Python for Informatics

LESSON 3

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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“The wheel has come full circle.”

— William Shakespeare

• In our previous two lessons, we looked at variables and

data types, and learned how these can be used to perform
simple computations.
• While storing a value in a variable is useful since it allows
us to come back to that variable and retrieve that value at
a latter time, it is the updating of a variable—the
changing of its value—that yields the full power of a
variable.
• It is through the varying of their values that
variables fully realize themselves.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Because the updating of variables is such a common

yet powerful activity, there are idiomatic syntactic
structures that facillitate it.
 Assignment operations are paired with other
operations.
x=0
x=x+1
print(x)
1

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 x = x + 1 is a simple way of incrementing

the value of x.
 The syntax can be simplified even further,
by employing a short-hand notation:
x += 1
 Because this short-hand version requires
less typing, it is generally preferred.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Our other binary operators follow suit:

x -= 1
x *= 1
x /= 1
x %= 1
 The right operand doesn’t need to be 1.
x += 5
x += y
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 The ability to update a variable with a new value

is powerful.
 While updating a variable once is powerful,
updating a variable multiple times is especially
powerful.
 Imagine performing a mind-numbingly tedious
task. Doing it once is bad, twice… cruel, thrice…
maddening,… a thousand times!...
 These are circumstances for which the massive
number-crunching power of our computers
brilliantly shines.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Try this…
n=0
while n < 1000:
n += 1
print('done!')

 Now, try it again, but instead of 1,000 make it

10,000 (don’t forget to reset n to zero).
 Continue to add an extra zero until you finally
notice a time delay.
 On my computer, I finally notice a slight delay with
a value of 1,000,000. It isn’t until 10,000,000 that
the delay is significant!

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Let us look at the general syntax:

while conditional_expression:
update_control_variable

 The conditional_expression is an expression that evaluates to either

True or False.
 If the conditional_expression evaluates to True, then the body of the while is
executed, and the program flow loops back to the top of the while statement.
 The conditional_expression will be evaluated again, and the body will
be executed again if the conditional_expression evaluates to True.
 This process of evaluation/execution will repeat or iterate until such time that the
conditional_expression evaluates to False.
 When the conditional_expression evaluates to False, the body will
be skipped, and the program flow will drop down and continue past
the while statement.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Here is a flow chart visualization of the while loop:

yes
cond_exp body

no

 Each execution of the loop is called an iteration.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Consider this:

m=0
n = 1000
while n > 0:
m -= 1

 Under what condition would this loop stop iterating?

 The control variable n is not modified in any way that would allow the
loop to stop iterating.
 A loop that never stops iterating like this is called an infinite loop.
 Go ahead and try this code. You’ll need to either restart the Kernel, or
restart Canopy.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Sometimes an infinite loop can serve as a convenience, when you don’t know
exactly how many iterations you want your loop to make.
 An infinite loop combined with a break statement can be an elegant
solution:

while True:
line = raw_input('> ')
if line == 'Ni!':
break
print line
print('Oh, what sad times are these when passing
ruffians can say Ni at will to old ladies.')

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Note, however, that this code could be written to not rely upon a break
statement.

line = ''
while line != 'Ni!':
print line
line = raw_input('> ')
print('Oh, what sad times are these when passing
ruffians can say Ni at will to old ladies.')

 As a general rule, you should be sparing in the use of break statements.

 break statements force your code to skip and jump in a manner that can be
confusing and error prone.
 If at all, only consider using breaks when the code is clear and well-contained.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 The continue statement is another way of redirecting program flow within a

loop.
 With continue, the program flow stays within the loop, but skips any
remaining statements between the continue statement and the end of the
loop.
 Whereas break forces an exit from the loop, the continue forces skipping to
the next iteration of the loop.
while True:
line = raw_input('> ')
if line[0] == '#':
continue
if line == 'done':
break
print line
print 'Done'
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
 Definite vs. Indefinite Loops
14

 The while loop is an example of an indefinite loop.

 The number of iterations performed by a while loop
depends upon a condition (the evaluation of a boolean
True/False expression).
 The while loop is indefinite because we cannot know a
priori how many times the loop will iterate.
 The for loop is an example of a definite loop.
 The for loop is used to iterate through an entire set of
items.
 If you need to process each item within a set, the
for loop is preferred, as it precludes the possibility of
erroneously skipping any item within the set.
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
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 Here’s an example of the for loop at work:

comedians = ['Graham Chapman', 'John Cleese',

'Terry Gilliam', 'Eric Idle', 'Terry Jones',
'Michael Palin']
for comedian in comedians:
print(comedian + ' is hilarious! ‘)
print('A flying circus!')

