INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

➢ Necessity Of Instrument Calibration:

• To ensure reading from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.
• To determine the accuracy of the instrument reading.
• To establish the reliability of the instrument i.e. it can be trusted.
• Determining the precision, deviation, and reliability of the measurements, which is
important for manufacturers as part of design qualification.
• Instrument Calibration Keeps Processes Safe.
• Calibration Maintains Certification.
• Reduce Costs from Manufacturing Errors.

INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
➢ Defination Of Instrumentation System:
It is defined as an assembly various instruments and other components interconnected to
measure, to analyse and control physical quantities in a process.

➢ Block Diagram Of Instrumentation System:

• Primary Sensing Element:
It is also known as "First Sensing Elements”. The Element (Part) of an instrument which
makes first contact with the measure and is called the primary sensing element.
For example, In Ammeter (which is used to measure current), the coil carrying the current
to be measured is the primary sensing element
• Variable Conversion Element:
The output of the Primary sensing element may not be suitable for the actual measurement
system. A variable conversion element merely converts the output signal of the primary
sensing element into a more suitable variable or condition useful to the function of the
instruments. Also keep in mind, that the original information about the measurand must be
retained during the process of such conversion.
• Variable Manipulation Element:
The level of the output from the Variable conversion element may not be enough for the
next stage. It manipulates the signal represented by some physical variable,to perform an
instrument.
• Variable Manipulation Element:
The level of the output from the Variable conversion element may not be enough for the
next stage. It manipulates the signal represented by some physical variable, to perform
the intended task of an instrument.

• Data Transmission Element:

If the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to transmit the data
from one stage to the other. So we need this Data Transmission element

• Data presentation Element:

It performs the translation function, such as present the data in a suitable form so that it
is easily understood by the observer and for this the Data Presentation Element is used
 TRANSDUCERS
➢ Defination Of Transducer :
• Transducer is defined as a device which converts one form of energy (physical
parameters) into another form, which is used for measurement Purpose.

➢ Need Of Transducer In Instrumentation System

• Instrumentation system basically consist of measurement and controlling of different
physical variables such as temperature, pressure, flow, level, humidity, sound, pressure
etc.
• Transducer is a device of instrumentation system which converts a physical energy into
an electrical energy.
• So that it measures the physical quantities and converts it in electrical quantities that can
be measured and transmitted easily.

➢ Classification Of Transducers :

• Based on Energy Source requirement

1) Active Transducer:
These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation.
Therefore, they are also called as self-generating type transducers. The active
 transducer are self-generating devices which operate under the energy conversion
principle.
Ex. Thermocouple, piezoelectric, photovoltaic cell
2) Passive Transducer :
These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So they are not
self-generating type transducers.

Compare active and passive transducer

• Based on Physical Phenomenon -

1) Primary Transducer :
These are detector which sense a physical Parameter and convert into suitable physical
parameter which is readable. Example:- bourdon tube, Diaphragm, Bellows
2) Secondary Transducer: -
These transducers which is sense physical parameter or suitable physical parameter
and convert it into Electrical signal. Example:- LVDT ,RVDT
• Based on Its Output -
1) Analog Transducer:
Analog transducers convert an input physical quantity or phenomenon into an analog
output which is a continuous function of time. The output of these transducers is
analog in nature.
2) Digital Transducer:
Digital transducer converts an input physical quantity or phenomenon into discrete
steps of electrical output, which is in the form of pulses. The output of these
transducers is digital signal.
 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
➢ Classification Electrical transducer -
• Resistive
• Capacitive
• Inductive- LVDT, RVDT
• Piezoelectric

➢ Specifications of electrical pressure transducer -

• Root Sum Squares (RSS)
• Non-Linearity
• Hysteresis
• Non-Repeatability
• Long-Term Stability
• Zero Offset
• Span Offset
• Thermal Effects
• Size
• associated circuit
• sensitivity
• self-generated or external power source
• Miscellaneous

