metal
What Beam elements do you
discover?

Spar

Stringers

Frame

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PSE – metal
Complex wingbox
Multiple rib designs
All elements together:
Load path

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Structures, beams, etc.

Questions?

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Loads – use of V-n diagram

Loads by Manoeuvre
& Gusts

Load factor n

n=L/W

What is the load

factor at cruise?

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Loads

• Limit Load: Load experienced once in a lifetime

• No remaining damage allowed

• Ultimate load: limit load x safety factor

• Failure allowed after 3 seconds

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Failure behavior materials

Within the limits of

load diagram, Material
should not fail

Force
• Metal should not
yield
• Composite should not
damage

Displacement

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Failure could be catastrophic

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Structural concepts 43
Fokker F27 - innovations

New technical features:

1. turboprop with advanced propeller

2. Bonded metal structure
3. Significant application of fiber reinforced composites
4. Pneumatic high pressure system
5. De-icing system
6. Advanced undercarriage and braking system
7. Pressure cabin
8. Integral fuel tanks
9. Air-conditioning
10. Modern electronics

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 p1
Pressure cabin
p2 R
p = p2 – p1

2..t = p. sin().Rd
= p.2R 
circ = p.R/t

.2R.t = p.R2
p1
long = p.R/2t p2

Ratio: circ/long = 2

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Example

Radius R = 2 m
Pressure at high altitude (11.000m) p1 = 22620 Pa (Pa = N/m2)
Pressure in the aircraft p = 70928 Pa (70% of sea level)

So circ = p.R/t
or .t = p.R = 96616 N/m

And long = ½ circ = 48308 N/m

for t = 1 mm circ = 96.6 MPa (=N/mm2)

t = 2 mm circ = 48.3 MPa
etc.

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Pressure cabin - bulkheads

Pressure Bulkhead are used to close the pressurized are of the fuselage.

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 Pressure cabin - cutouts

Fuselages are not perfectly closed cylinders:

Due to practical use, the ideal cylinder is disturbed by cut outs for:
• Windows
• Passenger Doors
• Cargo doors
• Landing Gear doors

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Comet: first passenger jet aircraft
with pressure cabin

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Comet
First jet aircraft – Lead of British industry
Thin aluminum skin
Pressurized cabin – flying altitude (10 km +)
Stress concentration around windows/doors
Rectangular shapes
Squeezed in rivets (tiny cracks)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBcCv2UaiPo

End Result: Americans bypassed

British (Boeing 707/DC-8)

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Fatigue

Dynamic loading – repetitive

Example: Paperclip - try to break one!

One can with bending/unbending

(Repetitive) force smaller than breaking force destroys the part!!

See next slide – SN-curve

Constant Amplitude (CA) fatigue

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Fatigue

SN-curve

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Fatigue

In reality: Variable Amplitude (VA) fatigue

Flight spectrum

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Fatigue

Fatigue
a [mm]
Crack initiation critical
Crack growth

Two limits:
visibility limit (detection)
criticality limit (failure)

Inspection intervals visible

ini
3 times between
visible and critical
Cycles N [-]

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Fatigue - locations

Wing loads:
- remous (variations in wind velocities)
- manoeuvres
- flaps, engine trust, etc.

Fuselage
- pressurization (once every flight)
- bending moments + remous & manoeuvres

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Summary

• The Structure is the “skeleton” of the aircraft

• Function are: carrying loads, protection, attachment points

• From truss to beams: webplate + girders

• Most Structural Elements are based on “beam concept”

• After WW2: Jet Age; pressurized cabins

• Metal fatigue (Comet)

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