Graham Chapman is hilarious!

John Cleese is hilarious!
Terry Gilliam is hilarious!
Eric Idle is hilarious!
Terry Jones is hilarious!
Michael Palin is hilarious!
A flying circus!

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Note that comedian is the iteration variable within the

loop.

comedians = ['Graham Chapman', 'John Cleese',

'Terry Gilliam', 'Eric Idle', 'Terry Jones',
'Michael Palin']
for comedian in comedians:
print(comedian + ' is hilarious! ‘)
print('A flying circus!')

 The value of comedian is guaranteed to be that of each

successive item with the set being iterated over.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Common Looping Practices
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 Common steps or operations that are

typically performed as part of a loop
construct include:
 Initializing one or more variables before the loop begins.
 Performing an operation or computation upon each item
within the loop body, and perhaps modifying variables.
 Making use of the resulting values of your variables, after
completion of the loop.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Canonical Loop Forms
18

 Here’s a loop that counts the number of

items in a list:

count = 0
for cur_num in [5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19]:
count += 1
print('The number of items is ' + count)

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Canonical Loop Forms
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 Here’s a loop that totals the number of items

in a list:

total = 0
for cur_num in [5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19]:
total += cur_num
print('The total is ' + total)

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Canonical Loop Forms
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 Here’s a loop that finds the largest value

within a list:

maximum = None
for cur_num in [5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19]:
if maximum is None or cur_num > maximum :
maximum = cur_num
print('The maximum value is ' + str(maximum))

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Canonical Loop Forms
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 Here’s a loop that finds the smallest value

within a list:

minimum = None
for cur_num in [5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19]:
if minimum is None or cur_num < minimum :
minimum = cur_num
print('The minimum value is ' + str(minimum))

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Canonical Loop Forms
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 Here’s a loop that finds the smallest value

within a list:

minimum = None
for cur_num in [5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19]:
if minimum is None or cur_num < minimum :
minimum = cur_num
print('The minimum value is ' + str(minimum))

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Canonical Loop Forms
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 The previous loop examples demonstrate typical forms of

applying loop-based operations.
 With the exception of the total counting example, you
would not need to use those code snippets, because there
are built-in functions that already perform the same task:

sum([5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19])

176

max([5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19])

82

min([5, 82, 35, 8, 27, 19])

5
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
 Strings
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 A String is a sequence of characters.

 Imagine a series of beads with a character carved into each
one. By sliding them onto a string, you create a necklace.

H e l l o w o r l d !

 Syntactically, each character can be referenced by means of

an integer index value.
H e l l o w o r l d !
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

greeting = 'Hello world!'

print(greeting[6])
w
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
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 The built-in len function, allows us to get the length of any

given string.

H e l l o w o r l d !
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

greeting = 'Hello world!'

print(len(greeting))
12

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 Note that the last character in a string is always at the

position of len(…) – 1.

H e l l o w o r l d !
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

greeting = 'Hello world!'

print(greeting[len(greeting) - 1])
!

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 Referring to a position that is beyond the end of the string

results in an IndexError.

H e l l o w o r l d !
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

greeting = 'Hello world!'

print(greeting[len(greeting)])
IndexError: string index out of range

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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Just as with any kind of sequence, it is often useful to process

a string one item (i.e. character) at a time.

0 e1
H 2l 3l o4 5 6
w o7 8r 9l 10
d 11
!
greeting = 'Hello world!'
index = 0
while index < len(greeting) :
letter = greeting[index]
print(letter)
index += 1
H
e
l
l
o
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
!
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 A slice is a substring denoted by s[n:m], where for string

s, a string of characters is returned beginning at position n
and extending up to but not including position m.
P y t h o n e s q u e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

word = 'Pythonesque'
print(word[0:6])
Python

print(word[4:7])
one

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Strings are immutable! Therefore, as much as you might

want to, you cannot change them.
 You can, however, create new strings.
Incorrect – attempting to modify an existing string…
word = 'Pythonesque'
word[0] = 'M'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

Correct – creating a new string…

word = 'M' + word[1:11]
print(word)
Mythonesque

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Counting across a string. Here’s an example of performing

a count of the number of ‘e’s in a string.
P y t h o n e s q u e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

word = 'Pythonesque'
count = 0
for letter in word :
if letter == 'e' :
count += 1
print('There are ' + str(count) + ' \'e\'s ' + 'in the word. ')

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 The in operator takes two string operands and returns true

if the left string is found as a substring within the right
operand.
P y t h o n e s q u e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

word = 'Pythonesque'
'on' in word
True

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 The comparison operators allow us to compare two strings.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P y t h o n e s q u e

if word == 'Pythonesque' :
print('Ni!' )
Ni!