➢ Advantages of electrical transducers -

• The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power.
• The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the process of
measurement.
• The output can be indicated and recorded remotely from the sensing element.
• Friction effect is minimized.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
➢ Potentiometer -
• Potentiometer is a passive component that works on moving the slider across the full
length of the conductor.
• The input supply voltage is applied to the entire length of the resistor.
• The output voltage is measured as voltage drop between fixed and movable contact.
• The slider is adjusted manually over the resistive strip to change the resistance value from
zero to a higher value.
• When the resistance changes, the current flowing through circuit changes.
• Hence according to Ohm’s law, the resistive material also changes.
 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
➢ Working Principle –
• The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other
physical quantities.
• It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
• The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances.
• The capacitive level detector operates on the equation of parallel plate capacitor,
C = ε A/d
Where,
C = capacitance value in farad
ε = dielectric constant
d = distance between two plate in m
A = common area of plate in m2 .
• If A and d are constant then capacitance is directly proportional to dielectric constant i.e.
C α dielectric constant (ε ).

➢ Application Of Capacitive Transducer -

• Capacitive Transducer is mostly used for the measurement of linear and angular
displacement.
• They are also used for the measurement of force and pressure.
• It can also be used to measure liquid level, volume, density etc.
• Humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
• Other typical applications are tolerance testing in mass production.
• Vibration measurement, Strain measurement.
• Thickness measurement and thickness control of thin metal foils.
• Thickness measurement of plastic foils during production, beveling and bending of
wafers in semiconductor production and many more.
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
• These are useful to measure displacement due to change in coil inductance.

• It is passive transducer.

➢ Application Of Inductive Transducer:

• Used to measure the weight, force, and pressure
• Robotic cleaner
• Used for soil moisture testing
• Used in industries as well as servomechanisms like power turbines, hydraulics,
automation, aircraft, and satellites etc.
• It is used in medical devices brain probing
• Dollar bill thickness in ATM Machine.

➢ Types Of Inductive Transducer:

a) LVDT (Linear Variable differential Transducer)
b) RVDT ( Rotary Variable differential Transducer)

a) LVDT (Linear Variable differential Transducer)

➢ Explaintion:
• LVDT is the example of inductive transducer, in LVDT any physical displacement of the
core cause the voltage of any secondary winding to increase while simultaneously
reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding.
• The difference of the two voltages appears across the output terminal of the transducer
and gives a measurement of the physical position of the core.
➢ Working:
• Case I: When there is no displacement
When there is no displacement attached to the core the core is at normal position, the flux
linking with both the secondary winding are equal.
Equal e.m.f. are induced in both secondary winding when the core is at null position:
VS1=VS2.
Hence the output voltage Vo at null position is zero.
• Case II: When there is positive displacement
When there is positive displacement applied to the core i.e. the core is moved to left of
null position, more flux links with winding S1 than winding S2.
Here e.m.f. induced with winding S1 is greater than winding S2 that is VS1 > VS2
Hence the output voltage Vo= VS1-VS2 and the output voltage is in phase with the input
primary voltage.

• Case III: When there is negative displacement

When there is negative displacement applied to the core i.e. the core is moved to right of
null position, more flux links with winding S2 than winding S1.
Here e.m.f. induced with winding S2 is greater than S1 that is VS2 > VS1.
Hence the output voltage Vo= VS1-VS2 and is 1800 out of phase with the input primary
voltage.
➢ Residual Voltage
• Ideally the output voltage at null position should be zero but in actual practice small
voltage drop occurs at zero displacement, it is called residual voltage.

➢ Applications of LVDT
• LVDT used to measure force
• LVDT used to measure strain
• LVDT used to measure weight
• LVDT used to measure tension
• LVDT used to measure pressure
• The LVDT can be used for displacement measurement ranging from fraction of mm to
few cm.
• Testing of soil strength
• PILL making Machine
• “Brain Probing” medical device
• Robotic Cleaner
• Dollar bill thickness in ATM Machine.
• Hydraulic cylinder Displacement
• temperature transducers
• valve control
• servo valve displacement sensing
b) RVDT ( Rotary Variable differential Transducer)
• Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is inductive transducer, which converts
the angular displacement into electrical signal.
➢ Working Principle
• RVDT is inductive transducer, which converts the angular displacement into electrical
signal.
• If there is no angular displacement to the core i.e. null position, the output voltage of
secondary windings S1 and S2 are equal and in opposition.
• Hence output voltage is zero. If the core rotates in anticlockwise direction produces more
voltage in winding S1 than S2.
• Hence output is Vo= Vs1- Vs2. If the core rotates in clockwise direction it produces more
voltage in windings S2 than S1 Hence output is, Vo= Vs2- Vs1.
• Thus by using RVDT one can determine the angular displacement and its direction.

➢ Applications of RVDT
• Hydraulic pump control
• Valve position
• Rotary actuator feedback
• Arm position
• Throttle lever position feedback
• Reeler / Dereeler
• Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic
• Modern machine tools
• Controls Fuel, Brake with cable systems, Engines bleed air-systems ,Robotics
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
• The piezoelectric element used for converting mechanical movement into electric
signals.
• The mechanical deformation generates charges and this charge appears as a voltage
across the electrodes.
• The voltage is given by, V= Q/C
where, V = e.m.f. across electrode
Q = charges
C = capacitance
➢ Operating principle:
• When force or pressure is applied to the piezoelectric material like quartz crystal or
barium titanate, then an emf is generated across the material or vice versa.

➢ Applications :
• Piezoelectric transducers are used in high frequency accelerometer.
• Piezoelectric materials are used in industrial cleansing apparatus.
• It is used in under water detection system i.e. SONAR.
• These are used in measurement of surface roughness in accelerometers
• It is used in ultrasonic flow meters, non-destructive test (NDT) equipments
• Piezoelectric materials are used in ultrasonic transducers.
➢ materials for Piezoelectric transducer.
1) Natural crystal: Quartz crystal ,Rochelle salt
2) Synthetic crystals : Barium Titanate, Lithium sulphate
 PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
• The photoelectric transducer can be defined as, a transducer which changes the energy
from the light to electrical.
• It can be designed with the semiconductor material.
• This transducer utilizes an element like photosensitive which can be used for ejecting the
electrons as the light beam soak ups through it.
• The electron discharges can change the photosensitive element’s property. Therefore the
flowing current stimulates within the devices.
• The flow of the current’s magnitude can be equivalent to the whole light absorbed with
the photosensitive element.
• Photoelectric Transducer Classification
These transducers are classified into five types which include the following
a) Photo emissive Cell
b) Photodiode
c) Phototransistor
d) Photo-voltaic cell
e) Photoconductive Cell

➢ Advantages Of Photoelectric Tachometer:

• No direct physical contact of the meter with rotating shaft whose speed to be measured.
Hence no additional load on the shaft.
 • Output is in digital format.
• No A/D converter is required.
• Electronic circuitry is simple because the pulse amplitudes are constant.
• Continuous measurement is possible.
➢ Disadvantages Of Photoelectric Tachometer:
• Life span of light source is limited (typically 50,000 hours).
• The accuracy of meter is depends on the error represented by one pulse.
 SELECTION CRITERIA OF TRANSDUCER
• Operating range: The transducer must have wide operating ranges so that it does not
break during the working.
• Operating principle: The transducers are selected by their operating principles. The
operating principle may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric,
etc.
• Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the transducer is enough for inducing the detectable output.
• Accuracy: The transducers give accuracy after calibration. It has a small value for
repeatability which is essentials for the industrial applications.
• Errors: The errors are avoided by taking the input output relations which is obtained by
the transfer function.
• Environmental compatibility: The transducers should be able to work in any specified
environment like a corrosive environment. It should be able to work under high pressure
and shocks.
• Usage and ruggedness: The durability, size and weight of the transducer must be known
before selecting it.
• Frequency response and resonant frequency
• Electrical aspect.
• Stability and Reliability
• Loading effect
• Static characteristics
• Noise immunity