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 The comparison operators allow us to compare two strings.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P y t h o n e s q u e

word > 'Python'

True

'King Arthur' < word

True
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
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 In Python, all uppercase characters are lexigraphically less

than (or to the left of) all lowercase characters.
'Zymurgy' < 'aardvark'
True

 To account for this we can convert to a common format by

using the lower() or upper() string functions.
'Zymurgy'.lower() < 'aardvark'.lower()
False

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

 Strings
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 Python strings are actually objects.

 An object is a binding together of data and
executable code.
 The idea is to keep data and the functions that
operate upon that data close together.
 The binding of data and functions (or behavior) is
accomplished by means of encapsulation.
 Encapsulation effectively creates a skin around
the data and its related functions—this is what
grants objects their objectness.
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
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 The functions that belong to objects are called

methods.
 The term method comes from the classical
perspective of object-oriented programming
wherein objects are said to send messages to
each other.
 When an object receives a message, the
method is the way that it responds to that
given message.
 By the way, in Python everything is actually
an object—even ints and floats are objects!
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
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 By using the type function, we can determine what

type or class of object we have.
s = 'aardvark'
type(s)
str

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 Strings
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 The dir function lists the methods that belong to

an object.
dir(s)
['__add__',
…
'capitalize',
…
'format',
…
'zfill']
Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved
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 Seeing that capitalize() is a string method, we can

learn more about it by asking for help.

help(str.capitalize)
Help on method_descriptor:

capitalize(...)
S.capitalize() -> string
Return a copy of the string S with only its first
character capitalized.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 To see how it works, we can call or invoke it.

s.capitalize()
'Aardvark'

 Note that objects are invoked by putting a dot after

the object reference, and then specifying the
method name.
 This syntactic use of a dot to invoke a method is
called dot notation.

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Now let’s invoke the find() method.

s = 'shrubbery'
s.find('r')
2

s.find('r', 3)
7

s.find('er', 2)
6

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 An important “clean-up” method is strip().

s=' shrubbery '
s = s.strip()
print(s[0:5])
shrub
 rstrip() is a similar method, but it only strips at the end,
and it lets you specify a non-whitespace character to strip
out.
s = '*****shrubbery*****'
s = s.rstrip('*')
print(s)
*****shrubbery

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 startswith() is also a convenient method.

s = 'dead parrot'
s.startswith('dead')
True

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 We often use a series of operations to parse data.

s = 'http://www.stpacossecondchancedogrescue.org/user/login'
start_pos = s.find('://') + 3
end_pos = s.find('/', start_pos)
home_page = s[start_pos : end_pos]
print(home_page)
www.stpacossecondchancedogrescue.org

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 Note that by refactoring our code, we can make it

clearer and more reusable.

target_start_str = '://'
target_end_str = '/'
s = 'http://www.stpacossecondchancedogrescue.org/user/login'
start_pos = s.find(target_start_str) + len(target_start_str)
end_pos = s.find(target_end_str, start_pos)
home_page = s[start_pos : end_pos]
print(home_page)
www.stpacossecondchancedogrescue.org

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved

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 The format operator, %, allows us to construct formatted strings by

means of string interpolation.

s = '%s. Go on. Off you go.' \

% (raw_input('What... is your favourite colour? '))
print(s)

 The format operator has two operands, where the first is the string that
contains one or more format sequences.
 Each format sequence is a place holder for the string being constructed.
 The second operand is a tuple (comma delimited value sequence)
containing the values that will be inserted into the successive place
holders.
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 The various format sequences are based upon the type of value they are
holding a place for.
 The format sequences for decimal, floating point, and string are,
respectively:

%d
%g
%s

Copyright © 2015 Walter Wesley All Rights Reserved